Professional Documents
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Contents
Statement of Standards
Class stratification
Recommended reading and recommended websites for class stratification
9
10
11
Class stratification
15
24
Summary of functionalism
29
33
Summary of Marxism
39
42
Summary of Weberianism
47
50
52
53
Sociology of education
Recommended reading and recommended websites for education
54
55
Education
56
63
Summary of functionalism
67
71
Summary of Marxism
73
76
Summary of feminism
78
82
Summary of interactionism
85
88
92
96
103
106
Functionalism
Marxism
Weberianism.
Two changes:
Two aspects:
Two changes:
Three aspects:
differential achievement in education and class an analysis of two features and two
studies
differential achievement in education and gender an analysis of two features and
two studies
differential achievement in education and ethnicity an analysis of two features and
two studies.
In each topic, where there are substantially different approaches within a theory, the
comparisons and contrasts within that theory may be sufficient for the purposes of
analysis and evaluation. For example, liberal, radical or Marxist feminist approaches to
class stratification or education.
The material contained in this pack is based on the Arrangements document and advice
given in the Subject Guide. It has been designed to fill a particular niche in the Sociology
curriculum and tries to avoid overlap with Intermediate 2, Advanced Higher and HN
Sociology Units. Lecturers and teachers may wish to amend some of the material to suit
their particular requirements. However, in doing so, issues of overlap should be kept
firmly in mind.
In accordance with good teaching practice, the pack contains a range of student-centred
activities. These are suggested activities only and can be adapted to suit individual, age
and group requirements.
The term student will be used throughout the Unit to denote the learner.
Please note that these materials will not cover the full hourage of the whole Unit, nor will they
cover every item in the Outcomes or PCs: it is assumed that teachers and lecturers will want to
use some of the time for exposition and discussion and will supplement this pack with materials
devised for specific groups.
2
As 1, above.
3
Suggested reading for this unit is taken from five major sociology textbooks. Material in
these textbooks is designed for new students of sociology, A-level students and 1st year
degree students. For this reason some material may provide greater depth than is covered in
the curriculum and tutors should be selective in their recommendations for essential reading.
The suggested texts and websites are identified under Recommended reading.
Class Stratification
Recommended reading
Recommended websites
structured inequality
10
Overall, the incomes in the South-east of England are higher than that of those in the
regions (eg. North of England, Midlands, South-west of England, Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland). Also, there are other disadvantages in being further from the locus
of power (Westminster, London). For example, it is generally more expensive to
travel from the regions than from London, such as to Europe, where there is easier
access to cheaper goods, etc. So, being born in the regions or living in the regions
may well mean some form of disadvantage.
Females are still experiencing inequality in many areas. Two significant areas are
that average wages are approximately only 75 to 85 percent of those of men doing
the same jobs and men still dominate in terms of management and government jobs.
Being female has, therefore, a potential for disadvantage in these terms and being
male is an advantage.
Benefit cuts for younger people and difficulty for those over 40 looking for work or
wishing to change jobs demonstrates age discrimination.
Immigrants to the UK tend to have to take low paid work (even if they have a high
level of skill). Black and Asian people are also disproportionately under-represented
in positions of power.
Stocks and shares may be some indicator of wealth. For example, it may indicate
that a person has had enough capital to purchase stocks and shares, or that they
have sufficient wealth to save with a building society, and have acquired these when
conversions have taken place. However, it may be that some people received shares
as a result of a settlement that occurred through the transfer of the industry they work
or worked in from the public to the private sector. It also may indicate that people
have something to fall back on in hard times.
11
Pupils from fee paying schools tend to do better in terms of exam results, thereby
affecting their opportunities to go to university, study a career of their choice, and thus
have better life chances through a high and sustained income.
Home ownership is not in itself an indicator of great wealth. However, it does give
advantages in many areas. Home ownership may enable a person to get extended,
and usually cheaper, credit. It gives people some choice of where they live and the
conditions under which they live. It also indicates that people who own their own
houses have greater security of income and lifestyle.
12
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
13
Class stratification
One major way that social groups in a hierarchical system can differ from each other is in
terms of prestige, wealth and power. These social groups or classes usually share
common interests and a common identity that separates them from other social groups in
society. Most sociologists would agree that social class is a significant feature of UK
society and is one of the main bases for stratification and inequality. Many nonsociologists would possibly also agree that social class exists in the UK and we hear
reference to it in many contexts. For example, we may talk about houses being in a
middle class district, of coming from a working class background or of newspapers being
class-based.
Such factors may tell us about the social position of another person or group, but some
sociologists would consider them to be subjective and have tried to define and measure
class in an objective way.
The difficulty is that sociologists do not agree on how to define or measure class and for
that reason we have many theories that use different indicators of social class.
Depending on which theory and which indicators are used, people will be placed in
different classes. Some of the main indicators that sociologists have used are based on:
occupation
income
wealth
ownership
power
status.
14
This exercise will probably take about 15 minutes, with a further 30 minutes for
discussion.
15
3. Describe some of the ways people sometimes judge a persons social class and the
way they differ from the indicators a sociologist might use.
4. Explain the difference between open and closed systems of stratification. What system
exists in the United Kingdom?
5. Explain what hidden barriers mean? From your own experience and knowledge can
you think of any examples of the barriers discussed?
16
17
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
There are serious drawbacks to this system. First, it ignores the class a person may
think they belong to (the subjective view). Second, it does not take into account the fact
that some people who are in Class V due to their job, may actually have a lot of money,
eg. they may have won the lottery or inherited money from their relatives, though these
examples would be rare occurrences.
The Registrar Generals Scale is a basic two-class model, in which the population is
divided into middle and lower classes. The basis for the ranking of occupations is their
relative standing in the community. Occupations are assigned to the different class
categories by assessing and comparing their status, relative to each other. Occupations
are, therefore, arranged hierarchically, with the most important at the top. Although
occupation has tended to be the main indicator used to measure social class, it has
problems. Very rich people who do not work are not included. Classifications based on
occupation ignore the unemployed or housewives. The same job title may mean different
things, for example, farmer there are large industrial-size farms and much smaller,
even subsistence-level, farms. Priests or religious ministers are afforded a higher class
status than their income would otherwise suggest. According to this scale a womans
class has generally been aligned with that of her husband, even though she may be in
different class based on her own occupation. However, things have been changing
recently with new class categories that now tend to include women.
18
19
Middle class
Working class
Housing
Education
Occupation
Health
Leisure activities
Holidays
Clothing
20
2.
What are the differences between objective and subjective conceptions of class?
3.
What problems can arise from using occupation to measure social class?
4.
5.
21
The material in this handout is quite difficult and this exercise will probably take at least
30 minutes to complete, with a further 30 minutes for discussion and exposition.
22
Inequality is created by the differing rewards that people receive for the different
tasks that they carry out. Therefore, those who carry out the most important tasks
one of which in our culture is the creation of wealth should be rewarded better than
those who carry out unskilled or less important tasks or jobs.
2.
The second main reason for the justification of this inequality is that it gives those in
the lower classes something to aim for. Therefore, if you want people to study hard
and better themselves, there must be some kind of economic reward for doing so.
23
3. Give examples of shared values related to work and getting on in the UK today.
4. Talcott Parsons lived in the United States from 1902-1979. His sociological
observations were, therefore, based on American culture during his lifetime, but
primarily in the post-war period. Can the idea of achieving the American Dream in 20th
century America have any significance in the UK in the 21st century?
5. Can you think of any groups in the post-war US who would not have been likely to
have experienced the type of society that Parsons refers to?
24
Davis and Moore argued that all societies needed some mechanism for insuring effective
role allocation and performance. This mechanism was stratification, which they saw as
a system that attached unequal rewards and privileges to the different positions in society.
If the people and positions that made up society did not differ in important respects there
would be no need for stratification. Further to this, certain positions were and are more
functionally important than others and a major function of stratification was and still is to
match the most able people with the functionally most important positions. This was
achieved by attaching high rewards to these positions. This would provide people with
motivation and incentive.
For Davis and Moore, stratification was a device by which societies ensured that the most
qualified persons conscientiously filled the most important positions. In this way, society
would be a meritocracy.
Meritocracy: A system of stratification where those most qualified get the highest
positions in the hierarchy and those with the least qualifications get the lower positions in
the hierarchy.
25
2. Does the existence of the Lotto strengthen or weaken the functionalist observations of
stratification?
3. Rank the following list of individuals in order of importance in the UK today. Then
indicate their class position according to the Registrar Generals Scale.
Individual
Jack McConnell
A school cleaner
Wayne Rooney
Sharon Osborne
Your Sociology tutor
Prince William
A doctor in the local hospital
Richard Branson
Dame Kelly Holmes
Michael Carroll
Class on RGS
26
4. Can you identify any problems with the claims of Davis and Moore that stratification
was a device by which societies ensured that the most qualified persons
conscientiously filled the most important positions?
5. Complete the following table by ticking whether the individuals position in society is
achieved or ascribed.
Individual
Prince Harry
Sir Paul McCartney
Sharon Osborne
Princess Beatrice
Victoria Beckham
Stella McCartney
Jamie Oliver
Charlotte Church
Nigella Lawson
Michael Carroll
Achieved
Ascribed
27
Summary of functionalism
There are many class divisions
in society organised in a
hierarchical way
These class divisions reflect the
functional importance of
different occupations
As the importance of the
different jobs can be expressed
as a gradient, there will then be
several positions and classes in
the hierarchy
The people and classes are
mutually dependent
28
29
Claimed strengths:
Draws attention to the
interdependence of groups in
complex society
Provides an explanation for
inequality
Suggests that individuals can
climb up the hierarchy
Emphasises the importance of
hard work, education and
gaining qualifications
30
Claimed weaknesses:
No more than an acceptance of
capitalist system
Accepts the traditional, the
status quo
Many problems with ideas of
hard work and education
creating a fair society
Does not satisfactorily explain
who decides what the
functionally important jobs are
31
Some points that tutors may like to raise include the following:
Issues of ownership. Has ownership now become clouded with small shareholders,
multinational companies, and paid executives rather than entrepreneurial capitalists?
Has polarisation occurred?
Has proletarianisation occurred? What about the rise in managers? Are they workers
or owners?
Where do service industries fit into this model? Do they produce anything?
What about Marxs predictions about class-consciousness and revolution?
What part does globalisation play in all of this?
The material in this handout is quite difficult and this exercise will probably take at least
30 minutes to complete, with a further 30 minutes for discussion and exposition.
32
Primitive communism known in the time of the cavemen and later huntergatherer societies and characterised by sharing.
Antiquity known in early civilised society and characterised by the master/slave
relationship.
Feudalism known in the Middle Ages and based on the lord/serf relationship.
Capitalism known in modern times and based on the capitalist/worker relationship.
Although some of Marxs writing was concerned with how these transformations took
place, he also concentrated on explaining capitalism and the part it plays in class
divisions in society.
One of the factors on which the mode of production is based is known as the means of
production. This simply means the raw materials (such as coal, corn, cotton), land,
buildings and tools (eg. factories and machinery). Marx thought that the ownership of the
means of production was the essential ingredient in deciding which class a person
belonged to.
He saw two major divisions in society during his lifetime and his theory is seen as a twoclass model. The two major class divisions are:
1. Those who owned the means of production and whom he called the bourgeoisie
(the ruling class). People in this class had power in society because they could dictate
how work was carried out and how raw materials were used. They also had the ability
to exploit and oppress others who were non-owners.
2. Those who were non-owners he called the proletariat (the working class). People in
this class owned nothing and the only way they could survive was to sell their labour.
This meant they were at the mercy of those who employed them.
33
The ownership of the means of production has an effect on the relations of production.
This term refers to the forms of control over the production process and to the types of
co-operation between workers. As we have seen, the bourgeoisie, because they own the
means of production, can exploit and oppress the proletariat who have no choice but to
work under stipulated conditions set by the owners.
So, what we see here is that production is the important factor in explaining class
stratification. In this production process, profit can only be made if the worker is paid
less than what he/she is worth. In other words, if the labour to make a chair is worth 20,
the capitalist can only make/increase profit by paying the worker less than this sum, eg.
15. However, the costs of the means of production must also be taken into account. In
this way, exploitation occurs and intensifies because the capitalist system continually
seeks to increase profit. This means the bourgeoisie must find ways of increasing their
production and lowering their costs. One way this can be achieved is making the worker
produce more for less money.
For Marx, this capitalist mode of production is supported by capitalist ideas. He explained
this by referring to the capitalist economic base (or infrastructure) of society and the
superstructure of society.
The economic base is characterised by capitalist investment and the drive for profits. The
superstructure is made up of social and cultural institutions such as the system of laws,
the education system and the mass media, which are shaped by and support the
requirements of the economic base. In this way, the economic base is the foundation of
the capitalist system and the superstructure shapes the norms, values and roles that
contribute to the continuation of the capitalist system. The norms, values and roles come
to convince the proletariat that capitalism is normal and natural. The proletariat suffer
from false consciousness because they begin to think that the capitalist system is fair
and that they too can become successful and rich.
For Marx, the flaw in the capitalist myth was that once the gap between the bourgeoisie
and the proletariat got wider a process of polarisation would occur, which would lead the
proletariat to realise how exploitative the capitalist system was. When this happened the
proletariat would move from the state of false consciousness to a state of class
consciousness. The proletariat would become aware that together as a class they were
strong and once they came to this realisation they would take united action, in their new
state of class consciousness, to end their oppression and exploitation. The two options
for action were the ballot box which he thought unlikely or revolution.
Marx did acknowledge that there were other groups in society who did not strictly fit these
two broad class categories. One group was the intelligentsia, who were the professors,
lawyers and writers, etc. The other group were those who worked for themselves, such
as shopkeepers known as the petit bourgeoisie. However, Marx predicted that as
capitalism advanced the process of polarisation would mean that the intelligentsia and
petit bourgeoisie would gradually be absorbed into the two main classes, with those
absorbed into the working class becoming proletarianised.
34
35
2. Try to explain what you think life would have been like in the UK during Marxs lifetime
(1818-1883).
5. What are the two main classes and what is their relationship to each other?
6. Explain Marxs idea of the base and the superstructure of capitalist society.
36
8. Do you think Marxs predictions have come true? Give reasons for your answer.
(Keep the work of Westergaard and Resler in mind.)
10. The former UK Prime Minister, John Major, left school at 16 with no qualifications. He
became Prime Minister in 1990. What does his example tell us about class
stratification in the UK today?
37
Summary of Marxism
There are two main classes, the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat
They are mutually antagonistic
Ownership or non-ownership of
the means of production is the
most important division in
capitalist society
History is driven by the conflict
between the two main classes,
as they struggle to control
society
Individuals in similar class
positions tend to develop a
consciousness that they hold
similar interests
38
39
Claimed strengths:
Draws attention to importance
of conflict as the motor of
history
Theory of social change
Draws attention to the
exploitation of the proletariat by
the bourgeoisie
Emphasises the importance of
economic ownership
Good at explaining the
workings of capital
40
Claimed weaknesses:
Too economically deterministic
Privileges the role of the
proletariat
History has not been kind to
Marx
41
42
43
Class I
Class ii
Class iii
Routine non-manual.
Class iv
Class v
Class vi
Skilled manual.
Class vii Semi-skilled and unskilled manual in industry and agricultural workers.
Goldthorpes examination of class through occupational categories highlighted some of
the differences in power and the ability to be mobile that certain occupations, such as
administrators and technicians, possess. However, he has been criticised for ignoring the
ruling class and for ignoring the position of women in his stratification system.
Social closure (social inclusion and social exclusion)
The concept of social closure is associated with the ideas of Weber and Goldthorpe.
The suggestion is that groups of people who share similar life chances as a result of
factors such as status and party close ranks to mark themselves out from other groups.
This leads to questions of inclusion and exclusion. For example, entry to certain clubs,
schools and occupations offer mutual support through this social network. This is often
referred to as networking or elite self-recruitment. This can lead to a situation were
access to life chances is better for some than the rest of society and consequently worse
for those not included. This social exclusion can affect: the long-term unemployed;
single parents; people with disabilities; the homeless; ethnic minority groups; and elderly
people. These groups then experience lesser life chances. This exclusion strategy is
used to protect existing privileges. Groups can insist that potential new recruits to their
ranks possess the appropriate credentials to gain access. This credentialism is used to
close off rewards of belonging to the group by emphasising the qualifications or
credentials needed to belong.
44
4. Give two reasons why people might move up or down the stratification system in terms
of social mobility.
5. What do you understand by middle class areas and middle class lifestyles?
45
7. In 2003, the Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, was reported to have fallen out with
his father. In a newspaper article, Prescott said he had been born working class but
had become middle class because he had become a politician. His father said he and
his son had been brought up working class and therefore would always be working
class. What do you think of this?
46
Summary of Weberianism
Multi-class model of society
where economic divisions are
important
but
Market situation (the rewards
individuals receive) is more
important than ownership
Different groups compete in
different ways to increase their
share of the rewards
Individuals identify more with
those who follow similar
lifestyles, rather than those who
share similar economic
positions
Scottish Further Education Unit
47
Claimed strengths:
Identifies divisions other than
class
Highlights the importance of
consumption as well as
production
Individual consciousness is
seen as important
48
Claimed weaknesses:
Underestimates importance of
class divisions in society
Assumes there is status and
party consciousness without
adequately demonstrating it
Unclear about the relationship
between class, status and party
49
Aspects
Social mobility
A major area of discussion when talking about class stratification is social mobility. Social
mobility is defined as the ability to be able to move up the hierarchy
(embourgeoisement, meaning the adoption of the norms and values of the bourgeoisie)
or down the hierarchy (proletarianisation, meaning as more work becomes deskilled the
workers become proletarian) from one social group to another.
Sociologists generally refer to two forms of social mobility: vertical and horizontal.
Vertical mobility describes movement between strata both up and down the
stratification system. It can usually be seen as an example of long-range mobility,
displaying a change in class status and can be examined through:
-
Samples of the population need to be quite large in order to represent the whole of
the UK.
It might be that social mobility and social closure have been easier for certain
generations depending on the availability of certain types of work or the conditions of
the economy.
Women have not been represented in much of the work done on social mobility and
social closure, despite their presence in the workforce in small numbers in the past to
their present very strong position in the labour market now.
Sociologists have carried out the following influential studies concerned with questions of
social mobility.
50
While individuals did move up and down the hierarchy, it was generally short-range
and within certain types of work only, so that few people broke through from manual
work to professional work.
Generally the pattern was of sons taking similar jobs with a similar status to their
father.
While it was possible to rise in the system, membership of the middle classes
seemed to offer children some protection from dropping back down into lower-status
work.
As this study only included men and excluded women it is considered to be dated.
The Oxford Mobility Studies by Goldthorpe et al. (1972, 1980 and 1986)
Goldthorpe et al. studied only men aged between 20 and 64 years; women were not
included. They found that two-thirds of the sons of unskilled or semi-skilled workers were
in manual occupations. Four percent of blue-collar workers came from professional
backgrounds. Approximately thirty percent of professionals were from working class
backgrounds. Downward mobility appeared to be declining, but more men from working
class backgrounds were unemployed.
Among the conclusions of these studies were the following:
Long-range social mobility rates had increased in the UK since after World War Two,
suggesting that class categories and society had become more open.
However, it was suggested that this increase could have been due to changes in the
occupational structure of the UK; de-industrialisation had led to fewer traditional
working class jobs.
Marshall, Rose, Newby and Vogler, Social Class in Modern Britain (referred to as
the Essex Study) (1988)
This study looked at both male and female rates of mobility. The findings were based on
the class of the respondent (male or female) and the class of the chief childhood
supporter (male or female). The study found high rates of upward mobility overall,
including:
For men, the rates were similar to those found in the Oxford studies.
For women there was evidence of upward and downward mobility into class 3, that
is, routine, non-manual work.
The conclusions of this study were that the expansion of white-collar jobs, after deindustrialisation, explained the high rates of upward mobility.
51
52
(30 marks)
Explain at least two sociological theories of class stratification that you have studied,
giving their strengths and weaknesses.
(approx 10 marks)
Evaluate at least two sociological studies associated with class stratification that
examine an aspect of life choose one from social mobility or social closure.
(approx 10 marks)
Give a conclusion in which you should evaluate the debate and consider whether the
initial question can be answered.
(approx 4 marks)
53
54
Recommended reading
Bilton, T. et al. (1996) Introducing Sociology, 3rd edition. Macmillan Chapter 11.
Giddens, A. (2001) Sociology, 4th Edition. Polity Chapter 16.
Tudor. (1997) Sociology: An Introduction, Court Chapter 8.
Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2004) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 6th
edition. Collins Chapter 11.
Sociology and Scotland: An Introduction, edited by Sweeney, Lewis and Etherington.
(2003) Unity Publications Ltd Chapter 9.
Recommended websites
55
The importance of education in the socialisation process. This involves both formal
and informal socialisation and secondary and anticipatory socialisation. This part of
the discussion is an opportunity to draw on many examples of these different aspects
of socialisation in relation to the education system. It is also worth pointing out
differences with other societies where education may take different forms.
The importance of education to work. This involves not only skills such as reading
and writing, but also the informal process (although some may argue they are
deliberate) in producing an obedient, quiescent workforce.
Formal education may start in nursery school and in general can continue to
university level. However, emphasis may now be on life-long learning, which means
formal education may continue while people are working.
Education takes in basic skills (the 3 Rs) and also specialisms. Traditionally the
focus has been on academic qualifications with vocational qualifications being
afforded lower status. Attempts have been made to eradicate this difference, thus the
introduction of new vocational qualifications in Scotland. There is also a need to
highlight differences between the Scottish system of education and that in the rest of
the UK.
There is a range of education provision in the UK comprehensive, private and
religious. There is also a need to highlight the role of local authority and legal
requirements for children to receive some type of education.
56
The importance of education in the socialisation process. This involves both formal
and informal socialisation and secondary socialisation. It is also worth thinking
about differences with other societies where education may take different forms or
may exclude certain groups of people.
The importance of education to work. This involves not only skills such as reading
and writing, but also the informal process of producing an obedient workforce.
Formal education may start in nursery school and in general can continue to
university level. However, emphasis may now be on lifelong learning, which means
formal education may continue while people are working and at any time in a
persons life.
Education takes in basic skills (the 3 Rs), but also specialisms. Traditionally, the
focus has been on academic qualifications with vocational qualifications being
afforded less status, but this is changing.
Now, from your own knowledge and experience of education, answer the following
questions.
1. What type of schools have you attended?
2. Write down all the types of things you have learned during all of your school
experiences.
3. In what ways do you think your school education prepared you for life in general?
57
4. In what ways do you think your school education prepared you for the world of work?
58
2.
3.
Further and higher non-compulsory education beyond the school leaving age.
59
60
Summary of changes in
education and the study of
education since 1944
Changes in the school leaving
age over past 60 years
Changes in school curriculum
broadened in terms of subjects
and qualifications
Expansion of educational
provision colleges,
universities and private
organisations
Parental choice some choice
in which school children attend
61
62
2.
3.
The concept of a collective consciousness refers to the basic, fundamental, values and
norms that individuals share in society. Such values are so central to our lives that they
are shared by everyone and hence take on the appearance of existing independently of
any individual.
63
The initial purpose of the family is to provide primary socialisation for children. This
includes care, comfort and security followed by basic literacy and numeracy. In this
way, children are prepared for leaving home and going to school.
The world of work requires literate and numerate individuals to carry out tasks.
Further to this, individuals should be able to acquire specialised technical skills
and be able to take orders and accept their place.
64
2.
3.
65
3. How would functionalists explain the success of pop stars and sports stars? Have
these stars displayed intelligence linked with hard work?
4. Is functionalism still relevant for explaining the role of education in UK society today?
66
Summary of functionalism
The functionalists main
observations on education
coincide with their observations
of society in general
Society is viewed as an
organism in this biological
analogy, education is like an
organ that is part of the body of
society; if schools work, society
will work. In this way, schools
are like mini-societies
Schools play an integrated part
with other agents of
socialisation in the process of
transmitting norms, values and
roles
67
68
Claimed strengths:
Links what goes on in the
education system with the
needs of wider society
In this way, the biological
analogy is helpful the school
is an organ that serves the
body, which is society
The suggestion that the
educational system, as a minisociety, socialises individuals
into learning the norms and
values of wider society is
helpful
69
Claimed weaknesses:
Assumes a monoculture where
everyone shares similar norms
and values the UK is now
claimed to be multicultural with
a variety of norms and values
Assumes everyone will learn
their role and play their part in
society what about the
unemployed?
Does not explain the success of
individuals such as pop and
sports stars. What about
individuals who win the lottery?
As a structural theory, it does
not take enough account of
individual meaning and
interpretation in education
70
2.
Louis Althusser, in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1972), argued that
schools moulded children into subjects to fit the requirements of capitalism. At school,
children learned submission, deference, respect for work and their place within it. He
claimed that schools helped to meet the needs of the workforce and ensured that the
labour force was technically competent. Also, and most importantly, education provides
an ideology that legitimates the inequalities of capitalist society. Whilst Marxists, such as
Althusser, argue that the capitalist class must exercise control over education,
functionalists argue that schools operate meritocratically.
However, Althusser argued that the idea of a meritocracy is merely ideology that makes
people believe that the education system is fair when really it serves the interests of the
ruling class, because they control the education system. In school, we are socialised into
believing that schools operate on meritocratic principles. This ideology pacifies us and
we do not see that the education system is really unfair and serves to reproduce the
inequalities of society and the relations of production that benefit the capitalist class.
Herbert Bowles and Samuel Gintis, in Schooling in Capitalist America (1976),
suggest there is a correspondence theory between the nature of work and the
education system in capitalist societies. The role of an education system is to integrate
people into various aspects of the capitalist production process. Their work is
predominantly an attack on the functionalist myth of meritocracy and equality of
opportunity. Their observation was that the working class learn their place in capitalist
society, predominantly through the hidden curriculum.
In Schooling in Capitalist America Revisited (2001), Bowles and Gintis claim that new
evidence backs up their original findings and that claims that modern capitalism has
become more meritocratic are unfounded. Therefore, according to Bowles and Gintis, the
education system is not meritocratic; rather, it is a structural mechanism for reproducing
class inequalities.
71
2. Who makes the rules in your educational establishment and for what purpose?
4. Marxism is a conflict theory. What conflict takes place within the education system in
the UK?
5. Summarise and evaluate Marxist suggestions that the education system in the UK is a
tool of the bourgeoisie.
72
Summary of Marxism
Marxists claim that much of the
school day is taken up with
boring and meaningless
activities
Students have little say in the
content of the subjects they
study or in the overall
organisation of the school day
Equally, following the same
timetable, week in, week out,
may lead to a sense of boredom
and powerlessness
Schools prepare students for
boring and repetitive jobs in
this way, it is claimed there is a
link between students
experience of school and many
employees experience of work
Scottish Further Education Unit
73
Claimed strengths
Explanation of the negative
aspects of the hidden
curriculum is thought provoking
To bring equality into education
we would need to change the
social structure that engenders
inequality, eg. capitalism
Does demonstrate that
education is not always
beneficial
74
Claimed weaknesses
On the other hand, all aspects
of education are not necessarily
oppressive. For example, it has
enabled some to change their
social situation (ie. become
upwardly socially mobile)
Marxism often focuses on class
inequality and ignores other
inequalities such as gender
75
76
2. Liberal feminists suggest that changing the law can help to remove any remaining
inequalities in society. Discuss whether any new laws have removed inequalities in
the last 40 years.
4. Explain how formal and hidden curricula can reinforce inequalities according to Marxist
feminists.
77
Summary of feminism
In general, feminists suggest
that the education system in the
UK is instrumental in
reinforcing inequalities in
society
Liberal feminists campaign to
reduce sex discrimination and
to gain equal opportunities for
girls/women in education
These inequalities will be
overcome by changes in
educational legislation and
policies
Radical feminists stress the
basic conflict between the
sexes
Scottish Further Education Unit
78
79
Claimed strengths:
Highlights the gendered nature
of much education
Creates a powerful argument
that inequalities exist and the
patriarchal system of education
discriminates against females
80
Claimed weaknesses:
Fails to explain why girls have
been out-performing boys in
many subjects for a number of
years
Ignores the poor performance
of boys over recent years
81
Ball argues that all students entered the school eager to learn but due to the effects of
teacher attitudes and expectations:
82
The argument is that banding and streaming can affect whole groups and produce mass
labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy.
Balls study found that even when streaming was replaced by mixed ability grouping,
teachers continued to have low expectations of working class pupils.
83
3. Considering the findings of the Beachside Comprehensive study in 1981, why do you
think teachers continued to have low expectations of working class pupils?
84
Summary of interactionism
85
Claimed strengths:
It takes things as it finds them
without making positive or
negative assumptions
It considers the experience of
individuals and credits them
with the ability to interact and
negotiate in the classroom
Labelling theory is helpful when
considering the class, gender
and ethnic experiences of
students
86
Claimed weaknesses:
It can be considered to be too
subjective
By concentrating on the micro
sphere, it fails to take into
account wider social influences
87
Aspects
Differential educational achievement
A major topic of discussion in relation to education is the question of differential
educational achievement. There are concerns amongst sociologists that hard work and
intelligence are not the only factors in determining how well an individual performs and
achieves in the education system in the UK today. The question of intelligence is of
particular concern to sociologists.
Intelligence and differential educational achievement
Sociologists have debated whether differential achievement in education can be
attributed to the biological inheritance of intelligence. Although IQ tests in the form of
the 11+ are no longer used in schools, they are still used in the form of entrance tests to
private schools and as a qualifying criteria for particular jobs. The use of IQ tests has
been challenged on a number of counts, such as:
class bias
gender bias
ethnic bias
lack of agreement among sociologists about intelligence, ie. whether it is natural or
learned.
88
Apart from questioning the validity of IQ tests, it is also very difficult to define intelligence
and this exercise should demonstrate how opinions would differ. It should also allow the
tutor to highlight such points as the following:
The exercise should take about 15 minutes to complete, with a further 10 minutes for
discussion. Tutors may wish to change the scenarios to suit particular groups or to make
specific points. This exercise can also be used in relation to functionalist theory, which,
among other arguments, suggests that people have innate abilities that will decide their
position in society.
Below are the educational and achievement details of six people. Read the details and
then answer the three questions that follow.
1.
Charlie has just completed her sixth year at school. She has gained five Higher A
passes. She was dux of her school and hopes to go to Edinburgh University to
study medicine.
2.
William left school when he was 16 with no formal qualifications. He started work
for an electronics firm and then became interested in computers for which he has a
flair, although he is completely self-taught. He is now a computer hardware
specialist and travels all over the world as a trouble-shooter for which he earns a
high salary.
3.
Henry did poorly at primary school but left school at 17 with five Standard Grades.
He had extremely good organisational skills and at 19 started his own travel
business. He is now 30, employs 12 people, and his business has an annual
turnover of 750,000.
4.
Stella had difficulty in reading and concentrating when she was young, and she also
had poor mathematical skills. However, she was a very skilful artist and was
recently given 1st prize in the Young Artist of the Year competition. She has been
commissioned to do work for a private collector, which will earn her an income of
around 50,000 per year.
5.
Tahira is very good at chess, computer games and IQ tests. At school she excelled
at Physics and Maths and gained two A grade Highers, but had difficulty with other
subjects, especially English. She has had difficulty finding a job and at the moment
works part-time in a restaurant.
6.
Nigella left school at 16 with a mixture of Standard Grades and SQA modules. She
is an extremely good communicator and is very good at motivating other people.
She is a very clear thinker and can come up with new and innovative ideas. She
has a job with a voluntary arts organisation promoting new talent in the North of
Scotland.
1.
Decide on a 1st, 2nd and 3rd choice in terms of who you consider to be the most
intelligent.
1st
2nd
3rd
2.
2nd
3rd
3.
Give reasons for rejecting the people not included in your top three.
4th
5th
6th
shorter sentences
narrower vocabulary
repetitiveness
more use of question tags (isnt it, you know what I mean, ken)
greater use of gesture
greater use of swear words.
What is being suggested by both Douglas and Bernstein is that poor socialisation in the
family is seen as the main cause of lack of success in school.
Cultural capital
The issue of restricted and elaborated language codes led to the development of the idea
of cultural capital by the sociologists Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron in
their work Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture (1977). The idea here is
that the middle classes have access to more intellectual pastimes, reading material and
political awareness as a result of their better language use. This raises questions of socalled good and bad socialisation and working class and middle class cultures.
Therefore, some children learn from their family how to use the formal language that is
required by teachers and others and they learn what counts as an intelligent activity.
They learn how to progress through the system, how to make informed judgements about
good schools and how to choose the subjects and courses that will get them a good job
or into higher education. The continuing existence of private education in the UK is
obviously related to class.
Paul Willis 1977 study, Learning to Labour, discussed the way in which education
prepares working class boys for the world of work. Willis observed a group of working
class boys in a secondary school in the Midlands. The lads resisted the schools
attempts to control them by constantly having a laff and not conforming to the norms and
values transmitted through the formal and hidden curricula. They referred to pupils
who did conform as earoles because they listened to teachers. The lads decided that
school was a waste of time for them and that they knew what the future had in store
dead-end, meaningless jobs. In essence, the lads in Willis study would have been
perceived to be lacking in cultural capital.
Hierarchy: the hierarchy in school can be seen to reflect the hierarchical structure of
society at large.
Social control: the hidden curriculum of rules, regulations, obedience and respect
for authority is one mechanism of social control that reflects those operating in
society at large.
Gender role allocation: there is a claim of a link between subject choice and
expectations and gender in the education system. Could this be changing, however,
as girls results and expectations rise?
Lack of satisfaction: Marxists claim that much of the school day is taken up with
boring and meaningless activities. Students have little say in the content of the
subjects they study or in the overall organisation of the school day. Equally, following
the same timetable week in, week out, may lead to a sense of boredom and
powerlessness. So, schools, it is argued, prepare students for boring and repetitive
jobs. In this way, it is claimed there is a link between students experience of school
and many employees experience of work.
2. Who makes the rules in your educational establishment and for what purpose? To
what extent do you benefit from these rules?
4. Marxism is a conflict theory. What conflict takes place within the education system in
the UK?
2.
3.
2. What is girl power and how has it contributed to any changes, if any, regarding
gendered differential educational achievement?
4. Recent studies, such as The Gendered Subject by Becky Francis (2000), have
suggested girls are doing better than boys in many subjects. However, Francis also
suggested that many teachers still gave most attention to boys. Why do you think boys
still get most attention in classrooms?
Case Study 1
Charlie is 17 years old and is with a careers adviser considering his future life. This is
what his school report says about him:
he is popular with staff and other pupils
he is good-looking
he is hard-working and diligent
he likes helping other people
he is ambitious but ...
he would like to start earning money soon.
He has Higher passes in: Maths (B), English (B), Geography (C), Art and Design (A).
Now answer the following questions:
1. What do you think Charlie will be doing by this time next year?
Case Study 2
Charlie is a good-looking girl aged 17 years, who is about to leave school. Here are her
particulars: she is interested in helping people; she is attractive and popular with her
friends; she is a careful and a methodical worker; she is well liked by staff and pupils; she
would like to earn money as soon as possible.
She has Higher passes in: Geography(C), Art and Design (A), English (B), Maths (B).
Now answer the following questions:
1. What would you expect Charlie to do when she leaves school?
2.
3.
It is natural and leads to a healthy social development; single-sex schools often lead
to difficulties integrating later on.
4.
Exam results seem to indicate that girls do better when taught separately (especially
in science subjects).
2.
In mixed classrooms girls receive less attention than boys. Moreover, boys tend to
take most of the positions of responsibility in a mixed school.
3.
4.
Girls do not suffer socially they still see and meet boys outside school.
2. In a recent survey, parents said they wanted co-education for their sons, but single-sex
for their daughters. Why do you think they said this?
The out-of-school factors are claimed to centre on cultural backgrounds. It has been
suggested that growing up in a predominantly white society can lead to low selfesteem and subsequently low educational achievement for children from ethnic
minorities.
The in-school factors are claimed to centre on the content of the curriculum. The
argument being that the curriculum reflects the majority culture and history.
The general term ethnic minorities conceals differences in cultural background and
achievement between students.
In some instances there is difficulty distinguishing between class and gender and
ethnicity with regard to educational achievement.
3. What are the claimed out-of-school and in-school factors said to affect educational
achievement for ethnic minority students.
4. David Gillborn speaks of the myth of the black challenge. What is the myth of the
black challenge?