Surface geothermal

exploration
Dr. Sandra Schumacher
Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics, Hannover

WS 2014/15
1

Geophysics

Explo
ration
Geochemistry

Remote Sensing

Minerals

Temperature

Remote Sensing

Tectonics

Geophysics

Explo
ration
Geochemistry

Remote Sensing

Isotopes

Geothermometer

CO2

Geochemistry

Geophysics

Explo
ration
Geochemistry

Remote Sensing

Magnetotellurics
Magnetics

Geophysics
Gravimetry

Seismics

TEM

Geophysics

Explo
ration
Geochemistry

Remote Sensing

How to characterise a
geothermal reservoir

Surface exploration report

Geological map
Tectonic map
Geothermal map
Resistivity maps at different depths
Bouguer gravity map
Magnetic map
Map showing lateral distribution of
seismicity
Heat flow and soil temperature maps
10

Aims of report

Likely temperature of the reservoir fluids

Likely heat sources
Likely flow pattern of reservoir fluids
Likely geological structure of the reservoir
rocks
Likely volume of abnormally hot rocks
Likely total natural heat loss
A conceptual model of the geothermal
system
11

Aim
To collect enough information to prevent
expensive failures, e.g.:
Drilling boreholes without sufficient yield
current conditions
Investing in a plant, which after a few years
loses output rapidly
prognosis

12

What do we need?
Information about:
Temperatures
Reservoir depth
Permeability / Transmissivity
Rock type / rock strenght
Stress field
Geochemistry

13

Where to start?
Temperatures are fixed,
permeability/transmissivity can be
engineered (to a certain extent)
Temperatures are the most
important factor (for Enhanced
Geothermal Systems)

14

Volcanic system and its indicators

(van der Meer et al., 2014)

15

Direct indicators
Surface features
Caldera structures
Hot springs
Steaming ground
Fumaroles
Faults, lineaments

Mineral assemblage

16

Indirect indicators
Surface temperature variations
Heat sources
Heat flux

Surface deformation
Microseismicity
Changes in vegetation

17

Remote
sensing
18

Remote sensing
Uses electromagnetic (EM) radiation
Wavelengths: 0.4 m to 1 m
Sensors:
Airborne: planes, helicopters, balloons, etc.
Space-bound: satellites, rockets, etc.
Ground-based: hydraulic platforms and handheld instruments (for ground truth)

19

Basics
Each object reflects, emits and absorbs
EM radiation
Using more than
one wavelenght
discrimination
possible

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

20

Advantages
Synoptic overview: regional features and
trends
Feasibility: also possible in remote areas
Time saving: information about large area
in short time
Multidisciplinary applications: one
measurement, many uses

21

Limitations
Low penetration depth: < 1 mm to several
meters (in dry desert conditions)
High cost of satellite data
BUT: (e.g.: free data of Landsat TM and ETM)

Expensive software
BUT: free software (e.g.: ILWIS)

22

Different wavelengths

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

23

Techniques
Active:
using radar (microwave)
Passive: using
Solar radiation (ultraviolet visible nearinfrared)
Earth-emitted radiation (3 20 m region,
called thermal infrared)

24

Atmospheric interactions
Raleigh scattering: haze and low-contrast
pictures in UV-blue parts
Absorption by e.g. H2O-vapour, CO2, O3,
etc.: blocking of signals
Region of less absorption: atmospheric
windows

25

Sensor systems

26

Photographic systems
Line scanning systems
Digital cameras
Imaging radar systems

Photographic systems

Good geometric accurancy

High resolution
Limited spectral range
Colour infrared film (CIR) most important
Standard: air-borne, vertical shots with
overlap of 70 75 % for stereo viewing
Scales: 1:20,000 1:50,000

27

Line-Scanning Systems
Give digital data on intensity
of ground radiance
Radiance from each cell
collected, integrated by
system
brightness
value/digital number per
pixel
OM or CCD systems

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

28

Opto-mechanical (OM) scanners

Used air-borne or space-borne
Visible to thermal infrared
Moving plane mirror refelcts radiation
onto filter and detector assembly
Typical: MSS, TM and ETM+ on Landsats

29

Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) scanners

No moving parts
Detectors: photoconductors
Linear array of CCDs with > 1000
elements at focal plane of camera
Array converts radiation into electrical
signals
One array per spectral band
Satellite sensors e.g. SPOT-HRV, IRS-LISS
30

Digital cameras
Using CCDs or CMOSs instead of film
Digital output, fast processing, higher
sensitivity, better image radiometry,
higher geometric fidelity, lower costs
Limited usability from visible to near-IR
Satellite sensors e.g. IKONOS,CARTOSAT

31

Imaging Radar System

Side-looking Airborne
Radar (SLAR)
Radar transmits short
microwave pulses,
back-scatter from
ground recorded
Night, fog, rain, snow
less problematic than
for photographic systems
32

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

Imaging Radar System

( NASA)

33

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

Can be used by night (active system)
Advanced data processing algorithms
higher spatial resolution
Resolution: 5 - 30 m
Serious geometric distortions due to
oblique viewing
Strong shadows and look-direction effects
Satellites e.g. ENVISAT-1
34

SAR
One small antenna
with many pictures
instead of one large
with one picture
Example: in 10 km
1 m resolution:
big antenna: 300 m
small antenna: 2 m
35

( Dantor)

Radar return
Backscattered signal
Affected by:
Radar wavelength
EM beam polarization
Local incidence angle
Target surface roughness
Complex dielectric constants

Signal interpretation not trivial!

36

Satellite programs

37

LANDSAT (OM)
TERRA-ASTER
SPOT (CCD)
IRS (CCD)
FUYO (CCD)
DAICHI

Resolution

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

38

Interpretation principles
> 1 parameter used for interpretation
All parameters are interpreted together
(multispectra, stereo, etc.)
Remote sensing data are indexed clearly
(location, scale, orientation, etc.)
Ground truth is obtained

39

Ground truth

40

Rock/soil type
Geological structures
Soil moisture
Vegetation type and density
Land use
Groundwater level

Photo-interpretation elements

41

Tone
(relative brightness)
Colour
Texture
Pattern (arrangement of e.g. vegetation)
Shadow
Shape
Size
Site/association

Geotechnical elements

42

Landform
Drainage
Soil
Vegetation

Panchromatic Sensors

43

Broad-band
Visible range (0.4 0.7 m)
Higher resolution than multispectral
Image in shades of gray

Multispectral data
Total absorption: black colour
Each channel separately: shades of gray
Clouds appear bright in all channels

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

44

False colour composite (FCC)

Three channels are combined/overlain
Standard:
Green response in blue
Red response in green
NIR response in red
True colour

FCC

(Landsat 7
ETM + Bands 3,2,1)

(Landsat 7
ETM + Bands 4,3,2)
( NASA)

45

Thermal IR data
3 25 m, most important: 8 14 m
Thermal radiative properties of materials:
Surface temperature
Thermal inertia

Emissivity

Typically: a pre-dawn and a day pass

Topography shows strongly at day but not
night
46

TIR

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

47

TIR
Detection of faults or folds by:
Evaporative cooling
Spatial differences in thermal properties

Aerial: 2- 6 m; space: e.g. 90 m for ASTER

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

48

SAR
Shades of gray; higher backscatter brighter
Strong radar return by metallic objects and
corner reflections
Little return by smooth surfaces
Important for interpretation:
Terrain ruggedness
Orientation of object to look direction
Soil moisture (dielectric constant)
49

SAR

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

50

SAR
Minor details are suppressed
regional
landform studies
structural lineations
Penetration depth depends on:
Wavelength (the longer, the better)
Moisture content (less is better)
< 0.5 m for C-band
< 2.0 m for L-band

(Courtesy: ESA)

51

(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

Groundwater indicators
1. order:
Recharge zones
Discharge zones
Soil moisture and vegetation

2. order
Rock/soil type
Structures e.g. rock fractures
Landform
Drainage characteristic
52

Image selection
Small-scale images for regional setting of
landforms and structures
Large-scale images for locating actual
borehole sites
Using the right spectral bands
Considering temporal conditions (rainfall,
snow cover, vegetation, soil moisture,
etc.)
53

Temporal variations
Post-monsoon

Widespread vegetation

Pre-monsoon

Landforms (valley fills, lineaments)

are clearer
(Singhal & Gupta, 2010)

54

DEM accuracy
Shuttle radar topographic mapping
(SRTM): ~ 90 m, sometimes 30 m
Digital photogrammetry (SPOT, ASTER,
etc.): 15-40 m (ASTER), ~ 1-2 m (HRStereo systems: Cartosat, Quick-Bird,
IKONOS)
GoogleEarth: up to 1 m in flat areas
LIDAR surveys: 10-30 cm vertical
(problems due to vegetation)
55

LIDAR

( McElhanney)

Digital image
processing
57

Basics
Used for:
Image data correction
Superimposing digital image data
Enhancement
Classification

58

Processing sequence
Image correction
Registration
Superimposing images, maps, etc. with
geometric congruence

Enhancement
To make an image easier to interpret

Visual interactive interpretation

Output
59

Possible errors to be corrected

Radiometric errors and anomalies
Stripping
Bad line data
Atmospheric scattering effects

Geometric distortions
Caused e.g. by Earths rotation

60

Enhancement I
Contrast enhancement: rescaling gray levels
Linear stretch: expansion to fill the complete
range of display
Histogram equalized stretch (ramp stretch):
assigning new image values based on the
frequency of their occurence
very high
image contrast
Logarithmic stretch: useful for lower DN-range
Exponential stretch: useful for upper DN-range

61

Unequalized

Histogram equalized stretch

Equalized

( Phillip Capper)

( Jarekt)

62

Enhancement II
Edge enhancement: Object borders get
enhanced
Sharper image
Enhancing fractures, etc. overall or in a
preferred direction

Addition and subtraction: combine multiimage data pixel-wise

Addition: high contrast, general study
Subtraction: reduced contrast, change
detection
63

Enhancement III
Ratio image: dividing pixel value in one
band by pixel value in other band
Smaller effects of illumination/topography
Enhanced spectral information
Very useful for vegetation density

Colour enhancement:
Pseudo-colour: enhancing differences in a
single gray image
RGB coding: used for set of 3 images
64

Color enhancement

(NASA/JPL)

65

Pseudo-colour
Seismic data

66

Geothermally
relevant
observations
67

Possible observation themes

68

Surface deformation
Gaseous emissions
Structural analysis
Mineral mapping
Surface temperature mapping
Heat flux mapping
Geobotany

Indicators for geothermal activity

Hot springs, fumaroles

Siliceous sinter, travertine or tufa deposits
Hydrothermally altered rocks
Borate or sulfate crusts at playas
Changes in vegetation:
more at fault-controlled springs, less near
faults leaking high concentrations of gasses
such as SO2, H2S or CO2

69

Temperatures

70

Systems

(Haselwimmer et al., 2011)

71

Types of geothermal manifestions

Spring-dominated
Low energy (T < 90 C)

Vapour-dominated
Medium energy (90 C < T < 150 C)
High energy (T > 150 C)

72

Vapour-dominated
Craters of the Moon, NZ

73

Vapour-dominated
Te Puia, NZ

74

Thermal Infrared (TIR)

Rapid mapping and quantifying
Monitoring of trends
Estimates of surface heat loss (input for
models)

75

TIR
Satellite thermal sensors
Resolution: 60 90 m per pixel
Landsat or ASTER

Airborne thermal imagery

Broadband or multispectral
Wavelengths: mid (3 5 m), long (8 -14 m)
High-resolution: pixel < 5 m

Ground-based
76

SEBASS
Spatially Enhanced Broadband Array
Spectrograph System
hyperspectral airborne TIR pushbroom
sensor
128 channels at 2.55.2 m and 7.513.5
m
~ 1 m/pixel spatial resolution with a
swath width of 128 m at 915 m above
ground level (AGL)
77

MAGI

Mineral and Gas Identifier

new airborne TIR sensor
32 channel between 7.8 and 12.0 m
spatial resolution of 2 m/pixel at an
altitude of 3657 m AGL
up to 2800 pixels in the cross track
up to 5600 m swath width

78

Aim: Black-body radiance

c1
B (T )

c2
5
exp

B(T): spectral black-body radiance [W/m2/m/sr]

c1: first radiation constant for spectral radiance =
1.1911016 (Wm2/sr)
c2: second radiation constant = 1.438102 (m*K)
: wavelength (m)
79

Black-body radiance

(Wikipedia)

80

Thermal Infrared
Winter 2011

Fall 2010

(Haselwimmer et al., 2011)

81

Steamboat Springs

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

82

Albedo
reflection coefficient
albedo = reflected radiation/ incident
radiation
wavelength-dependent
trees: 0.08 - 0.18
green grass: 0.25
new concrete: 0.55
fresh snow: 0.8 - 0.9
83

Sinter terrace, Te Puia, NZ

84

Bradys Hot Springs

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

85

ASTER
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission
and Reflection Radiometer
Channels:
3 VNIR
6 SWIR
5 TIR

TIR used for emissivity and surface

temperature imagery
86

Bradys Hot Springs

ASTER data:
Corrected for atmospheric absorption
Preprocessed data:
AST07: surface reflectance
AST08: surface kinetic temperature:
radiance temperature converted to kinetic
temperature
AST07 useful for albedo corrections to AST08
AST08 available for day and night images, AST07
not
87

Kinetic temperature

2 1 2
PV nRT N [ mv ]
3 2
P: pressure
V: volume
n: amount of gas (number of moles)
R: gas constant
T: temperature
N: Boltzmann constant
m: mass
v: velocity
88

Land surface energy balance

0 Q H E G0
*

Q*: net radiation

H: sensible heat flux
E: latent heat flux
G0: soil heat flux

(convection + conduction)
(evaporation)

Integrating this equation over time can give

ground surface temperatures
Modeled temperatures compared to
measured temperatures
anomalies!
89

Things to correct for

90

Emissivity
Thermal inertia
Albedo
Topographic slope

Bradys Hot Springs

Day/night images of the same date
diurnal effects can be corrected
Albedo correction via visible and infrared
bands
Topography correction via Digital
Elevation Model (DEM)

91

Emissivity
Low emissivities reduce radiant
temperature which is measured
surfaces appear cooler
5 thermal bands measured
wavelength-dependent variations
true kinetic temperatures
Surface temperature measurements at
two sites to check AST08
92

Area image

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

93

Thermal inertia

I kc
I:
k:
:
c:

Thermal inertia
thermal conductivity
density
heat capacity

24-h mean temperatures needed to correct

for thermal inertia
94

Thermal inertia

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

95

Thermal inertia
Images at minimum and maximum
temperatures
Surface measurements used for
calibration, weighting factors for
measured temperatures at flyover times
to get mean temperature (1. approach)
Using weighting factors for images taken
to minimize the variance of combined
day/night image (2. approach)
96

Albedo / topographic slope

Q FSn FAn FGn

*

Q*: net surface heat flux

FSn: absorbed solar flux
FAn: absorbed sky radiation
FGn: re-emitted ground radiation

Difficult to solve, with several assumptions

(cloud free day, etc.), only slope matters
97

Albedo / topographic slope

Slope calculated from Digital Elevation
Model (DEM)
AST07 albedo for flat terrain and normal
atmosphere
Image brightness
affected by slope
Correction using
DEM
(Wikipedia)

98

Correction for albedo effects

VNIR

Night

Day

Final

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

99

Correction for albedo / slope / inertia

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

100

Correction for thermal inertia

Corrected
for albedo
+ slope

Corrected
for albedo
+ slope
(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

101

Final result

(Coolbaugh et al., 2007)

102

Yellowstone

(Seielstad and Queen, 2009)

103

Elevation effects on
temperature

Elevation effects
The higher the terrain, the lower the air
and surface temperature; even more so at
night
-6.5 C/km (environmental lapse rate)
During day, big T-contrast between
shaded and sunlit areas
Correction for elevation after albedo and
topographic slope effetcs removed
105

Nighttime image

(Eneva &
Coolbaugh, 2009)

106

Daytime image

(Eneva &
Coolbaugh, 2009)

107

Nighttime temperature inversions

(Eneva &
Coolbaugh, 2009)

108

Literature
109

Literature used (1)

110

Coolbaugh, M.F., C. Kratt, A. Fallacaro, W.M. Calvin, J.V. Taranik; Detection

of geothermal anomalies using Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission
and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) thermal infrared images at Bradys Hot
Springs, Nevada, USA; Remote Sensing of Environment, 106, 350-359,
2007
Eneva, M., M. Coolbaugh; Importance of Elevation and Temperature
Inversions for the Interpretation of Thermal Infrared Satellite Images Used
in Geothermal Exploration; GRC Transactions, Vol. 33, 2009
Glassley, W.E.; Geothermal Energy; CRC Press, 2010
Haselwimmer, C., A. Prakash; Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing of
Geothermal Systems, in: Kuenzer, C., Dech, S. (Eds.), Thermal Infrared
Remote Sensing, vol. 17, Spinger, Dordrecht, 453473, 2013
Singhal, B.B.S., R.P. Gupta; Applied Hydrolgeology of Fractured Rocks;
Springer, 2010

Literature used (2)

111

Van der Meer, F., C. Heckera, F. van Ruitenbeek, H. van der Werff, C. de
Wijkerslooth, C. Wechsler; Geologic remote sensing for geothermal
exploration: A review; International Journal of Applied Earth Observation
and Geoinformation, 33, 255269, 2014
Vaughan, R. G., L. P. Keszthelyi, A. G. Davies, D. J. Schneider, C. Jaworowski,
Henry Heasler; Exploring the limits of identifying sub-pixel thermal features
using ASTER TIR data; Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research,
189, 225237, 2010