History

A container ship being loaded by a portainer crane in Copenhagen Harbour

Twistlocks which capture and constrain containers. Forklifts designed to handle

containers have similar devices.

The introduction of containers resulted in vast improvements in port handling efficiency,

thus lowering costs and helping lower freight charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows.
[citation needed]
Almost every manufactured product humans consume spends some time in a
[dubious – discuss]
container.

[edit] Origins

Although having its origins in the late 1780s or earlier, the global standardisation of
containers and container handling equipment was one of the important innovations in
20th century logistics.

By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be
transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were invariably small by today's
standards. Originally used for shipping coal on and off barges, 'loose boxes' were used to
containerize coal from the late 1780s, on places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the
1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoption
of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.

In the United Kingdom, several railway companies were using similar containers by the
beginning of the 20th century and in the 1920s the Railway Clearing House standardised
the RCH container. Five or ten-foot long, wooden and non-stackable, these early standard
containers were a great success but the standard remained UK-specific.

From 1926 to 1947, in the US, the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway carried
motor carrier vehicles and shippers' vehicles loaded on flatcars between Milwaukee,
Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929, Seatrain Lines carried railroad
boxcars on its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba. In the mid-
1930s, the Chicago Great Western Railway and then the New Haven Railroad began
"piggy-back" service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their
own railroads. By 1953, the CB&Q, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the Southern
Pacific railroads had joined the innovation. Most cars were surplus flatcars equipped with
new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggy-back
trailer service.

Toward the end of World War II, the United States Army began using specialized
containers to speed up the loading and unloading of transport ships. The army used the
term "transporters" to identify the containers, for shipping household goods of officers in
the field. A "Transporter" was a reusable container, 8.5 feet (2.6 m) long, 6.25 feet
(1.91 m) wide, and 6.83 feet (2.08 m) high, made of rigid steel with a carrying capacity of
9,000 pounds. During the Korean War the transporter was evaluated for handling
sensitive military equipment, and proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft
of material and damage to wooden crates, in addition to handling time, by stevedores at
the Port of Pusan,[citation needed] proved to the army that steel containers were needed. In 1952
the army began using the term CONEX, short for "Container Express". The first major
shipment of CONEXes (containing engineering supplies and spare parts) were shipped by
rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the Port of San Francisco, then by
ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952. Shipment times were cut
almost in half. By the time of the Vietnam War the majority of supplies and materials
were shipped with the CONEX. After the U.S. Department of Defense standardized an
8'×8' cross section container in multiples of 10' lengths for military use it was rapidly
adopted for shipping purposes.[1][2]

These standards were adopted in the United Kingdom for containers and rapidly
displaced the older wooden containers in the 1950s.[citation needed]

Even the railways of the USSR had their own small containers. [3]

[edit] Purpose-built ships

Containers waiting at the South Korean port of Busan.

Main article: Container ship

The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began operation in Denmark in 1951.
In the U.S. ships began carrying containers between Seattle and Alaska in 1951. The
world's first truly intermodal container system used the purpose-built container ship the
Clifford J. Rodgers, built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon
Route. Its first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia
and Skagway, Alaska, on November 26, 1955; in Skagway, the containers were unloaded
to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to the Yukon, in the first intermodal
service using trucks, ships and railroad cars. Southbound containers were loaded by
shippers in the Yukon, moved by rail, ship and truck, to their consignees, without
opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 for many years.

The U.S. container shipping industry dates to April 26, 1956, when trucking entrepreneur
Malcom McLean put 58 containers aboard a refitted tanker ship, the Ideal-X, and sailed
them from Newark to Houston.[4] What was new in the USA about McLean's innovation
was the idea of using large containers that were never opened in transit between shipper
and consignee and that were transferable on an intermodal basis, among trucks, ships and
railroad cars. McLean had initially favored the construction of "trailerships"—taking
trailers from large trucks and stowing them in a ship’s cargo hold. This method of
stowage, referred to as roll-on/roll-off, was not adopted because of the large waste in
potential cargo space onboard the vessel, known as broken stowage. Instead, he modified
his original concept into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the ships, hence
the designation container ship or "box" ship.[5][6] (See also pantechnicon van and trolley
and lift van.)

[edit] Towards standards

During the first twenty years of growth containerization meant using completely
different, and incompatible, container sizes and corner fittings from one country to
another. There were dozens of incompatible container systems in the U.S. alone. Among
the biggest operators, the Matson Navigation Company had a fleet of 24-foot (7.3 m)
containers while Sea-Land Service, Inc used 35-foot (11 m) containers. The standard
sizes and fitting and reinforcement norms that exist now evolved out of a series of
compromises among international shipping companies, European railroads, U.S.
railroads, and U.S. trucking companies. Four important ISO (International Organization
for Standardization) recommendations standardised containerisation globally[7]

• January 1968: R-668 defined the terminology, dimensions and ratings

• July 1968: R-790 defined the identification markings
• January 1970: R-1161 made recommendations about corner fittings
• October 1970: R-1897 set out the minimum internal dimensions of general
purpose freight containers

In the United States, the Interstate Commerce Commission was created in 1887 to keep
railroads from using monopolist pricing and rate discrimination on customers, especially
rural Western farmers, but fell victim to regulatory capture, and by the 1960s, before any
shipper could carry different items in the same vehicle, or change rates, the shipper had to
have ICC approval, which impeded containerization and other advances in shipping. The
United States' present fully integrated systems became possible only after the ICC's
regulatory oversight was cut back (and later abolished in 1995), trucking and rail were
deregulated in the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.[8]

[edit] Today

A converted container used as an office at a building site.

Containerization has revolutionized cargo shipping. Today, approximately 90% of non-

bulk cargo worldwide moves by containers stacked on transport ships [9]; 26% of all
containers originate from China.[citation needed] As of 2005, some 18 million total containers
make over 200 million trips per year. There are ships that can carry over 14,500 twenty-
foot equivalent units (TEU), for example the Emma Mærsk, 396 m long, launched August
2006. It has even been predicted that, at some point, container ships will be constrained in
size only by the depth of the Straits of Malacca—one of the world's busiest shipping
lanes—linking the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. This so-called Malaccamax size
constrains a ship to dimensions of 470 m in length and 60 m wide (1542 feet by 197 feet).
[6]

However, few initially foresaw the extent of the influence containerization would bring to
the shipping industry. In the 1950s, Harvard University economist Benjamin Chinitz
predicted that containerization would benefit New York by allowing it to ship industrial
goods produced there more cheaply to the Southern United States than other areas, but
did not anticipate that containerization might make it cheaper to import such goods from
abroad. Most economic studies of containerization merely assumed that shipping
companies would begin to replace older forms of transportation with containerization, but
did not predict that the process of containerization itself would have some influence on
producers and the extent of trading.[6]

The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-
moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the
standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and
changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into ISO containers or
into commercial vehicles.
Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not
visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the
containers are generally sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the
"falling off the truck" syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry.

Use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems
caused by incompatible rail gauge sizes in different countries. The majority of the rail
networks in the world operate on a 1,435 mm (4 ft 81⁄2 in) gauge track known as standard
gauge but many countries (such as Russia, India, Finland, and Spain) use broader gauges
while many other countries in Africa and South America use narrower gauges on their
networks. The use of container trains in all these countries makes trans-shipment between
different gauge trains easier.

[edit] ISO standard

[edit] Shipping container

Main article: Intermodal freight shipping container

There are five common standard lengths, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2 m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-
ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States domestic standard containers are generally
48 ft (15 m) and 53-ft (rail and truck). Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-
foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). An equivalent unit is a measure of
containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (length) × 8 ft (width) container.
As this is an approximate measure, the height of the box is not considered, for instance
the 9 ft 6 in (2.9 m) High cube and the 4-ft 3-in (1.3 m) half height 20 ft (6.1 m)
containers are also called one TEU.

The maximum gross mass for a 20 ft (6.1 m) dry cargo container is 30,480 kg, and for a
40-ft (including the 2.87 m (9 ft 6 in) high cube container), it is 34,000 kg. Allowing for
the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced to
approximately 28,380 kg for 20 ft (6.1 m), and 30,100 kg for 40 ft (12 m) containers.[10]

The original choice of 8 foot height for ISO containers was made in part to suit a large
proportion of railway tunnels, though some had to be deepened. With the arrival of even
taller containers, further enlargement is proving necessary. [11]

[edit] Air freight containers

A number of LD-designation Unit Load Device containers
Main article: Unit Load Device

While major airlines use containers that are custom designed for their aircraft and
associated ground handling equipment the IATA has created a set of standard container
sizes, the LD-designation sizes are shown below:

Width Height Depth Base Max load Max load

Designation Shape
(in) (in) (in) (In) (lb) (kg)
LD-1 92.0 64.0 60.4 61.5 3500 ~1588 Type A
LD-2 61.5 64.0 47.0 61.5 2700 ~1225 Type A
LD-3 79.0 64.0 60.4 61.5 3500 ~1588 Type A
LD-4 96.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 5400 ~2449 Rectangular
LD-5 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Rectangular
LD-6 160.0 64.0 60.4 125.0 7000 ~3175 Type B
Rect. or
LD-7 125.0 64.0 80.0 n/a 13300 ~6033
Contoured
LD-8 125.0 64.0 60.4 96.0 5400 ~2449 Type B
Rect. or
LD-9 125.0 64.0 80.0 n/a 13300 ~6033
Contoured
LD-10 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Contoured
LD-11 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Rectangular
LD-29 186.0 64.0 88.0 125.0 13300 ~6033 Type B

LD-1, -2, -3, -4, and -8 are those most widely used, together with the rectangular M3
containers.

[edit] Load Securing in containers

Application in
Polyester Strapping and Dunnage Bag Polyester Lashing
container
 application Application

There are many different ways and materials available to stabilize and secure cargo in
containers used in all modes of transportation. Conventional Load Securing methods and
materials such as steel banding and wood blocking & bracing have been around for
decades and are still widely used. Present Load Securing methods offer several, relatively
new and unknown options that have become available through innovation and
technological advancement including polyester strapping and -lashing, synthetic
webbings and Dunnage Bags, also known as air bags or inflatable bags.

[edit] Issues
[edit] Increased efficiency

Although there have been few direct correlations made between containers and job
losses, there are a number of texts associating job losses at least in part with
containerization. A 1998 study of post-containerization employment at United States
ports found that container cargo could be moved nearly twenty times faster than pre-
container break bulk.[12] The new system of shipping also allowed for freight
consolidating jobs to move from the waterfront to points far inland, which also decreased
the number of waterfront jobs.

[edit] Additional fuel costs

Containerisation increases the fuel costs of transport and reduces the capacity of the
transport as the container itself must be shipped around not just the goods. For certain
bulk products this makes containerisation unattractive. For most goods the increased fuel
costs and decreased transport efficiencies are currently more than offset by the handling
savings.[citation needed] On railway the capacity of the container is far from its maximum
weight capacity, and the weight of a railcar must be transported with not so much goods.
In some areas (mostly USA and Canada) containers are double stacked, but this is usually
not possible in other countries.

[edit] Hazards

Containers have been used to smuggle contraband. The vast majority of containers are
never subjected to scrutiny due to the large number of containers in use. In recent years
there have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or
terrorist materials into a country undetected. The U.S. government has advanced the
Container Security Initiative (CSI), intended to ensure that high-risk cargo is examined or
scanned, preferably at the port of departure.

[edit] Empty containers

Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new cargo for new
destination soon after having emptied of previous cargo. This is not always possible, and
in some cases, the cost of transporting an empty container to a place where it can be used
is considered to be higher than the worth of the used container. Shipping lines and
Container Leasing Companies have become expert at repositioning empty containers
from areas of low or no demand, such as US West Coast, to areas of high demand such as
China. However, damaged or retired containers may also be recycled in the form of
shipping container architecture, or the steel content salvaged.

[edit] Loss at sea

Containers occasionally fall from the ships that carry them, usually during storms; it is
estimated that over 10,000 containers are lost at sea each year.[13] For instance, on
November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks of North Carolina
USA, along with thousands of bags of its cargo of Doritos Chips. Containers lost at sea
do not necessarily sink, but seldom float very high out of the water, making them a
shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided
oceanographers with unexpected opportunities to track global ocean currents, notably a
cargo of Friendly Floatees.[14]

In 2007 the International Chamber of Shipping and the World Shipping Council began
work on a code of practice for container storage, including crew training on parametric
rolling, safer stacking and marking of containers and security for above-deck cargo in
heavy swell.[15]

[edit] Double-stack containerization

Part of a United States double-stack container train loaded with 53 ft (16.2 m) containers

A railroad car with a 20 ft tank container and a conventional 20 ft container

Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40-foot (12 m) container, but if the rail
line has been built with sufficient vertical clearance, a double-stack car can accept a
container and still leave enough clearance for another container on top. This usually
precludes operation of double-stacked wagons on lines with overhead electric wiring.
However, the Betuweroute, which was planned with overhead wiring from the start, has
been built with tunnels that do accommodate double-stacked wagons so as to keep the
option to economically rebuild the route for double stacking in the future. The overhead
wiring would then have to be changed to allow double stacking.[16] Lower than standard
size containers are run double stacked under overhead wire in China.[17]

[edit] History

• United States/ Canada/ Mexico: Southern Pacific Railroad (SP), with

Malcom McLean, came up with the idea of the first double-stack intermodal car
in 1977.[5][18] SP then designed the first car with ACF Industries that same year.[19]
[20]
At first it was slow to become an industry standard, then in 1984 American
President Lines, started working with the SP and that same year, the first all
"double stack" train left Los Angeles, California for South Kearny, New Jersey,
under the name of "Stacktrain" rail service. Along the way the train transferred
from the SP to Conrail. It saved shippers money and now accounts for almost 70
percent of intermodal freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due
to the generous vertical clearances used by U.S. railroads. These lines are diesel
operated with no overhead wiring.
• Australia: Double stacking is also used in Australia between Adelaide,
Parkes, Perth and Darwin. These are diesel only lines with no overhead wiring.
• India: Double stacking in India is used for selected freight-only lines, on
electrified lines with specially high overhead wiring.
• China: using double stacked container trains under 25kV AC overhead lines.

[edit] Wagons
Railways have flat wagons and gondola (rail) wagons that can hold 40' ISO containers.

Narrow gauge railways of 610 mm (2 ft) gauge have smaller wagons that do not readily
carry ISO containers, such as the 30' long and 7' wide wagons of the Kalka-Shimla
Railway. Wider narrow gauge railways of e.g. 1,000 mm (3 ft 33⁄8 in) gauge can take ISO
containers.

[edit] Other uses for containers

Shipping container architecture is the use of containers as the basis for housing and other
functional buildings for people, either as temporary housing or permanent, and either as a
main building or as a cabin or workshop. Containers can also be used as sheds or storage
areas in industry and commerce.

Containers are also beginning to be used to house computer data centers, although these
are normally specialized containers. Sun Microsystems was one of the first to do this with
their Sun Modular Datacenter; Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Performance
Optimized Datacenter (or POD).

[edit] Companies
[edit] Biggest ISO container companies

Top 10 container shipping companies in order of TEU capacity, 17 August 2009

Company TEU capacity[21] Number of ships
A.P. Moller-Maersk Group 2,022,956 539
Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A. 1,517,200 409
CMA CGM 1,023,208 365
Evergreen Marine Corporation 594,154 162
American President Lines 531,865 135
Hapag-Lloyd 475,282 120
COSCO 469,848 146
China Shipping Container Lines 449,469 139
NYK Line 412,711 109
Hanjin Shipping 406,462 90

[edit] Other container systems

Some other container systems are:

• PODS (container) (US, Canada, Australia)

• Haus-zu-Haus (Germany)
• RACE (container) (Australia)
• Hellenic Container Transport Ltd (Greece)
• SECU (container) (Sweden, Finland, UK)
• ARKAS(container) (Turkey)

[edit] International
Before the International Standard Container appeared, various countries had their own
containers. These containers were generally small, and not able to be stacked one upon
another. Clearly the idea of containerisation is not new, though the implementation of the
ISO container was much better done.

[edit] Australia

• Less than Car Load (LCL) [22]

[edit] Germany

• Von Haus zu Haus (from House to House)

[edit] BBC tracking project

Main article: The Box (BBC container)

On September 5, 2008 the BBC embarked on a year-long project to study international

trade and globalization by tracking a shipping container on its journey around the world.
[23][24]

IT for shipping

Green wave was founded in 2000 with the goal to serve the shipping industry with
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terminal/depot/stevedore operators.

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We are specialized in the development of customized database-driven web-based
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Web presentation
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