Flank Modifications in Bevel Gears

Using a Universal Motion Concept

- UMC by Dr. Hermann J. Stadtfeld
Vice President, Research & Development, The Gleason Works

Originated:
Revised:

June, 1994
October, 1999

The Gleason Works

________________________________________________________________________
1000 University Avenue
P.O. Box 22970
Rochester, New York USA 14692-2970

Flank Modifications in Bevel Gears

Using a Universal Motion Concept - UMC
Dr. Hermann J. Stadtfeld
Vice President Research & Development, The Gleason Works

1.

Introduction

The development of free-form gear cutting machines was originally based on the idea of
designing a machine with a minimal number of freedoms that would allow applicating all the
existing bevel gear cutting processes with face cutters. This included single-index applications
as well as continuous processes (face milling and face hobbing).
The design concept of a six-axis free-form machine met the challenge of today's sophisticated
controller and electronic drive technology. A tool can take up any position in space, relative to a
workpiece, using only three translatory and three rotational degrees of freedom. This fact
fulfilled the basic requirement of a free-form machine, namely to provide the relative movement
of a cutter (in space) to a workpiece necessary to produce a bevel gear. The basic design of a
free-form bevel gear cutting machine is shown in Figure 1.
The simplicity of the concept in Figure 1 eliminates the complex elements of the traditional gear
cutting machine. Except for the swinging base pivoting around the machine center, there is no
similarity to the traditional cradle-style machine. Geometrical conditions and kinematic
processes of the cradle-style machine are transformed into the motion processes of the freeform machine in such a way that an exactly identical tooth flank geometry is produced. This
needs complex transformation calculations [1]. The resulting gear cutting process is completely
identical, employing the same process parameters and the same cutting tools.
For the convenience of the designer and manufacturer of gearing familiar with the traditional
machines, an operator interface for data input into the controller was developed, featuring
settings identical to the cradle-style machine. This way, an angle for cutter tilt or eccentric can
be entered into the controller, even though these elements are not physically present. Another
benefit of this convention is the fact that only about eight numerical values are necessary to
exactly define the complex motions of a free-form machine. This indicates the extraordinary
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importance of the so-called "basic (machine) setup data" each of which is relevant in the theory
of gearing.

Figure 1: Concept of the free-form bevel gear machine

An extension of the free-form machine, which had proved to be well suited for all currently
known processes, was to utilize it further for developing innovative tooth flank corrections.
Considering individual axes of the free-form machine showed that seperate axis motions were
not appropriate for significant gear geometry improvements.
The influence of corrective motion of a specific axis on the tooth form continuously changes
during the generating process. This condition made it necessary to activate a combination
of motion freedoms at all times, in order to achieve a useful effect on the tooth flank. To avoid
having to "cram" the machine controller with three or more polynominals for correction, the
relationship between three or more axes was combined to a corrective effect, addressed by
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one higher-order poly-nominal (e. g. radial tilt [2]). This approach, being only partly acceptable
with respect to gear theory, lead to a series of problems.
As, for the purpose of analysis and optimization, tooth flank surfaces must be generated by
calculation, a virtual gear cutting machine concept exists as computer software, modelled after
a basic gear cutting machine. This model possesses all the degrees of freedom of a traditional
cradle-style gear cutting machine, the motions of the real machine being simulated by
computer. This allows the calculation of discrete flank surface points for use in tooth contact
analysis, coordinate measurement and finite-element calculation.
When corrections are combined, the virtual basic machine - just like the real gear cutting
machine - has to activate a combination of several axes according to a mathematical principle
with only a single polynominal. Therefore, the object is no longer a mere basic machine without
machine constants, where the axes are only theoretically relevant. Auxiliary axes must be
defined and formal relationships must be programmed.
An idea of correction and optimization cannot be limited to the correction program itself, but
must be extended to the flank generation program and the machine controller software, as well.
Likewise, any improvements, changes or additions are not limited to the correction program,
but also call for an update of the flank generating software and the machine controller software.
This can cause logistics problems and has only limited potential for the requirements of gearing
theory.

2.

Finding a Model for Correction

When looking for a suitable model to optimize and correct bevel gear tooth flanks, one can
easily come to the conclusion that kinematic processes are involved rather than geometrical
ones. All geometrical grades of freedom have been utilized in the traditional gear cutting
machine. The question whether there may be other geometrical changes allowing new, still
unknown corrections to be realized with the axes of the traditional cradle-style machine, must
be answered: no. This is because the traditional cradle-style machine is designed after the
coordinate system used for defining gear geometry in which all development calculations are
made.

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All geometrically relevant degrees of freedom can be addressed in this coordinate system which is why the real machine was built after it and remained almost unchanged for more than
half a century. This fact indicates that the search for new degrees of freedom, with respect to
the known coordinate system, points to a kinematic solution.
On the other hand, all geometrical parameters of classical gear cutting theory are transposed
by cradle roll into kinematic motions in the free-form machine. When a geometrical setting value
of the traditional machine becomes a motion sequence of five to six axes in the free-form
machine, a traditional machine's kinematic sequence changes into one overlying another
kinematic motion sequence, in a vector space. The vector aspect becomes important, as in the
free-form machine, the classical coordinate system is continuously moving, changing its
location and orientation. That means that, for instance, a modified movement of the sliding
base (helical motion) in the free-form machine is not oriented lengthwise to the machine frame,
but is skew in space and changes its direction continuously.
It is evident from the above that new correction effects will always be of kinematic nature and
that they are already available in a free-form machine, without additional mechanical elements.
The last paragraph makes clear that the coordinate system of the free-form machine does not
offer a mathematically elegant possibility to calculate corrections relevant to tooth geometry.
The solution to this problem is most simple. The best basis of all bevel gear geometry
calculation is the basic model shown in Figure 2. The model includes the work axis Z1,2 with the
virtual work gear and the tool representing a tooth of the virtual mating gear, rotating around its
axis Y4,5 (generating cradle axis). This fact will remain to be important even in alternative flank
geometries, because the final product will still be a gear rotating around its axis, meshing with a
mating gear. Significant correction effects, which are only possible with free-form machines,
must be translatory and rotational changes of the coordinate axes of the basic gear cutting
machine model during generation of the tooth form.

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Figure 2: Virtual basic gear cutting machine with its setting parameters

Figuratively speaking, this means changing all machine settings of a cradle-style machine
during the generating process - which would not have been possible in a traditional machine,
without a realistic effort. The calculation effort, however, is small. After converting the basic
machine geometry and kinematics into motion coordinates of a free-form machine, it is
possible to manufacture an advanced, optimized tooth form, without additional effort, in the
same cutting time and with the same precision as a traditional gear.
These considerations and the statements made in the following paragraphs are equally
applicable to single-index and continuous processes, for cutting and grinding.

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3.

Kinematic Correction Mechanisms

The aspects discussed above lead to the so-called Universal Motion Concept (UMC). It means
an extension of the existing calculation methods for gearing by eight kinematic correction
mechanisms. Two of these are already available, when considering the modifications of the
generating roll (Modified Roll) and of motion in direction of the generating gear axis (Helical
Motion). Six further mechanisms are therefore necessary to accomplish basic setting changes
in the model machine, depending on a leading parameter.
In the superior correction concept, the possibility to change a combination of all setting
parameters is most important. When designing the software, fourth-order polynominals were
used, to achieve a change of each machine setting, as a function of the roll angle. Any higherorder or trigonometric functions could also be used, but have so far proved not to be necessary.
The formulas for UMC motions are shown below. The geometrical meaning of the parameters
is evident from Figure 2.
S

S0 + S 1 + S 2 2 + S 3 3 + S 4 4

Pi

Pi0 + Pi1 + Pi2 2 + Pi3 3 + Pi4 4

Pj

Pj0 + Pj1 + Pj2 2 + Pj3 3 + Pj4 4

Em

Xb

Xp

Ra

0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4
Em0 + Em1 + Em2 2 + Em3 3 + Em4 4
Xb0 + Xb1 + Xb2 2 + Xb3 3 + Xb4 4
Xp0 + Xp1 + Xp2 2 + Xp3 3 + Xp4 4
Ra0 + Ra1 + Ra2 2 + Ra3 3 + Ra4 4

where:
S...
Pj...
Xb...
...
...

cutter radial setting;

orientation of tilt;
work base setting;
machine root angle;
roll position

Pi...
Em...
Xp...
Ra...

cutter tilt
axis offset in the machine
machine center-to-back setting
ratio of roll

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One problem in realizing the UMC correction concept was the computer simulation of the
cutting process which is necessary before the first advanced corrected gearing is
manufactured. For computer tooth contact analysis, finite-element calculation or for providing a
master gear for coordinate measurement, the theoretical flank surface is required. This must be
described by discrete points and normals in a Cartesian coordinate system.

Figure 3: Configuration generating gear - work gear for solving the gearing law

The most elegant solution for calculating the theoretical flanks is the application of the law of
gearing in the basic gear cutting machine model. A point of a defined cutting edge generates a
point and a normal on the generating gear flank. The arrangement of the generating gear to the
work as well as their ratio (Figure 3) allow the solution of the gearing law (and therefore, a point
and a normal of the work flank is found). The analytical solution of the gearing law is not singlevalued. One of the solutions represents a point on an external tooth, another one a point on the
mating internal tooth. Two other solutions are either double solutions or an invalid complex
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solution. A single-valued solution of the law of gearing is possible with the vector representation
of the gearing problem.
In order to generate flank surfaces to be created by means of UMC motions, the vector
approach was chosen. In all gear cutting methods widely used today, a limited solution of the
gearing law was sufficient. In order to accommodate the additional UMC motions, a completely
general formula had to be found for the vector approach. Apart from the rotation of the
generating gear = 3 and the work 2, the rotation of the shaft angle and the translatory
movement along the three axes TX, TZ2 and TZ3 must be considered. For the first time in
gearing calculation, a completely universal solution was found, which does not need iteration.
The vector (X Q, YQ, ZQ) unambiguously representing the created flank point is:
XQ = - XW sin - TX cos XN + Ra ( - YW + VX YN - VZ2 sin XN)
YQ = - YW sin - TX cos YN + Ra (+ XW + V X XN + V Z2 sin YN)
ZQ = - ZW sin - TX cos ZN + Ra (

ZW - VZ3 ZN + V Z2 cos ZN)

where

XW = X P ZN - (ZP - TZ3 ) YP
YW = (ZP - TZ3 ) XN - XP ZN
ZW = X P YN
- YP XN

and

(XP, YP, ZP)...

generating gear flank point
(XN, YN, ZN)... generating gear flank normal
(TX, T Z2, TZ3 )...
shaft offset vector
(VX, VZ2, VZ3)...
relative velocities of the axis

...
...

shaft angle
angular velocity of the shaft angle

UK=1/Ra...

ratio of roll

It must be noted that a part of the basic-machine parameters (tilt, orientation and radial setting)
do not have any influence on the solution of the gearing law. Their influence comes in at an
earlier stage and leads to a variation of the form of the generating gear flank. All other basicmachine parameters (offset, cone distance, set-in, shaft angle and ratio of roll) influence the
equations above and change the configuration and the speed between the generating gear and
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the work. The closed solution indicated in this paragraph enables the quick and precise
calculation of flank points. It was installed in existing calculation programs instead of the
conventional approach and was found to be successful.

4.

Theory of the Universal Free-Form Corrections

That all corrective calculations can be made in the model of the basic gear cutting machine,
familiar to all gearing experts, is quite convenient. Due to the universal motions, however, the
model assumes a kinematic character. Compared to the familiar, purely geometrical model,
one enters a new dimension. At first glance, the possibilities for changing flank form seem to be
infinite, causing the problem of too many affectable parameters. Using an iterative process,
trying to set the new kinematic parameters on the basis of a desired ease-off topography
would, indeed, not lead to a clear solution. Such an algorithm would quickly show an unstable
reaction, as each kinematic degree of freedom, regarded individually, also has an
uncontrollable effect on tooth thickness and root line.

Figure 4: Interactive manipulation of the ease-off topography

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Just as for the geometrical corrections of first and second order, it became evident with
universal motions that particular, elaborate correction effects are required. Input to the computer
monitor is done interactively per mouse. In this way, a standard configuration (Figure 4, top)
becomes an optimized configuration, as shown in the center of Figure 4. The difference
between the original ease-off topography and its optimized version is expressed as a fourthorder polynominal.
From the first-order coefficients, setting changes for the basic machine are calculated,
according to the known geometrical correction mechanisms [3]. A great challenge of
mathematical potential are the second-order coefficients. A clever solution was found allowing
to separate the components A4, A5 and A6 in Figure 4 into lengthwise curvature, profile
curvature and generation-induced flank torsion [5]. Lengthwise and profile curvatures are
geometrical correction effects, whereas generation-induced flank torsion calls for a kinematic
correction. The coefficients of third and fourth order were also realized as purely kinematic
corrections along the path of contact.
A correction software named UMCCORR was established, including all the
necessary geometrical and kinematic effects. They are derived in a way allowing independent
modification of the ease-offs of coast and drive flanks, i.e. they are compatible to the
completing process. From the polynominal shown in Figure 4 (displayed only up to third order),
the individual effects are filtered and subsequently laid out as a cumulative correction. Table 1
shows the UMCCORR program structure.
UMCCORR
Calculation of the ease-off difference function
Separation of the first order for drive and coast flank
Filtration of the second order according to a direction strategy
Transformation of higher orders in direction of roll and profile
Consolidation of drive and coast flank corrections
Allocation of correction effects
Cumulation of geometrical and kinematic corrections
Calculation of updated basic machine settings

Table 1: Structure of UMCCORR optimization software

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It is quite remarkable how the cumulation of the known geometrical and the new kinematic
corrections offers nearly unlimited possibilities for flank manipulation. The kinematic correction
effects will be discussed in the following.
As a "correction vehicle", a kinematic triangular flank generation model is used. Figure 5
shows the initial situation for calculation which at first relates to the center of the flank and is
extended to several generating positions, in the second step. Meaningful kinematic effects are
the rotation of the tool around the flank normal, the rotation of the tool around the tangent to the
flank line and a dislocation of the tool parallel to the tangent to the profile. It is understood that
each of these vehicles of correction is associated with a combination of almost all the available
kinematic degrees of freedom.

Figure 5: Kinematic triangular correction model

A simple and equally interesting correction effect is the tangential shift of the tool along one of
the flank profiles. The underlying idea is shown in Figure 6. A vector kC is calculated for the
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center roll position in the direction of which the tool axis is shifted, in order to influence the
opposite flank. By such a shift of the tool, the lower flank in Figure 6 remains unaffected. An
equidistant stock allowance develops on the top flank in Figure 6, becoming effective along the
actual line of contact. The only side effect is a change of the root line by an amount
approximating that of the correction. As the corrections take place in the range of hundredths of
a millimeter (thousands of an inch), this change of the root line is always neglectably small.

Figure 6: Function of the kinematic correction effect SFCOR

The vector kC is calculated from the rotations (, , ) which are necessary to provide it with
the direction of the tangent to the profile in the initial position, Y' in Figure 5. The equation for kC
in Figure 6 shows only the spiral angle to be a parameter depending on roll. To make

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SFCOR function more perfectly, further roll positions may be observed which are used to
address coefficients of function f ( ).
The correction as such is effected by addressing the polynominal coefficients C1 thru C4 of
function f( ). The tool is shifted during the generating roll on the vector by the amount kC f ( )
f( ). Therefore, the tool position vector E X changes to:

EX,kin = E X + kC f ( ) f( )
and the amount of correction on the mating flank is derived from:
Correction amount = f( ) sin ( 1 + 2)
= [C 1 + C 2 2 + C 3 3 + C 4 4] sin ( 1 + 2)

Figure 7: Results of sample calculations with the SFCOR correction effect

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Tests have shown that the SFCOR correction is perfectly suitable for the completing process.
Figure 7 shows the application of the corrections on a conjugated specimen gear where both
ease-offs are "zero surfaces" (Figure 7, top). The geometrical basic machine set-up for all four
rows shown is identical, only the polynominal coefficients of the eight "basic settings" have
been assigned differently. The second row in Figure 7 emerged with correction address no. 2
(for concave flank of pinion) and assigning the first-order coefficient C1. Using the same
correction address, only coefficient C2 was assigned in the third row and only coefficient C3 in
the fourth row.
Comparison of the coast flank ease-offs proves that, even when drive flank changes are
enormous, the distorting influences on the non-corrected flank are completely neglectable or not
even present. Because manipulations of the convex and the concave flanks are independent of
each other, any parts of the corrections shown in Figure 7 may be realized on both flanks.
For practical purposes, the manipulation of flank surfaces with SFCOR offers undreamed-of
possibilities never before realizable. The contact line curvature mentioned in the "Handbook of
Bevel and Hypoid Gears" [5], which was named "Litvin correction" after its discoverer, Faydor
L. Litvin, could only be achieved, so far, with the older rather uneconomical five-cut method. As
this correction is based on a change of cutter radius between 5 and 10 mm ( and inch), its
realization with standard cutting tools was only possible, in special cases.
The correction program UMCCORR allows the complete conversion of an existing lengthwise
curvature into a contact-line curvature. In gears cut by single-index completing reaching the
pressure angle limits with cutter tilt, before the contact pattern has its desired length, this
correction can be used for lengthening the pattern. It can also be the basis of an elaborate
optimization process for sophisticated gear geometry. An example for the conversion of a pure
lengthwise curvature into a pure Litvin correction is shown in Figure 8.
By interactive input (Figure 4), the ease-off at the entrance and the exit points are suppressed
to zero. The correction program will then calculate assignment of the polynominal coefficients
C1 thru C4, turning the ease-off shown in Figure 8, top into that shown in the center.

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The proof of successful conversion is in the transmission error plotted at the bottom of Figure
8. The contact line curvature does not have any effect in the direction of the path of contact and
therefore does not display any transmission error.

Figure 8: Conversion of lengthwise curvature into a pure contact line curvature

The SFCOR properties allow any equidistant correction along the generating path.
Superimposing tool rotation relative to the specific point of the generated tooth trace (FTCOR)
on this flank correction even allows generation of a cycloidal tooth form. For the first time in the
history of gear cutting, this allows true form-grinding using single indexing, of gears cut by the
continuous method.

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5.

Independent Optimization of Different Flank Areas

In order to provide the universal motion concept for free-form gear cutting machines with
sufficient degrees of freedom for future optimization ideas, each flank can be divided into three
separate areas. The kinematic basic settings of each area were defined separately, so they
can have different values. This way, each of the three can be optimized separately. The only
limitation is a smooth transition between these areas to ensure impact-free rolling of the gears.

Figure 9: Approach correction and ENDREM by three different correction areas

A practical example, how this property can be used successfully, is shown in Figure 9. The
ease-off topographies of a conveniently designed gear pair are shown in Figure 9, top. Without
changing the central flank area, an entrance correction at the heel could be applied on the coast
side (Figure 9, bottom left) and on the drive side, a considerable end relief (ENDREM) could
be made (Figure 9, bottom right). By dividing the flank into three areas, the fourth-order
polynominals can be used with three different assigments. This does not only add the
convenience of utilizing a considerably higher function, e.g. of twelfth order, but also eliminates
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instabilities causing vibration. An eigth-order polynominal already possesses five inflection

points causing three and a half harmonic waves in the m (.000040 inch) range. The periodicity
of this unintended harmonic modification may lead to an audible stimulation with 3.5 times the
tooth mesh frequency.

6.

Summary

The potential of free-form machines was recognized comparatively early. The basic fact,
however, that the six degrees of freedom available could be used to obtain any desired
movement in space was not yet a conclusive basis for flank corrections and optimization.
Compared to the optimization efforts "of the first hour", the idea discussed in this paper is a
milestone in gear correction mathematics, just as the free-form machine necessary to put these
ideas into use was a milestone in machine-tool building.
The starting point is a basic gear cutting machine following the classical design, all the settings
of which are changeable depending on generation angle ("the living settings"). As each setting
parameter has a significance for gear theory, the variation of these values during the generating
process is also significant.
Like the geometrical correction ideas which always need a combination of several machine
setting values to produce a "pure correction effect", e.g. change of the pressure angle, the
kinematic correction effects are a combination of several motions.
To date, a total of three combined correction effects have been derived and programmed. The
first effect, SFCOR was completely explained already. The second one, FTCOR rotates the
work gear and the tool relative to each other around the tangent to the flank in the specific point
of the generated tooth trace (Figure 5). The third effect is named FNCOR. It allows a relative
rotation between work gear and tool around the flank normal which can be utilized as end relief
(ENDREM).

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The kinematically optimized gear with a flank form derived from minimizing the meshing thrust
is described in detail in the "Handbook of Bevel and Hypoid Gears" [5]. Figure 10 shows in the
top section how the ease-off topography can be "put together" using only the two elements of
contact-line curvature and of higher-order lengthwise curvature. When trying to realize such
optimized geometries, one soon reached the limitations of gear cutting machinery or correction
calculation methods.
The compromise was the implementation of a multiple-cut method. By means of UMC,
kinematically optimized geometries according to Figure 10 can be realized with the completing
process, without compromise. The necessary basic elements were presented in Figure 8.

Figure 10: Strategy of kinematic optimization of a bevel gear set

There is almost no limitation to finding new flank optimization ideas, in the future. The goal of
the UMC correction concept was to create the calculation basis for bevel gear experts' future
work. The success evident from the first development stages show that this future has already
begun.

7.

Literature
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[1] Goldrich, R. N.

Theory of Six Axes CNC Generation of Spiral Bevel and Hypoid Gears
AGMA Fall Technical Meeting, Pittsburgh, Nov. 1989

[2] Krenzer, T. J.

The Application of Flared Cup Grinding to new Bevel Gear Tooth

Geometry, CMET, 3rd World Congress of Gearing and Power
Transmission, Paris, Feb. 1992

[3] Stadtfeld, H. J.

A Closed and Fast Solution Formulation for Practice oriented Optimization of Real Spiral Bevel and Hypoid Gear Flank Geometry
AGMA Fall Technical Meeting, Toronto, Oct. 30, 1990

[4] Knaden, M.

Optimization of Bevel Gears by Variation of the Gear Machine Settings

MSc Thesis, University of Aachen, 1985

[5] Stadtfeld, H. J.

Handbook of Bevel and Hypoid Gears - Calculation, Manufacturing, Optimization

Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, 1993

Many of the described techniques and machines, as well as many applications of special
cycles and methods are protected worldwide by patents or patent applications of The
Gleason Works. The mentioned registered trademarks of The Gleason Works are marked
as such.

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The Gleason Works

1000 University Avenue
P.O. Box 22970
Rochester, New York USA 14692-2970
(716) 473- 1000

Cat. #4319