Journal of Teaching

in Physical Education
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2013, 32, 237-252
2013 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Endorsed by the Curriculum

and Instruction Academy of
the NASPE and the AIESEP
www.JTPE-Journal.com
ARTICLE

An Investigation of Adolescent Girls Global

Self-Concept, Physical Self-Concept,
Identified Regulation, and Leisure-Time
Physical Activity in Physical Education
Emily Kristin Beasley and Alex C. Garn
Louisiana State University
This study examined the relationships among identified regulation, physical selfconcept, global self-concept, and leisure-time physical activity with a sample of
middle and high school girls (N = 319) enrolled in physical education. Based on
Marshs theory of self-concept, it was hypothesized that a) physical self-concept
would mediate the relationship between identified regulation and global selfconcept and b) physical self-concept would mediate the relationship between
identified regulation and leisure-time physical activity. Data analysis revealed a
structural model in which physical self-concept mediated the relationship between
identified regulation and global self-concept as well as the relationship between
identified regulation and leisure-time physical activity. Findings provide support
for examining self-concept from a hierarchical and domain-specific perspective.
Results also offer greater understanding about one possible mechanism that links
physical education to increases in global self-concept and leisure-time physical
activity, which are considered important outcomes of quality education.
Keywords: physical self-perceptions, physical self-worth, self-esteem, selfdetermination theory, physical self-esteem

One of the overall goals of physical education (PE) is to promote physical

activity (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004).
PE is a class that can enhance childrens enjoyment for physical activity; however,
engagement in PE and physical activity outside of school often decreases as children
transition into adolescence (Bryan & Solmon, 2012; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2011; Gordon-Larsen, McMurray, & Popkin, 2000; Standage,
Gillison, & Treasure, 2007). This is especially true for adolescent girls, who on average have lower attendance and participate less in PE than adolescent boys (CDC,
2011; Gordon-Larsen et al., 2000). Lower levels of participation and attendance
may restrict adolescent girls potential to experience benefits associated with quality PE (NASPE, 2004). According to NASPE (2004), developing positive physical

The authors are with the Department of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA.
237

238Beasley and Garn

self-concept and global self-concept are fundamental psychological outcomes of

quality PE. Positive physical self-concept among adolescent females is associated
with participation in physical activity not only during PE class, but outside of school
as well (Cumming et al., 2011; Welk & Joens-Matre, 2007). Enhancing self-concept
in PE, however, appears to be difficult for many adolescent girls. Findings from
previous researchers suggest adolescent girls often report lower global and physical
self-concepts than males in PE (Marius, Claudia, Florina, & Densia, 2011; Martin
et al., 2010; Marsh, Trautwein, Ludtke, Koller, & Baumert, 2006). Although it is
currently unclear why self-concept disparities exist for so many adolescent girls, it
is possible that motivation in PE may be a contributing factor (Standage & Gillison,
2007; Standage, Gillison, Ntoumanis, & Treasure, 2012).

Global Self-Concept
Marsh and Shalveson (1985) developed a hierarchical and multidimensional model
of self-concept (see Figure 1). In the model, self-concepts are defined as descriptive and evaluative self-perceptions within a specific domain (Marsh & Shalveson,
1985). Global self-concept resides at the top of the hierarchy and is considered a
higher-order construct. In other words, global self-concept is theorized as a general representation of domain specific self-concepts. Academic and nonacademic
domains reside below global self-concept. The academic domain represent students self-concepts of specific academic subjects, such as mathematics, science,
and social studies, while the nonacademic domain represents social, emotional,
and physical self-concepts (Marsh, 1990, 1999; Marsh & Craven, 2006; Marsh &
OMara, 2008). Domain specific self-concepts are developed and refined through
interactions and interpretations of ones experiences in specific environments. For
example, students develop mathematics self-concept based on interpretations of
their experiences in mathematics contexts.

Figure 1 Marshs (1990) Multidimensional Global Self-Concept Framework.

Self-Concept and Motivation 239

Females typically report lower on measures of global self-concept (Marsh, 1990,

2002). In addition to gender differences, there is often a decline in global self-concept
when individuals reach preadolescence. Marsh theorizes this decline in self-concept may
be attributed to common characteristics of adolescent development such as increased
emphasis on social comparison and greater self-awareness. During later-adolescence,
this decline tends to stabilize and become more multifaceted (Marsh, 2002). Generating a better insight into the nature of self-concept is important because its related to
both academic (US Department of Education, 2003) and health outcomes (Craven &
Marsh, 2008). For example, self-concept is positively associated with psychological
well-being and physical health and negatively associated with depression and obesity
in adolescent girls (Park, 2003; Standage & Gillison, 2007; Standage et al., 2012).

Physical Self-Concept
In physical activity environments such as PE, physical self-concept is considered the
domain-specific self-concept (Marsh, 1997, 2002; Marsh & Craven, 2006; Marsh &
OMara, 2008). Physical self-concept is defined as an individuals descriptive and
evaluative self-perceptions of his/her physical appearance and physical abilities (Marsh,
1997). Students in PE have many opportunities to try new skills, display their physical
abilities in front of others, receive feedback about their appearance, and experience both
success and failure. Therefore, PE is an educational environment that impacts physical
self-concept development (Gehris, Kress, & Swalm, 2010; Goodwin, 1999). In PE, a
positive physical self-concept is related to engagement levels, skill development, and
motor learning (Guerin, Marsh, & Famose, 2004; Peart, Marsh, & Richards, 2005).
Past researchers have also demonstrated that if PE undermines physical self-concept,
both long and short term gains in skill development can be restricted (Marsh & Peart,
1988). Physical self-concept is also positively associated with physical activity outside
of PE and often impacts future adherence to physical activity (Marsh, Papaioannou,
& Theodorakis, 2006; Schneider, Dunton, & Cooper, 2008).
Past researchers suggest that physical self-concept is one of the most important
determinants of adolescent girls global self-concept (ODea & Abraham, 1999).
This may be a result of the added social pressure that adolescent girls face in relationship to their appearance (Fox, 1997). Females generally score lower on multiple
dimensions of self-concept and there is considerable evidence that girls of all ages
report a lower physical self-concept than boys on various subscales in a variety
of settings, including PE (Asci, 2002; Caglar, 2009; Marsh, Hey, Roche, & Perry,
1997; Klomsten, Skaalvik, & Espenes, 2004; ODea & Abraham, 1999; Schmalz
& Davison, 2006). Therefore, it is commonly accepted that adolescent girls face
barriers in developing global and physical self-concepts on par with adolescent boys.
More investigation of the PE specific factors related to adolescent girls physical
self-concept and global self-concept could provide a better understanding about
how to minimize the current gender disparities in self-concepts.

Self-Determination Theory
Craven and Marsh (2008) posit that motivation may play a key role in the development of positive self-concepts, but note that more empirical evidence is needed. A
valuable framework for understanding motivation in PE and potential links with

240Beasley and Garn

self-concept is self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci,
2007). Deci and Ryan (2000) theorize that motivation occurs on along a continuum
of self-determination, ranging from amotivation and controlled forms of extrinsic
motivation, to autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation, to intrinsic motivation
(Vansteenkiste, Niemiec, & Soenens, 2010). Amotivation resides on the lowest
end of the self-determined continuum and is defined as the complete lack of motivation (Ntoumanis, Pensgaard, Martin, & Pipe, 2004). Amotivated students find
little reward or value in PE and are often disengaged or do not participate in PE.
Controlled forms of extrinsic motivation involve the regulation of behavior as a
result of external pressures, rewards, or punishments. In other words, external contingencies are not fully self-endorsed, resulting in behaviors that produce feelings of
being controlled. External regulation and introjected regulation are the two types of
controlled motivation in the SDT framework (Vansteenkiste et al., 2010). External
regulation occurs when a students motivation to participate in PE is regulated by
external means, such as a fear of punishment by the teacher. Introjected regulation
is characterized by motivation grounded in self-imposed pride/self-worth or shame/
guilt (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2007). Although rewards and punishments are internal
and regulated by the individual, the behavior is not fully endorsed. In essence, the
individual is being controlled by himself/herself. For example, introjected regulation
can occur when a student does not value participating in PE, but does so anyway
out of a sense of obligation to the teacher.
Autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation are internally regulated and directed
by ones personal values of the external contingency. Identified regulation and
integrated regulation are both autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation in the
SDT framework (Vansteenkiste et al., 2010). Students who use identified regulation often choose to participate in an activity because it holds importance or has
value (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2007). For example, a student may decide to participate during an activity in PE because he or she believes that it will be beneficial
to his or her overall health. The reward of increased health has been internalized
as valuable by the student, producing self-endorsed regulation despite not necessarily gaining pleasure from the activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste et al.,
2010). Students who use integrated regulation choose to participate in an activity
because they desire to do so and it aligns with their personal values. For instance,
a student would participate in PE because he or she believes that it is important
and participation in physical activity is a part of his or her identity.
Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is not associated with any external
contingencies. Students who are intrinsically motivated to participate in PE do so
for the purpose of enjoyment, satisfaction, and pleasure (Standage et al., 2007).
Thus, the reward is derived from participating in PE itself, rather than outsides
agencies, resulting in the highest levels of self-endorsement and autonomous regulation. Intrinsic motivation is related to a host of positive behavioral, psychological,
and social outcomes in PE (Standage et al., 2007) and is considered an important
element for establishing a healthy and stable sense of self (Deci & Ryan, 1995).
It has been theorized by multiple researchers that autonomous motivation can
shape oneself-concept (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Hein & Hagger, 2007). For example,
students who experience autonomy and enjoyment from their physical activity
behaviors in PE are more likely to positively evaluate their physical capabilities. On
the other hand, students who experience dissatisfaction and external pressure over
their physical activity behaviors in PE are more likely to negatively evaluate their

Self-Concept and Motivation 241

physical capabilities. Hein and Hagger (2007) reported that students autonomous
motivation in PE was a positive predictor of their global self-concept. Additional
researchers examining students have also documented positive correlations between
identified regulation in PE and effort (Taylor, Ntoumanis, Standage, & Spray,
2010). This research has shown that identified regulation may play a substantial
role in both student engagement in PE and self-concept. Unfortunately, with the
documented declines in adolescent girls participation in PE and physical activity
(CDC, 2011), it may be unlikely that the majority of adolescent girls engage in PE
for solely intrinsic reasons. It is possible, however, some adolescent girls may choose
to participate and exert effort in PE because the goals of their class align with their
personal value systems. These students accept and value the importance of PE and
have integrated the goals of PE into their own beliefs, even if they do not experience
enjoyment from PE. At this point in time, the unique role that identified regulation
in PE has with adolescent girls self-concept is limited in the PE literature base.
Furthermore, researchers investigating motivation in PE have focused on global
self-concept (e.g., Hein & Hagger, 2007) instead of physical self-concept, which
is considered the domain specific self-concept in PE contexts (Marsh et al., 1997).
There are theoretical connections between identified regulation in PE and
physical self-concept. For instance, identified regulation is often based on the
need to feel competent and perceptions of competence are a central component
of physical self-concept (Rhodewalt & Vohs, 2005; Vansteenkiste et al., 2010).
Therefore, students who feel competent in PE would also likely have higher physical self-concepts. While previous researchers have provided initial evidence of the
relationships between identified regulation, effort, and self-concept in PE, more
research is needed in this area- specifically concerning the relationships between
identified regulatory processes in PE and physical self-concept. According to the
hierarchal and domain-specific nature of Marshs self-concept model, students
identified regulation in PE would likely have an indirect relationship with global
self-concept based on their level of physical self-concept. In other words, physical
self-concept could mediate the relationship between students identified regulation
in PE and their global self-concept.
In a similar manner, there are documented associations between identified
regulation in PE and leisure-time physical activity. Specifically, identified regulation
has been shown to consistently predict leisure-time physical activity among students
in PE (Taylor et al., 2010) and students motivation in PE has been recognized to
influence their motivation for participation in leisure-time physical activity (Hagger,
Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle, 2003). There is also sufficient evidence to
support that students with higher physical self-concepts are more physically active
(Marsh et al., 2006; Trautwein, Gerlach, & Ludtke, 2008). Identified regulation and
physical self-concept are both associated with positive physical activity behaviors
and it is likely that students who use identified regulation would not only be more
active, but may be so because they also have a positive physical self-concept. As a
result, it is likely that students autonomous motivation in PE influences leisure-time
physical activity indirectly as a result of their physical self-concept.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among
identified regulation in PE, physical self-concept, global self-concept, and leisuretime physical activity in a sample of adolescent girls. We hypothesized that: (a)
physical self-concept would mediate the relationship between students identified

242Beasley and Garn

regulation in PE and global self-concept; and (b) physical self-concept would

also mediate the relationship between students identified regulation in PE and
self-reported leisure-time physical activity. Gaining a better understanding of the
relationships among students identified regulation in PE, physical self-concept,
global self-concept, and leisure-time physical activity could help PE teachers
develop practical strategies to motivate a greater proportion of adolescent girls to
become more active participants in PE, increase their physical activity levels outside
of school, and improve their feelings of physical self-concept.

Method
Participants
Participants in this study were 319 adolescent girls enrolled in required PE classes
at one middle school and one high school in the Southeastern United States.
Approximately 80% of students recruited chose to take part in the study. Four
classes participated from the middle school and five classes participated from the
high school (N = 9). Each class was taught by a certified PE teacher (N = 7) and
all classes were same-sex PE classes. One teacher from each school taught two
classes each. The girls were in grades eight (n = 110), nine (n = 89), and ten (n =
120), with a mean age of 14.25 years (SD=.91). The girls reported their ethnicity
as Caucasian (78%), African American (19%), or Other (3%). Both schools used
traditional sport-based multiactivity PE curricula; however, classes often started with
short warm-up activities that stressed different components of health-related fitness.

Procedures
Permission to conduct this study was obtained from the Universitys Institutional
Review Board. Each school was contacted and permission was obtained from
principals, PE teachers, and parents. In addition, each participant provided assent.
Data were collected by the primary researcher and students completed questionnaires during their regular PE class time in place of their usual class activities.
Questionnaires were explained to the students and they were informed that their
responses would be kept confidential. Data collection took approximately thirty
minutes to complete.

Measures
Identified Regulation. Students identified regulation in PE was assessed at the
contextual level using the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale (Goudas,
Biddle, & Fox, 1994; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Wang, Hagger, & Liu, 2009). The
identified regulation subscale of the PLOC contains four items that address the
overall question Why do I try hard in PE?. Example items include because
PE is important to me and because I want to do well in PE. All items were
answered on a seven-point scale that ranged from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true).
The PLOC has been widely used in PE research and is considered to be a valid
and reliable instrument with adequate cross-cultural generalizability (Goudas et
al., 1994; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Wang et al., 2009).

Self-Concept and Motivation 243

Global and Physical Self-Concept. The Physical Self-Description Questionnaire

(PSDQ) was used to assess global self-concept and physical self-concept (Marsh,
Richards, Johnson, Roche, & Treymayne, 1994). The PSDQ requires individuals
to respond to declarative statements such as I feel good about the way I look
and what I can do physically. and Overall, most things I do turn out well. on
a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 6 (very true). The global
self-concept subscale consists of eight items and the physical self-concept subscale consists of six items. The PSDQ has demonstrated acceptable psychometric
properties in a host of samples, including adolescents in PE (Marsh, 1997, 2002;
Peart et al., 2005).

Leisure-Time Physical Activity. The Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire

(LTEQ) was used to measure the girls leisure-time physical activity (Godin
& Shepard, 1985). The LTEQ has four items that examine weekly frequencies
of vigorous, moderate, and mild physical activity during free time. In the first
three items, students are asked to estimate the number of 15 min blocks per week
that they engaged in vigorous, moderate, and mild physical activity. A weekly
leisure-time physical activity score is calculated that reflects MET values: Activity
Score = (9 strenuous blocks) + (5 moderate blocks) + (3 mild blocks).
The fourth question is a more general item that asks students to estimate how
often they engage in regular physical activity long enough to work up a sweat.
Students have three choices for this last item: (1) often; (2) sometimes; and (3)
never/rarely. The LTEQ has demonstrated positive correlations with VO2 max
scores and appears to adequately discriminate between fit and unfit individuals
(Godin & Shepard, 1985).

Data Analysis
Data were initially screened for outliers and distribution characteristics were also
examined. Descriptive statistics and simple correlations were then calculated for
all variables. Structural equation modeling (AMOS 20.0) was used to examine
the adequacy of the proposed model (i.e., measurement model) and the pattern of
proposed relationships (i.e., structural model). Latent variables were created for
each variable using multiple indicators from students questionnaire responses
(Byrne, 2001). Specifically, the latent factor identified regulation was measured
with the four items from the identified regulation subscale of the PLOC and the
latent factor leisure-time physical activity was measured with two indicators, the
activity score and general item from the LTEQ. Partially aggregated indicators (i.e.,
parcels) were created for the physical self-concept and global self-concept latent
variables (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002). Parcels can increase
the parsimony of a structural equation model by reducing parameter estimates
and increasing the reliability of indicators (Coffman & MacCallum, 2005). Three
indicators are generally identified as representing the ideal number of indicators for
SEM model stability (Little et al., 2002). Therefore, the six indicators of physical
self-concept were randomly parceled into three indictors: (a) indicator 1 = mean
score of items 1 and 3; (b) indictor 2 = mean score of items 2 and 6; (c) indicator 3 = mean score of items 4 and 5. The same procedure was followed for the
latent factor global self-concept: (a) indictor 1 = mean score of items 1, 4, and
5; (b) indicator 2 = mean score of items 2, 7, and 8; (c) indicator 3 = mean score

244Beasley and Garn

of items 3 and 6. The first test of the measurement model consisted of examining
the standardized factor loadings of each latent variable. Standardized factor loadings above .40 were considered adequate indicators while factor loadings above
.60 were considered strong indicators (Hair, Anderson, Tathem, & Black, 1998).
Global and incremental indices were also used to test the measurement model,
including the 2 / df ratio, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI),
and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Kline, 2005). Kline
suggests that: (a) a 2 / df ratio around three represents an adequate fit, with lower
ratio indicating a better fit; (b) CFI and TLI around .90 represent an adequate fit,
with higher values (.95) indicating good fit; and (c) RMSEA values around .08
represent an adequate fit, with lower values (.06) indicting a good fit. The pattern
of relationships was tested simultaneously via the structural model (Byrne, 2001).
Standardized beta weights were used to examine the direct effects and indirect
effects in the structural model.

Results
Descriptive Statistics
Means, standard deviations, and Cronbachs reliability coefficients for identified
regulation, physical self-concept, global self-concept, and leisure-time physical
activity are reported in Table 1. Identified regulation, physical self-concept, and
global self-concept had mean scores above the midpoint of their respected scales.

Simple Correlations
Relationships among variables were first examined by testing bivariate correlations
(see Table 1). All variables had small to moderate positive correlations except the
association between global self-concept and physical self-concept, which had a
moderate to strong positive correlation. The relationship between physical selfconcept and global self-concept was similar to previous work using Marshs selfconcept theory (Marsh et al., 1994).

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Simple Correlations

of All Variables
1.

Variable

IDR

2.

PSC

.27**

3.

GSC

.22**

.70**

4.

LTPA

.18**

.28**

.19**

M (SD)

4.33 (1.53)

.86

4.29 (1.31)

.95

4.99 (.98)

.90

48.56 (26.49)

Note. IDR = identified regulation; PSC = physical self-concept; GSC = global self-concept;
M = mean; SD = standard deviation; = Cronbach alpha estimate.
* p< .05; ** p< .01.

Self-Concept and Motivation 245

Structural Equation Modeling

Findings are presented in Figure 2.
Measurement Model. Standardized factor loadings ranged from .59 to .96. It

should be noted that the standardized factor loading for the general item on the
LTEQ (-.076) was negative based on the reversed orientation of the scale (i.e.,
1= often; 2= sometimes; 3= never/rarely). The fit indices represented an average
to good fit. The 2 / df ratio (126.17/49) was 2.58, the CFI= .97, the TLI = ..95,
and the RMSEA= .07.

Figure 2 Findings of hypothesized model. Identified = identified regulation in PE;

Physical = physical self-concept; GSC = global self-concept; LTPA = leisure-time physical
activity. Fit indices: /df ratio = 126.17/49 = 2.58; CFI = .97; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .07. All
standardized beta estimates are significant (p< .05) expect path between identified regulation
and GSC and identified regulation and LTPA. Indirect effect between identified regulation
and GSC ( = .21). Indirect relationship between indemnified regulation and LTPA ( =
.14). Physical self-concept R = .08; GSE R = .54; LTPA R = .26.

246Beasley and Garn

Structural Model. The pattern of relationships reflected our general hypoth-

eses. Identified regulation had a direct relationship with physical self-concept

(= .28) and accounted for 8% of the variance. Identified regulation did not have
significant direct effects with global self-concept (= .05) or leisure-time physical
activity (= .09). The indirect effects for identified regulation on global self-concept
(= .21) and leisure-time physical activity (= .14) were stronger than the direct
effects. Physical self-concept had direct effect on global self-concept (= .72) and
leisure-time physical activity (= .47). The model predicted 54% of the variance
of global self-concept and 26% of the variance of leisure-time physical activity.
Taken together, the results supported the mediating role of physical self-concept
in the model by students identified regulation in PE.

Discussion
An important mission of public schools is to enhance students global self-concept
through quality educational experiences (US Department of Education, 2003).
Similarly, quality PE is designed to develop positive perceptions of ones physical
characteristics, physical competence, and overall self-esteem while promoting
physical activity (NASPE, 2004). According to the US Department of Education
(2003), many adolescent girls are at risk for having negative self-concept due, in
part, to physical self-concept pressures and disturbances. This study was designed to
provide a more comprehensive view of the complex relationships among adolescent
girls identified regulation in PE, physical self-concept, global self-concept, and
leisure-time physical activity.
Evidence supported our hypotheses that physical self-concept was a key factor
in bridging identified regulation in PE to global self-concept (i.e., hypothesis 1)
and leisure-time physical activity (hypothesis 2). Significant positive correlations
between identified regulation in PE and global self-concept as well as leisure-time
physical activity established associations between the independent variable and outcome variables. Results of the structural model revealed that identified regulation in
PE had a direct relationship with physical self-concept, but not global self-concept
or leisure-time physical activity. Furthermore, physical self-concept had direct
relationships with both global self-concept and leisure-time physical activity. The
indirect relationships between identified regulation in PE and the outcome variables
were approximately twice as strong as the direct relationships. Taken together, the
evidence supported our notion that physical self-concept was a mediating variable
(MacKinnon, Fairchild, & Fritz, 2007). This provides an important contribution to
the literature because it highlights a process through which students in PE who may
not be intrinsically motivated can still reach important PE and health outcomes.
Because adolescent girls physical self-concept appears to be a mechanism
that facilitates positive health outcomes in and outside the PE context, it may
be especially important for physical educators to find ways to enhance it. The
link between identified regulation in PE and physical self-concept may provide
insights for physical educators. Guay, Delisle, Fernet, Julian, and Senecal
(2008) posit that identified regulation helps to focus thoughts and feelings
about oneself to a personal standard of success, and limits concern about social

Self-Concept and Motivation 247

judgment. Similarly, participating in physical activities perceived to be meaningful and valuable creates greater opportunities to enhance thoughts about ones
physical self because the behavior is fulfilling personal goals (Deci & Ryan,
1995). Therefore, physical educators should consistently gather feedback on
students values and preferences of physical activities when making curricular
and instructional choices as well as explicitly highlight the value of engaging in
PE activities. Previous research has indicated that when teachers take students
feedback and preferences into consideration, students will feel a greater sense
of autonomy (Reeve & Jang, 2006). Although this may sound straightforward
in theory, implementing simplistic or mindless physical activities (e.g., running laps, dodgeball, jumping-jacks) without providing any explanation of the
educational, health, or social benefits is a far too common practice in secondary
PE. Our results indicate that when students value and identify with the goals
of PE, they are more likely to have higher physical self-concept and engage in
physically activity outside of school.
The link between physical self-concept and global self-concept (=.74) is
also noteworthy. This supports previous researchers reports of the important role
of physical self-concept in relationship to global self-esteem during adolescence
(ODea & Abraham, 1999). Adolescent girls are often critical of their personal
attributes during a developmental period that emphasizes social comparison (Harter,
Bresnick, Bouchey, & Whitesell, 1997) and places pressure on physical appearance and body ideals that are typically unrealistic (Durkin & Paxton, 2002). PE
represents a public environment where physical appearance and bodies are often on
display. The girls of study were placed in same-sex classes and it is unclear what
effect this had on the results. During informal conversations, some of the physical
educators suggested that same-sex classes increased the girls motivation for PE
and reduced girl-boy social pressure, but there is no formal evidence documented
in this study that this was actually the case. Past research has reported that females
are often more likely to be influenced by the gender make-up of the class (Lyu
& Gill, 2011) and that students typically rate themselves higher in physical selfconcept domains that are deemed gender appropriate (Caglar, 2009; Klomsten et
al., 2004). Future research would benefit greatly by investigating same-sex and
coeducational PE classes in relationship to adolescents girls motivation, physical
self-concept, and global self-concept. Based on Marshs (2002) theorizing and our
results, we hypothesize that the relationship between physical self-concept and
global self-concept would likely remain stable across different gender structures
in PE while the relationship between motivation in PE and physical self-concept
would be more dynamic.
These results hold many implications for PE teachers. Specifically, teachers
should design a curriculum that is geared to fostering the development of both identified regulatory processes for motivation and physical self-concept among adolescent
females. By doing so, it is likely that global self-concept and leisure-time physical
activity will be impacted as well. The girls in this study were exposed to traditional
sports-based multiactivity curriculum in their PE classes which consisted of two to
three week units that emphasized gameplay over skill development. Implementing
PE curriculum that provides students with more time to develop skills, establish
social bonds, and establish internal frames of reference could potentially increase
girls identified regulation in PE and physical self-concept as well as impact the

248Beasley and Garn

relationship between the two. For example, Gehris et al. (2010) found that tenth
grade students viewed their participation in adventure education curriculum as
a valuable environment to exercise in PE, more so than traditional PE exercises
such as team sports and going to the weight room. Furthermore, students reported
increases in their internalization of the health benefits received from participating
in adventure education. Implementing choice-based PE programs for middle school
and high school girls is another practical strategy that could enhance girls identified regulation. In many secondary PE programs, girls are forced to participate in
curriculum with a heavy emphasis on team sports, which in some cases, may not
match physical activity values. A choice-based program may help remedy this
issue. Future research should continue to investigate the impact of choice-based
curriculum in relation to adolescent girls autonomous motivation (Johnson, Prusak,
Pennington, & Wilkinson, 2011) and physical self-concept.
This research makes a significant contribution by providing clarification about
the underlying processes in the relationships between identified regulation of motivation in PE, physical self-concept, global self-concept, and leisure-time physical
activity. It is important for future PE researchers to account for the domain-specific
nature of self-concept (i.e., physical self-concept) because it provides a more
holistic understanding of associations that PE factors have with global self-concept
and leisure-time physical activity. This study is not without limitations. The crosssectional design of this study does not allow for cause and effect relationships to be
made. It is also important to note that students were enrolled in required PE classes,
which could potentially impact their motivation for PE. In addition, the sample for
this study was restricted to adolescent females. Future researchers would benefit
from research designs that provide evidence for cause and effect relationships or
potential reciprocal effects between autonomous motivation and self-concepts.
Future studies would also make substantial contributions by investigating additional
age groups, cultures, and by examining relationship similarities or differences
between males and females.
In conclusion, the findings of this study highlight the important role PE teachers can play in students lives when it comes to self-concept and physical activity
behaviors outside of school. Physical educators should design their curriculum with
students values and personal goals in mind. If students see the activities in PE
as beneficial and identify with lesson objectives, then they will be more likely to
have a positive physical self-concept and will also be more active outside of class.
Likewise, teachers need to explain both the short and long-term benefits of physical education to students. When students align their personal belief systems with
those of the PE class, teachers can have a lasting impact on students self-concept
and leisure-time physical activity.

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