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Geomorphology
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Geomorphology(fromGreek:,ge,"earth",morf,"form"and,logos,"study")isthescientific
studyoftheoriginandevolutionoftopographicandbathymetricfeaturescreatedbyphysicalorchemical
processesoperatingatorneartheearth'ssurface.Geomorphologistsseektounderstandwhylandscapeslookthe
waytheydo,tounderstandlandformhistoryanddynamicsandtopredictchangesthroughacombinationoffield
observations,physicalexperimentsandnumericalmodeling.Geomorphologyispracticedwithinphysical
geography,geology,geodesy,engineeringgeology,archaeologyandgeotechnicalengineering.Thisbroadbase
ofinterestscontributestomanyresearchstylesandinterestswithinthefield.

Contents
1Overview
2History
2.1Ancientgeomorphology
2.2Earlymoderngeomorphology
2.3Quantitativegeomorphology
2.4Contemporarygeomorphology
3Processes
3.1Eolianprocesses
3.2Biologicalprocesses
3.3Fluvialprocesses
3.4Glacialprocesses
3.5Hillslopeprocesses
3.6Igneousprocesses
3.7Tectonicprocesses
4Scalesingeomorphology
5Overlapwithotherfields
6Seealso
7References
8Furtherreading
9Externallinks
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology

Badlandsincisedintoshaleatthefoot
oftheNorthCainevillePlateau,Utah,
withinthepasscarvedbytheFremont
RiverknownastheBlueGate.GK
Gilbertstudiedthelandscapesofthis
areaingreatdetail,formingthe
observationalfoundationformanyof
hisstudiesongeomorphology. [1]

SurfaceoftheEarth,showinghigher
elevationsinredcolor.

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Overview
Thesurfaceoftheearthismodifiedbyacombinationofsurfaceprocessesthatsculptlandscapes,andgeologic
processesthatcausetectonicupliftandsubsidence,andshapethecoastalgeography.Surfaceprocessescomprise
theactionofwater,wind,ice,fire,andlivingthingsonthesurfaceoftheearth,alongwithchemicalreactions
thatformsoilsandaltermaterialproperties,thestabilityandrateofchangeoftopographyundertheforceof
gravity,andotherfactors,suchas(intheveryrecentpast)humanalterationofthelandscape.Manyofthese
factorsarestronglymediatedbyclimate.Geologicprocessesincludetheupliftofmountainranges,thegrowthof
volcanoes,isostaticchangesinlandsurfaceelevation(sometimesinresponsetosurfaceprocesses),andthe
formationofdeepsedimentarybasinswherethesurfaceoftheearthdropsandisfilledwithmaterialerodedfrom
otherpartsofthelandscape.Theearthsurfaceanditstopographythereforeareanintersectionofclimatic,
hydrologic,andbiologicactionwithgeologicprocesses,oralternativelystated,theintersectionoftheearth's
lithospherewithitshydrosphere,atmosphere,andbiosphere.
Thebroadscaletopographiesoftheearthillustratethisintersectionofsurfaceandsubsurfaceaction.Mountain
beltsareupliftedduetogeologicprocesses.Denudationofthesehighupliftedregionsproducessedimentthatis
transportedanddepositedelsewherewithinthelandscapeoroffthecoast.[2]Onprogressivelysmallerscales,
Waveactionandwaterchemistrylead
similarideasapply,whereindividuallandformsevolveinresponsetothebalanceofadditiveprocesses(uplift
tostructuralfailureinexposedrocks
anddeposition)andsubtractiveprocesses(subsidenceanderosion).Often,theseprocessesdirectlyaffecteach
other:icesheets,water,andsedimentareallloadsthatchangetopographythroughflexuralisostasy.Topography
canmodifythelocalclimate,forexamplethroughorographicprecipitation,whichinturnmodifiesthetopographybychangingthehydrologicregimein
whichitevolves.Manygeomorphologistsareparticularlyinterestedinthepotentialforfeedbacksbetweenclimateandtectonics,mediatedby
geomorphicprocesses.[3]
Inadditiontothesebroadscalequestions,geomorphologistsaddressissuesthataremorespecificand/ormorelocal.Glacialgeomorphologists
investigateglacialdepositssuchasmoraines,eskers,andproglaciallakes,aswellasglacialerosionalfeatures,tobuildchronologiesofbothsmall
glaciersandlargeicesheetsandunderstandtheirmotionsandeffectsuponthelandscape.Fluvialgeomorphologistsfocusonrivers,howtheytransport
sediment,migrateacrossthelandscape,cutintobedrock,respondtoenvironmentalandtectonicchanges,andinteractwithhumans.Soils
geomorphologistsinvestigatesoilprofilesandchemistrytolearnaboutthehistoryofaparticularlandscapeandunderstandhowclimate,biota,androck
interact.Othergeomorphologistsstudyhowhillslopesformandchange.Stillothersinvestigatetherelationshipsbetweenecologyandgeomorphology.
Becausegeomorphologyisdefinedtocompriseeverythingrelatedtothesurfaceoftheearthanditsmodification,itisabroadfieldwithmanyfacets.

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Geomorphologistsuseawiderangeoftechniquesintheirwork.Thesemayincludefieldworkandfielddatacollection,theinterpretationofremotely
senseddata,geochemicalanalyses,andthenumericalmodellingofthephysicsoflandscapes.Geomorphologistsmayrelyongeochronology,using
datingmethodstomeasuretherateofchangestothesurface.[4][5]Terrainmeasurementtechniquesarevitaltoquantitativelydescribetheformofthe
earth'ssurface,andincludedifferentialGPS,remotelysenseddigitalterrainmodelsandlaserscanning,toquantify,study,andtogenerateillustrations
andmaps.[6]
Practicalapplicationsofgeomorphologyincludehazardassessment(suchaslandslidepredictionandmitigation),rivercontrolandstreamrestoration,
andcoastalprotection.PlanetarygeomorphologystudieslandformsonotherterrestrialplanetssuchasMars.Indicationsofeffectsofwind,fluvial,
glacial,masswasting,meteorimpact,tectonicsandvolcanicprocessesarestudied.Thiseffortnotonlyhelpsbetterunderstandthegeologicand
atmospherichistoryofthoseplanetsbutalsoextendsgeomorphologicalstudyoftheearth.Planetarygeomorphologistsoftenuseearthanaloguestoaid
intheirstudyofsurfacesofotherplanets.[7]

History
Withsomenotableexceptions(seebelow),geomorphologyisarelativelyyoungscience,growingalongwith
interestinotheraspectsoftheearthsciencesinthemid19thcentury.Thissectionprovidesaverybriefoutlineof
someofthemajorfiguresandeventsinitsdevelopment.

Ancientgeomorphology
ThefirsttheoryofgeomorphologywasarguablydevisedbythepolymathChinesescientistandstatesmanShen
Kuo(10311095AD).Thiswasbasedonhisobservationofmarinefossilshellsinageologicalstratumofa
mountainhundredsofmilesfromthePacificOcean.Noticingbivalveshellsrunninginahorizontalspanalong
thecutsectionofacliffside,hetheorizedthatthecliffwasoncetheprehistoriclocationofaseashorethathad
"ConodeArita"inSalta(Argentina).
shiftedhundredsofmilesoverthecenturies.Heinferredthatthelandwasreshapedandformedbysoilerosionof
themountainsandbydepositionofsilt,afterobservingstrangenaturalerosionsoftheTaihangMountainsand
theYandangMountainnearWenzhou.[8][9]Furthermore,hepromotedthetheoryofgradualclimatechangeovercenturiesoftimeonceancientpetrified
bambooswerefoundtobepreservedundergroundinthedry,northernclimatezoneofYanzhou,whichisnowmoderndayYan'an,Shaanxi
province.[9][10]

Earlymoderngeomorphology

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ThetermgeomorphologyseemstohavebeenfirstusedbyLaumanninan1858workwritteninGerman.KeithTinklerhassuggestedthattheword
cameintogeneraluseinEnglish,GermanandFrenchafterJohnWesleyPowellandW.J.McGeeuseditduringtheInternationalGeologicalConference
of1891.[11]
AnearlypopulargeomorphicmodelwasthegeographicalcycleorcycleoferosionmodelofbroadscalelandscapeevolutiondevelopedbyWilliam
MorrisDavisbetween1884and1899.ItwasanelaborationoftheuniformitarianismtheorythathadfirstbeenproposedbyJamesHutton(1726
1797).[12]Withregardtovalleyforms,forexample,uniformitarianismpositedasequenceinwhichariverrunsthroughaflatterrain,graduallycarving
anincreasinglydeepvalley,untilthesidevalleyseventuallyerode,flatteningtheterrainagain,thoughatalowerelevation.Itwasthoughtthattectonic
upliftcouldthenstartthecycleover.InthedecadesfollowingDavis'sdevelopmentofthisidea,manyofthose
studyinggeomorphologysoughttofittheirfindingsintothisframework,knowntodayas"Davisian".[12]Davis's
ideasareofhistoricalimportance,buthavebeenlargelysupersededtoday,mainlyduetotheirlackofpredictive
powerandqualitativenature.[12]
Inthe1920s,WaltherPenckdevelopedanalternativemodeltoDavis's.[12]Penckthoughtthatlandformevolution
wasbetterdescribedasanalternationbetweenongoingprocessesofupliftanddenudation,asopposedtoDavis's
modelofasingleupliftfollowedbydecay.Healsoemphasisedthatinmanylandscapesslopeevolutionoccurs
bybackwearingofrocks,notbyDavisianstylesurfacelowering,andhissciencetendedtoemphasisesurface
processoverunderstandingindetailthesurfacehistoryofagivenlocality.PenckwasGerman,andduringhis
lifetimehisideaswereattimesrejectedvigorouslybytheEnglishspeakinggeomorphologycommunity.[12]

Lake"VekHincovopleso"inHigh
Tatras,Slovakia.

BothDavisandPenckweretryingtoplacethestudyoftheevolutionoftheearth'ssurfaceonamoregeneralized,
globallyrelevantfootingthanithadbeenpreviously.Intheearly19thcentury,authorsespeciallyinEuropehadtendedtoattributetheformof
landscapestolocalclimate,andinparticulartothespecificeffectsofglaciationandperiglacialprocesses.Incontrast,bothDavisandPenckwere
seekingtoemphasizetheimportanceofevolutionoflandscapesthroughtimeandthegeneralityoftheearth'ssurfaceprocessesacrossdifferent
landscapesunderdifferentconditions.
Duringtheearly1900s,thestudyofregionalscalegeomorphologywastermed"physiography".Physiographylaterwasconsideredtobeacontraction
of"physical"and"geography",andthereforesynonymouswithphysicalgeography,andtheconceptbecameembroiledincontroversysurroundingthe
appropriateconcernsofthatdiscipline.Somegeomorphologistsheldtoageologicalbasisforphysiographyandemphasizedaconceptofphysiographic
regionswhileaconflictingtrendamonggeographerswastoequatephysiographywith"puremorphology,"separatedfromitsgeologicalheritage.Inthe
periodfollowingWorldWarII,theemergenceofprocess,climatic,andquantitativestudiesledtoapreferencebymanyearthscientistsfortheterm
"geomorphology"inordertosuggestananalyticalapproachtolandscapesratherthanadescriptiveone.[13]

Quantitativegeomorphology
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Geomorphologywasstartedtobeputonasolidquantitativefootinginthemiddleofthe20thcentury.FollowingtheearlyworkofGroveKarlGilbert
aroundtheturnofthe20thcentury,[12]agroupofnaturalscientists,geologistsandhydraulicengineersincludingRalphAlgerBagnold,HansAlbert
Einstein,FrankAhnert,JohnHack,LunaLeopold,A.Shields,ThomasMaddock,ArthurStrahler,StanleySchumm,andRonaldShrevebeganto
researchtheformoflandscapeelementssuchasriversandhillslopesbytakingsystematic,direct,quantitativemeasurementsofaspectsofthemand
investigatingthescalingofthesemeasurements.[12]Thesemethodsbegantoallowpredictionofthepastandfuturebehavioroflandscapesfrompresent
observations,andwerelatertodevelopintothemoderntrendofahighlyquantitativeapproachtogeomorphicproblems.Quantitativegeomorphology
caninvolvefluiddynamicsandsolidmechanics,geomorphometry,laboratorystudies,fieldmeasurements,theoreticalwork,andfulllandscape
evolutionmodeling.Theseapproachesareusedtounderstandweatheringandtheformationofsoils,sedimenttransport,landscapechange,andthe
interactionsbetweenclimate,tectonics,erosion,anddeposition.

Contemporarygeomorphology
Today,thefieldofgeomorphologyencompassesaverywiderangeofdifferentapproachesandinterests.Modernresearchersaimtodrawout
quantitative"laws"thatgovernearthsurfaceprocesses,butequally,recognizetheuniquenessofeachlandscapeandenvironmentinwhichthese
processesoperate.Particularlyimportantrealizationsincontemporarygeomorphologyinclude:
1)thatnotalllandscapescanbeconsideredaseither"stable"or"perturbed",wherethisperturbedstateisatemporarydisplacementawayfromsome
idealtargetform.Instead,dynamicchangesofthelandscapearenowseenasanessentialpartoftheirnature.[14][15]
2)thatmanygeomorphicsystemsarebestunderstoodintermsofthestochasticityoftheprocessesoccurringinthem,thatis,theprobability
distributionsofeventmagnitudesandreturntimes.[16]Thisinturnhasindicatedtheimportanceofchaoticdeterminismtolandscapes,andthatlandscape
propertiesarebestconsideredstatistically.[17]Thesameprocessesinthesamelandscapesdonotalwaysleadtothesameendresults.

Processes
Geomorphicallyrelevantprocessesgenerallyfallinto(1)theproductionofregolithbyweatheringanderosion,(2)thetransportofthatmaterial,and(3)
itseventualdeposition.Primarysurfaceprocessesresponsibleformosttopographicfeaturesincludewind,waves,chemicaldissolution,masswasting,
groundwatermovement,surfacewaterflow,glacialaction,tectonism,andvolcanism.Othermoreexoticgeomorphicprocessesmightincludeperiglacial
(freezethaw)processes,saltmediatedaction,orextraterrestrialimpact.

Eolianprocesses

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Eolianprocessespertaintotheactivityofthewindsandmorespecifically,tothewinds'abilitytoshapethesurfaceoftheearth.Windsmayerode,
transport,anddepositmaterials,andareeffectiveagentsinregionswithsparsevegetationandalargesupplyoffine,unconsolidatedsediments.
Althoughwaterandmassflowtendtomobilizemorematerialthanwindinmostenvironments,eolianprocessesareimportantinaridenvironmentssuch
asdeserts.[18]

Biologicalprocesses
Theinteractionoflivingorganismswithlandforms,orbiogeomorphologicprocesses,canbeofmanydifferentforms,andisprobablyofprofound
importancefortheterrestrialgeomorphicsystemasawhole.Biologycaninfluenceverymanygeomorphic
processes,rangingfrombiogeochemicalprocessescontrollingchemicalweathering,totheinfluenceof
mechanicalprocesseslikeburrowingandtreethrowonsoildevelopment,toevencontrollingglobalerosionrates
throughmodulationofclimatethroughcarbondioxidebalance.Terrestriallandscapesinwhichtheroleof
biologyinmediatingsurfaceprocessescanbedefinitivelyexcludedareextremelyrare,butmayholdimportant
informationforunderstandingthegeomorphologyofotherplanets,suchasMars.[19]

Fluvialprocesses
Riversandstreamsarenotonlyconduitsofwater,butalsoofsediment.Thewater,asitflowsoverthechannel
bed,isabletomobilizesedimentandtransportitdownstream,eitherasbedload,suspendedloadordissolved
load.Therateofsedimenttransportdependsontheavailabilityofsedimentitselfandontheriver'sdischarge.[20]
Riversarealsocapableoferodingintorockandcreatingnewsediment,bothfromtheirownbedsandalsoby
couplingtothesurroundinghillslopes.Inthisway,riversarethoughtofassettingthebaselevelforlargescale
landscapeevolutioninnonglacialenvironments.[21][22]Riversarekeylinksintheconnectivityofdifferent
landscapeelements.

GrandCanyon,Arizona

Asriversflowacrossthelandscape,theygenerallyincreaseinsize,mergingwithotherrivers.Thenetworkof
riversthusformedisadrainagesystem.Thesesystemstakeonfourgeneralpatterns,dendritic,radial,rectangular,andtrellis.Dendritichappenstobe
themostcommonoccurringwhentheunderlyingstrataisstable(withoutfaulting).Drainagesystemshavefourprimarycomponents:drainagebasin,
alluvialvalley,deltaplain,andreceivingbasin.Somegeomorphicexamplesoffluviallandformsarealluvialfans,oxbowlakes,andfluvialterraces.

Glacialprocesses

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Glaciers,whilegeographicallyrestricted,areeffectiveagentsoflandscapechange.Thegradualmovementoficedownavalleycausesabrasionand
pluckingoftheunderlyingrock.Abrasionproducesfinesediment,termedglacialflour.Thedebristransportedbytheglacier,whentheglacierrecedes,
istermedamoraine.GlacialerosionisresponsibleforUshapedvalleys,asopposedtotheVshapedvalleysoffluvialorigin.[23]
Thewayglacialprocessesinteractwithotherlandscapeelements,particularlyhillslopeandfluvialprocesses,isanimportantaspectofPlioPleistocene
landscapeevolutionanditssedimentaryrecordinmanyhighmountainenvironments.Environmentsthathavebeenrelativelyrecentlyglaciatedbutare
nolongermaystillshowelevatedlandscapechangeratescomparedtothosethathaveneverbeenglaciated.Nonglacialgeomorphicprocesseswhich
neverthelesshavebeenconditionedbypastglaciationaretermedparaglacialprocesses.Thisconceptcontrastswithperiglacialprocesses,whichare
directlydrivenbyformationormeltingoficeorfrost.[24]

Hillslopeprocesses
Soil,regolith,androckmovedownslopeundertheforceofgravityviacreep,slides,flows,topples,andfalls.
Suchmasswastingoccursonbothterrestrialandsubmarineslopes,andhasbeenobservedonEarth,Mars,
Venus,TitanandIapetus.
Ongoinghillslopeprocessescanchangethetopologyofthehillslopesurface,whichinturncanchangetherates
ofthoseprocesses.Hillslopesthatsteepenuptocertaincriticalthresholdsarecapableofsheddingextremely
largevolumesofmaterialveryquickly,makinghillslopeprocessesanextremelyimportantelementoflandscapes
intectonicallyactiveareas.[25]

WinderodedalcovenearMoab,Utah

Ontheearth,biologicalprocessessuchasburrowingortreethrowmayplayimportantrolesinsettingtheratesof
somehillslopeprocesses.[26]

Igneousprocesses
Bothvolcanic(eruptive)andplutonic(intrusive)igneousprocessescanhaveimportantimpactson
geomorphology.Theactionofvolcanoestendstorejuvenizelandscapes,coveringtheoldlandsurfacewithlava
andtephra,releasingpyroclasticmaterialandforcingriversthroughnewpaths.Theconesbuiltbyeruptionsalso
buildsubstantialnewtopography,whichcanbeacteduponbyothersurfaceprocesses.Plutonicrocksintruding
thensolidifyingatdepthcancausebothupliftorsubsidenceofthesurface,dependingonwhetherthenew
materialisdenserorlessdensethantherockitdisplaces.

Tectonicprocesses
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology

Beaverdams,asthisoneinTierradel
Fuego,constituteaspecificformof
zoogeomorphology,atypeof
biogeomorphology
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Tectoniceffectsongeomorphologycanrangefromscalesofmillionsofyearstominutesorless.Theeffectsof
tectonicsonlandscapeareheavilydependentonthenatureoftheunderlyingbedrockfabricthatmoreless
controlswhatkindoflocalmorphologytectonicscanshape.Earthquakescan,intermsofminutes,submerge
largeareasoflandcreatingnewwetlands.Isostaticreboundcanaccountforsignificantchangesoverhundredsto
thousandsofyears,andallowserosionofamountainbelttopromotefurthererosionasmassisremovedfromthe
chainandthebeltuplifts.Longtermplatetectonicdynamicsgiverisetoorogenicbelts,largemountainchains
withtypicallifetimesofmanytensofmillionsofyears,whichformfocalpointsforhighratesoffluvialand
hillslopeprocessesandthuslongtermsedimentproduction.
Featuresofdeepermantledynamicssuchasplumesanddelaminationofthelowerlithospherehavealsobeen
hypothesisedtoplayimportantrolesinthelongterm(>millionyear),largescale(thousandsofkm)evolutionof
theearth'stopography(seedynamictopography).Bothcanpromotesurfaceupliftthroughisostasyashotter,less
dense,mantlerocksdisplacecooler,denser,mantlerocksatdepthintheearth.[27][28]

MesquiteFlatDunesinDeathValley
lookingtowardtheCottonwood
Mountainsfromthenorthwestarm
ofStarDune(2003)

Scalesingeomorphology
Differentgeomorphologicalprocessesdominateatdifferentspatialandtemporalscales.Moreover,scaleson
whichprocessesoccurmaydeterminethereactivityorotherwiseoflandscapestochangesindrivingforcessuch
asclimateortectonics.[15]Theseideasarekeytothestudyofgeomorphologytoday.

Featuresofaglaciallandscape

Tohelpcategorizelandscapescalessomegeomorphologistsmightusethefollowingtaxonomy:
1stContinent,oceanbasin,climaticzone(~10,000,000km2)
2ndShield,e.g.BalticShield,ormountainrange(~1,000,000km2)
3rdIsolatedsea,Sahel(~100,000km2)
4thMassif,e.g.MassifCentralorGroupofrelatedlandforms,e.g.,Weald(~10,000km2)
5thRivervalley,Cotswolds(~1,000km2)
6thIndividualmountainorvolcano,smallvalleys(~100km2)
7thHillslopes,streamchannels,estuary(~10km2)
8thgully,barchannel(~1km2)
9thMetersizedfeatures

ExampleofmasswastingatPalo
DuroCanyon,Texas

Overlapwithotherfields
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Thereisaconsiderableoverlapbetweengeomorphologyandotherfields.Depositionofmaterialisextremelyimportantinsedimentology.Weatheringis
thechemicalandphysicaldisruptionofearthmaterialsinplaceonexposuretoatmosphericornearsurface
agents,andistypicallystudiedbysoilscientistsandenvironmentalchemists,butisanessentialcomponentof
geomorphologybecauseitiswhatprovidesthematerialthatcanbemovedinthefirstplace.Civiland
environmentalengineersareconcernedwitherosionandsedimenttransport,especiallyrelatedtocanals,slope
stability(andnaturalhazards),waterquality,coastalenvironmentalmanagement,transportofcontaminants,and
streamrestoration.Glacierscancauseextensiveerosionanddepositioninashortperiodoftime,makingthem
extremelyimportantentitiesinthehighlatitudesandmeaningthattheysettheconditionsintheheadwatersof
mountainbornstreamsglaciologythereforeisimportantingeomorphology.

Seealso
Bioerosion
Biogeology
Biogeomorphology
Biorhexistasy
Coastalbiogeomorphology
Coastalerosion
Drainagesystem(Geomorphology)
Erosionprediction
Geologicmodelling
Geomorphometry
Geotechnics
Hack'slaw
Hydrologicmodeling,behavioralmodelinginhydrology
Orogeny
Physiographicregionsoftheworld
Sedimenttransport
Soilmorphology
Soilsretrogressionanddegradation
Streamcapture
Thermochronology
Listofimportantpublicationsingeology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology

TheFergusonSlideisanactive
landslideintheMercedRivercanyon
onCaliforniaStateHighway140,a
primaryaccessroadtoYosemite
NationalPark.

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Furtherreading
Chorley,RichardJ.StanleyAlfredSchummDavidE.Sugden(1985).Geomorphology.London:Methuen.ISBN0416325904.
CommitteeonChallengesandOpportunitiesinEarthSurfaceProcesses,NationalResearchCouncil(2010).LandscapesontheEdge:New
HorizonsforResearchonEarth'sSurface.Washington,DC:NationalAcademiesPress.ISBN0309140242.
Edmaier,Bernhard(2004).Earthsong.London:PhaidonPress.ISBN0714844519.
Kondolf,G.MathiasHervPigay(2003).Toolsinfluvialgeomorphology.NewYork:Wiley.ISBN047149142X.
Kuenzer,ClaudiaStracher,GlennB.(2012)."GeomorphologyofCoalSeamFires".Geomorphology138(1):209222.
Bibcode:2012Geomo.138..209K(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Geomo.138..209K).doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.09.004
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geomorph.2011.09.004).
Needham,Joseph(1954).ScienceandcivilisationinChina.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521058015.
Scheidegger,AdrianE.(2004).Morphotectonics.Berlin:Springer.ISBN3540200177.
Selby,MichaelJohn(1985).Earth'schangingsurface:anintroductiontogeomorphology.Oxford:ClarendonPress.ISBN0198232527.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology

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GeomorphologyWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Charlton,Ro(2008).Fundamentalsoffluvialgeomorphology.London,UK:Rutledge.ISBN9780415334549.

Externallinks
TheGeographicalCycle,ortheCycleofErosion(1899)
(http://ugb.org.br/home/artigos/classicos/Davis_1899.pdf)
GeomorphologyfromSpace(NASA)(http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/index.shtml)

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