Introduction

Human language processing can be viewed as human processing of

information. With the concepts of processing of options, a program, and
a processing system being necessary for any consideration of information
processing phenomena, the use of terminology associated with computer
science should not be understood as an attempt to draw close an
analogy, as natural language remains a scope of skill unmatched by
artificial intelligence. Therefore, human neurophysiology shall be the
primary area of reference for the following discussion of the role of
feedback in language behavior.

Live organisms have been observed to use DNA-encoded endowment for

growth and sustention (Young, 1984). This genetic code has been
compared to a program, where a program may be understood as a
systematic plan for an automatic solution of a problem (Webster's
Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, 1989).
Further, biological organisms can be posited to depend for activity on
development, renewal, and maintenance of own internal structures
(Young, 1984). Thus, the term problem as in the hitherto definition of a
program might be comprehended primarily as the task of homeostasis
uphold

to

require

substance

selection

environment.

12

and

exchange

within

an

The systemic selection and exchange to concern the single cell as well as
entire complex structures such as human beings, a biological program
may be exemplified by a DNA pattern for active protein production.
Importantly, even basic programs of cellular activity can be claimed to
rely on feedback for execution (Vander et al., 1985), feedback to be
defined here as returning of part the output of a system to be reintroduced
as input (Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language, 1989).

Positive and negative feedback cycles have been recognized, where the
former, also known as regenerative feedback, aids the input, whereas the
latter opposes it, hence the alternate term inverse feedback. As
elementary cellular functioning accrues into schemata that allow learned
behaviors, total and integrated patterns of human activity can be argued
to build on feedback for their formation, effectuation, and permanence.

The role of feedback in controlling automatic operations was promoted by

Norbert Wiener, who insisted that the concept of a feedback process
might be applied in neuroscience. Within the perspective, feedback
performance can be understood as a closed-loop effectiveness over openloop sequences (Puppel, 1988, 1996). The effectiveness would be of
relevance to natural language, in the working of the human nervous

13

system. Therefore, the system shall be explored for feedback phenomena

in cellular, intercellular, as well as interschematic scopes.

For a competent insight into natural language, the inquiry shall include
human communication as an interplay of aspects of intra-individual as
well as inter-individual valence. Psycholinguistics to constitute the
framework for the intended quest, feedback reliance shall be examined in
language acquisition, use, and deficit. A principled occurrence to become
affirmed in neurophysiological as well as psychological dimensions of
human existence, human dependence on feedback functions can be
acknowledged as approximate to a drive, the relevant instinct being that
for self-preservation. In this view to human information processing,
feedback would have the role of an initiating, mediating, and modeling
factor.

14

Chapter One
Neurophysiology of feedback

A perspective to human language processing as human processing of

information requires congruity with regard to the terms of a processing
system, processing of options, a program, information pool, signal
specificity, and use of feedback. The human nervous system to be the
information processing structure, this structure shall be explored
beginning

with

the

single

cell,

and

ending

with

the

intricate

connectedness of the human brain. Coherence averred in the above

terms, regularity in feedback reliance shall be assessed for a principled
phenomenon.

1. Feedback-mediated phenomena at the cellular level of human

neural structures
Positive and negative feedback processes have been evidenced in human
nervous systems already at the level of the single cell during electric
potential change. As within the ionic hypothesis by A. L. Hodgkin and A.
F. Huxley, action potential generation exemplifies positive feedback, in
the depolarizing phase (Vander et al., 1985). Alternately, the active
transport system to provide for relative intracellular stability would work
on negative feedback.

15

The basic level of the nervous system organization, cellular activity

deserves acknowledgement in functions as advanced as language.
Individual cells are indispensable to the nervous system as elemental
components. Higher processing variables, to be inclusive of speech and
language, need the deterministic manner of neural network effectuation,
neural networks to build on individually synapsing nerve cells.

Though an individual signal from a single cell is more than likely to fall
within the systemic allowance for error, human language functions can
be viewed as using processing of options, an action potential to be a
brief, all-or-none reversal in neuron polarity (Vander et al., 1985).
Perceivable language capacities not to have required action potentials
never have been averred for humans, saltatory conduction to belong with
combined synaptic effects.

M. Coles as well as P. Duncan-Jones (in Ciarkowska, 1993) stipulated for

functional aspects of biological activity to correspond for lower as well as
higher levels of the human internal hierarchy. In keeping with the
position, feedback reliance should hold true for the lowest as well as the
highest biological levels for natural language, that is, for a single neuron
as well as the language capable network schemata in the brain.
Feedback phenomena at the cellular level would belong with biological
effects, the same as active protein DNA programs, for example.

16

2. Intercellular communication: the spatio-temporal aspects of

language processing

A single neuron may link with thousands of synapses. Signals are

initiated by joined synaptic activity and launched mostly in series.
Regarding the natural neural diversity and specialization, the spatial
arrangement of synapses or cell receptors might be stated essential to
human information processing, neuron particular sites further to exhibit
varied thresholds. Second messenger extrasynaptic interaction also is
known to take place in some areas of high-density unmyelinated brain
processes, spatial adjacency thus affecting neural conveyance.

Flexibility as already in the single cell permits a multiplicity of responses,

dependent on neural signal type, as well as occurrence. The temporal
closure on interneural communication cannot be disregarded, inhibitory
and excitatory signals summating spatially as well as temporally (Vander
et al., 1985). The time interval must constitute a predictable and
henceforth meaningful variable in the neural transmission for language.
These are the grounds to posit for the actual outcome of neural
correlativity to represent a biological function of space as well as time to
an extent greater than that allowed by the theories of extrinsic timing (in
Puppel, 1988).

17

The theories approve of the temporal aspect, yet as extrinsic to the

speech plan, the temporal closure to be set on phonetic segments in the
speech act implementation phase. A major argument to the contrary may
come with the property of the nervous system constantly to show
actuation that is part preparatory in nature, diagnostic techniques as
PET-scan or MRI to specialize in discernment of the degree of cellular
engagement, and not detection of activity as such. Continual actuation
pertains with any live cell.

Neurons not participating in a specific speech plan cannot be thought

inactive, their resting state to rely on a dynamic balance between the cell
interior and exterior: even action potentials become generated during the
preparatory activity. The neural summation necessary for any speech act
would depend on feedback as a phenomenon to require a specific time
closure for operativeness.

Psycholinguistics tends to view meaning as a real-time process

(Burkhanov, 1998). Further rationale to the perspective may be sought in
derivative transformations of generative phonology (Jassem, 1987). Since
the outcome of excitation as in an isolated cell may be predicted only in
terms of statistics, these would be indeed the spatial arrangement of
neurons as well as the temporal closure on neural response to account

18

for the necessary reliability of the neural communication to conciliate

human formulation of meaning.

3. Inner dynamics at the systemic level of human internal

organization

Correlating neural units accrue into schemata and networks. Schemata

can form speech sound representations, neural networks to be essential
in speech plans (Puppel, 1992). As already emphasized, the activity is
part preparatory and is not bound to result in command execution; the
factor contributes to the difficulty in detecting the exact relationship
between neural actuation and motor behavior (Vander et al., 1985). The
neural determinism necessary for speaking and writing requires dynamic
inner functioning.

Human language capabilities do not rely on unequivocally a neural

hierarchy. The neocortex is the tissue of the highest intricacy. However,
it is the brainstem reticular formation to mediate long-distance neural
connections, in skill elaborating as well as use. The formation employs
multisynaptic pathways. Reticular projections influence the nervous
system at all levels. The brainstem has been indicated for neural
information processing by ten of the twelve cranial nerves; it coordinates

19

eye-movement control, cardiovascular and respiratory performance, the

neural patterns for sleep, as well as wakefulness and focused behavior
(ibidem).
Along with relevant cranial nerves, the brainstem helps shape phonation
and visual language processing. On the other hand, cortical actuation
can alter the heart rate, blood pressure, or skin conductance, the very
reticular formation to convey a considerable proportion of the cortical
impulses to the autonomic level of the human internal structure. With
focus to language, autonomic activity is prominent in the skeletal and
smooth muscle contribution to breathing, or pupillary response.
John I. Lacey's experiments on situational stereotypies in environment
intake or rejection (in Ciarkowska, 1993) were to examine the
relationship between the higher and lower levels of the human nervous
system. Lacey observed cortical activity to influence cardiac output. He
attributed the effect not only to individual assessment of the concurrent
experimental context, but also to the anticipatory interworking on the
expected course of events. Implying a pattern of reaction wider than
direct response, he explained the influence of intellective faculties over
autonomic lifework with afferent feedback.
Engel, Malmo and Shagass (in Ciarkowska, 1993) proceeded further with
the notion of psychosomatic variance and proposed the term of an

20

individual stereotypy, to connote individual-specific patterns for human

neurophysiological

response. The

researchers

stated their

unique

variables corresponded with psychological tasks, which would evidence a

learned factor to autonomic functioning. Autonomic effectiveness is
supposed mostly reflex. The stereotypy inner dynamics thus would
require insight into neural path negotiability.

4. Multicellular path functioning: a reflex arc

In the most restricted sense, reflexes are automatic and undeliberated

behaviors. The typical constituents of a reflex arc are the receptor, the
afferent pathway, an integrating center, the efferent pathway and the
effector. Neurophysiological research yet would suggest that "most
reflexes, no matter how basic they may appear to be, are subject to
alteration by learning; that is, there is often no clear distinction between
a basic reflex and one with a learned component" (Vander et al., 1985).

A sample reflex arc may involve a stimulus to nerve A looped via the
brain to nerve B. Nerve B may synapse on endocrine gland B1. The gland
having secreted its hormone, gland C may become stimulated to
communicate with a muscle by means of a yet another messenger,
chemical C1, for example. However, it is often difficult to apply standard
names to arc components. Beside the reflex arc noted structural

21

diversity, neurochemicals of reflex productiveness have a potential for

multiple performance.
Messengers can act as neurotransmitters when released from neuron
terminals, as hormones or neurohormones when acting via the
bloodstream, and as paracrines or even autocrines. Vasopressin may
serve for an example of a multifunctional messenger. A vasoconstrictor in
homeostatic controls, vasopressin may be released upon change in
peripheral blood vessel resistance. Connoted with response to stress, it
has been found to influence learning and memory also in contexts not
accompanied by psychological pressure (ibidem).
This would be the natural neural flexibility to allow the merging of
autonomic and learned patterns, as of individual and situational
stereotypy. The question to arise is whether voluntary conduct might
incorporate reflex actuation.

5. Reflex and voluntary behavior

Exactness in the use of the term voluntary with regard to live
structures, man included, has been disputed. Esteeming skill and
quality, most human behavior would belong somewhere in a continuum
between the voluntary and the involuntary, rather than within clearly
defined boundaries of consciously actualized intention (Vander et al.,
1985).

22

Walking, for example, compels co-exercise of muscle structures to rely on

networks of interneurons. The networks operate on neural information
pools by spinal motor neurons at the local level. Interneurons may work
as signal changers between afferent and efferent terminals (ibidem).
The same interneurons may operate on descending command and
participate in local reflexes. A motor pattern change to follow local
information is mostly reflex. Locomotion generally contributes to
cognitive mapping and language.

The working of the corticospinal and brainstem paths to descend on local

interneural processing remains mostly outside perception or conscious
determination. The former connectivity type part manages the fine
movement in the hand; the latter is essential for positioning and
movement of the head, especially in response to particular, individually
relevant phenomena (ibidem). Not only writing, also the fine motor
behavior of speech acts, though premised to belong with volition, uses a
substantial amount of established neural patterns.

At the segmental level, both speech production and perception rely on

language routines not to need much focus to the fine motor detail, unless
a disturbance should occur. Antagonistic muscle inhibition as governed
by elementary neural formations supports the premise (Puppel, 1988).

23

An outline on motor pattern establishment may broaden the view to

intended movement in human behavior. Relevant motor patterns require
relevant neural patterns, generally (Vander et al., 1985). A prospect to
feedback phenomena and speech would even allow the term of neuromotor-articulatory mastery (Puppel, 1992).

6. Establishment of relevant neural patterns

Already at the pattern formative stage, volitional practice cannot be

labeled as opposed to, or independent of reflex activity. There is no clear
borderline, on neurophysiological as well as functional grounds, between
learned and acquired behaviors, that to include speech patterns. The
operative details of the complex neural loops to mediate motor behavior
as well as the neural network hidden layers for pattern forming may
never become uniformly recognized. Some hypotheses concerning the
mechanisms for motor pattern founding yet have been developed (Vander
et al., 1985).

First and foremost, frequency of pattern use has been named a most
important factor to alter the number or effectiveness of synapses between
relevant neurons (ibidem). Early stages of motor pattern formation do
heavily depend on sensory feedback for guidance. Repetitiveness to

24

encourage the new synaptic use, dependence on feedback gradually

decreases, to allow greater speed and efficiency. For multisyllabic words,
for example, skilled movement allows less focus to articulation.

However much dependence on feedback may diminish with neuro-motorarticulatory refinement, the influence never ceases fully. Even for
established patterns, there remains a comprehensive capacity or even
demand for multiple inner feedback. Muscles remain under constant
monitoring, some of the synaptic inputs to be originated not by the
descending pathways, but by neurons at the same level of the nervous
system (Puppel, 1992).

Local receptors monitor muscle length and tonus, to model the muscle
local feedback. The information is transmitted to the basal ganglia, the
cerebellum, cerebral motor areas, and integrated with the cortical
processes that allow comparison with the goal or idea forming function
for the underlying thought. The sustained inner feedback would have an
error detecting role: the cortex feeds back with the articulators and may
command change to an ongoing neuro-motor-articulatory sequence
(Puppel, 1992, 1994).

The sustained inner feedback would serve not only error detection. It
would also help feedforward, the anticipatory sequencing within neuro-

25

motor-articulatory planning (Puppel, 1992). Established neural patterns

for speech and language may compare with programs, in their working
as open-loop sequences. The working can be evidenced for the segmental
level of natural language, and further compare with reflex behavior. This
would be the feedforward to allow that speech segments become preplanned, mostly in syllabic scopes, for the articulators to produce smooth
utterances.

Unlike in autonomic neural activity, speech and language motor patterns

belong with intended muscle movement. Governed by the central nervous
system, they require goal-oriented behavior. Another role of the
sustained inner feedback is pattern verification and potential for change.
Even well established language patterns can change, with conscious
exercise. The volitional, CNS abilities are naturally integrated with
neurophysiological compensation, which supplements the flexibility.

7. Neurophysiological compensation

The number or variety of neural patterns increases with ascent in

individual

hierarchies

for

refinement,

humans

to

enhance

own

processing capacities along the dimensions of own information flows.

Neural schemata networking augments individual abilities, and can
contribute to neurophysiological compensation.

26

Postural control matters in speaking, writing, as well as listening or

reading. Kinesthetic and proprioceptive inputs form only part the
information for the central monitoring structures. Whenever the intramodal adjustability, a feedback-mediated prerogative, fails to compensate
deficit, the feedback faculties elaborate on paralleled inputs. Distortions
to proprioceptive or kinesthetic modalities thus tend to result in
promoted reliance on visual inputs, while limitation to the visual
modality impels increased attention to tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, and
proprioceptive types of information. Auricular obstruction encourages
focus to tactile and visual variables. Compensatory phenomena are not
exclusive of language.

Intra-modal adjustability may show in a persons raising his or her voice

to speak, even if wearing headphones consciously. The elevated auditory
feedback is to help verify the spoken performance, though own speech
patterns belong with established scopes. The compensation is part
instinctive, yet it allows moderation by the cortical levels: aware, persons
may learn to keep own voices down. Feedback capacities thus can work
with the ideational levels for speech and language, though relatively less
is known about the details of their operation (Puppel, 1994). Human
nervous systems thus would favor pools of inner feedback to accompany
most neural activity (Vander et al., 1985). A pool model for human
internal balance can be considered.

27

8. The pool model for preservation of internal balance

Homeostasis is the relative inner biochemical equilibrium all live

organisms tend to protect. The inner condition reflects on the total
biochemical gain and loss between the organism and the environment,
inclusive of intra-systemic inputs. In humans, the homeostatic operating
point is a spectrum of variables to result from the general outcome and
status of the biochemical interchange, also to be termed the homeostatic
pool (Vander et al., 1985).

Human

homeostasis

works

mostly

on

negative

feedback.

In

thermoregulation for example, both increase and decrease in body

temperature would result in neurophysiological activity to counter
change. Homeostatic feedforward would anticipate body temperature, the
thermo-sensitive nerve ends inside the body to sustain a discrepancy
with receptors in the skin. Most feedforwad would result from learning,
humans also to be capable of a degree of climatic adaptation.
Homeostatic operative values never balance error signals fully. The
difference is to allow a sustained receptor activity (ibidem).

Inner biochemical equilibrium can influence perceptual and cognitive

faculties directly, as showing in distortions caused by illness or extrinsic

28

factor presence. Experiments with sensory deprivation (Lindsay and

Norman, 1991) would advocate a psychological inquiry into the pool
model for undisturbed persons. Healthy and otherwise unimpeded
volunteers exhibited perceptual distortions when limited on own
peripheral inputs, low-level unvaried stimulation to prove even more
hallucinogenic than deprivation alone. All volunteers withdrew from the
experiments, despite financial offers (ibidem).

Within the pool model, the distortions resulted from a difficulty by the
nervous system to sustain the spectrum of the operating point wide
enough for neural controls to work. Sensory deprivation as well as
continued unvaried stimulation would result in receptor reactivity
lowering, which would be interpreted for a response within a system to
operate a spectrum for a threshold. Feedback capacities would be
indispensable for a supported threshold reference in the nervous system
to regenerate homeostasis.

All

volunteers

having

regained

balance

(ibidem),

individual

self-

sustainment would make it imperative for the inner structure to work on

biological information pools and feed back on spectra of biological
variables: not even financial offers encouraged further participation.
Human brainwork and signal specificity come to the foreground, as
regards inner balance and language.

29

9. Signal specificity and the human brain

Human brains are capable of managing spectra as well as individual,

very specific variables. Phylogenetically distinctive in regions, brains can
form labile neural networks. A distortion to a constituent of a labile
formation may result in a spectrum for a response. On the other hand,
cerebral communication has a significant complementary potential; the
brain can replace or even void individual, defective variables (Styczek,
1983).

Intracerebral consolidation becomes possible with neural radiations and

projection fibers. Three basic types of fiber tracts are most recognized for
the integrative work. Associative connectivities communicate areas
within the same hemisphere; projection processes link the cortex with
the brainstem, the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord,
while transverse fibers intercommunicate the hemispheres, the corpus
callosum making the most recognized connective (Akmajian et al., 1984).

The aforesaid brainstem reticulate structure consolidates an interplay of

several neural subsystems, allowing convergence of descending, local,
and ascending pathways. Brainstem paths participate in neural network
learning

generally,

the

reticular

formation

to

mediate

also

the

neuromodulation for states of consciousness. Another prominent center

30

for cortical and subcortical inputs coordination is the thalamus to

produce the wavelike, rhythmical oscillations in brain activity as
perceived in EEG patterns (Vander et al., 1985). Thalamic function is
significant in variable isolation and analysis.

The cerebellum feeds back with brainstem nuclei as well as the

neocortex, integrating vestibular information from the ears, eyes,
muscles, and skin. Cerebellar memory may provide feedforward in
movement planning and refinement, as well as assist comparison
between intended and actualized motor sequences (ibidem). Timing
signals for the neocortex and spinal generators, cerebellar inputs are
highly specific.

For areas most widely associated with speech, the Broca is located in the
frontal lobe, adjacent to the motor strip; it is believed to work in motor
program choice for speech production. The Wernicke area is located in
the temporal lobe and participates in the underlying language structure
formation. The occipital regions to bring sense data from the primary
visual cortex for the written, and the temporal structures to provide the
primary auditory data for acoustic forms of language, the parietal tissue
harmonizes the primary variables, speech potentially to engage trace
visual representations for lexical items, and written text to have the
power of invoking trace auditory forms.

31

Primary receptive areas of the brain neighbor on the gnostic or secondary

areas to enhance signal interpretation. This is most probably the
dominant gnostic or secondary auditory area to have the neural
structures for the acoustic trace forms the Wernicke area can construe
(Styczek, 1983). The capacity for signal reprocessing would be the
phonetic buffer as in Puppel (1998), or the echo box as in Lindsay and
Norman (1991). Managing auditory information pools is vital in
comprehending spoken discourse.

The frontal lobes as of the forehead, though reasoned not to have been
phylogenetically differentiated primarily for language, are vital in goal
and idea formation and thus recognition. Frontal association areas have
fibers from the parietal and temporal tissues; they also connect to the
limbic system. The function helps compare sense data from various
modalities, and contributes to memory, attention, and language (Vander
et al., 1985).

Neural specificity for speech and goal-oriented behavior is encouraged by

cranial nerves. The nerves can be classed with concern to immediacy of
effect on spoken discourse (Styczek, 1983). Seven, namely the trigeminal,
glossopharyngeal, hypoglossal, facial, auditory or vestibulocochlear,
accessory, and vagus fibers take part in shaping speech production

32

directly. The four other, the optic, oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens
pairs sustain a less straightforward, yet influence. The trigeminal, facial,
glossopharyngeal, vagus, abducens, and trochlear nerves consist of both
motor and sensory fibers, thus qualifying for feedback connectivities
thoroughly (Vander et al., 1985).

As a closed-loop effectiveness, feedback is part any speech act. Two basic

types of feedback can be recognized to secure the course, the
interoceptive and exteroceptive modalities. The interoceptive loops would
work for tactile, as well as proprioceptive and kinesthetic information, of
also cognitive mapping valence. The exteroceptive loops would process
mostly auditory and visual inputs. The monitoring capabilities are part
reflex and do not become inactive for mental language processing.
Significantly, language activity constitutes the strongest single factor to
integrate the functioning of the entire brain.

There is no manner or method strictly to delimit the neural paths to work

in language production from those to participate in language perception
or mental processing (Vander et al., 1985). Standard language use
requires medically unaltered consciousness, as well as operating
grammatical scopes, simultaneously with variables of cognitive validity.
Processing of speech and language information thus would involve inputs

33

on all available sensory modalities, along with specifics from the

sophisticated neural network schemata for intellectual performance. In
the light, a notion of a human language faculty is proposed to embrace
human neurophysiological capacity for linguistic elaboration. The term
becomes necessary with regard to the limitations a view to Wernicke or
Broca areas exclusively would bring.
Interoceptive or exteroceptive feedback are only classes in which to
organize

observations

exteroception.

Also

on

the

dual

senses,
model

palpation

may

to

represent

belong
feedback

with
in

conversational contexts. The feedback loops are not visualized according

to their interoceptive or exteroceptive nature, but thinking about their
egocentric or environmental orientation. The egocentric loop would
represent human self-monitoring capacities, the environmental loop to
symbolize exchange within an environment.
Figure 1. The generalized dual-loop feedback model for language
processing in conversational exchange.

34

Intra-personally as well inter-personally, the notion of a feedback loop

cannot be comprehended for parallel with that of a closed circuit or mere
reiteration of instructions. The self-oriented loop in human speech can
be thought to consist of the articulators, the speech sound medium, the
ear, the primary auditory cortex, and the secondary areas to reiterate
signal, yet before its further elaboration by the brain. In a conversational
context, the environmental loop may stand for linguistic interaction,
without which contemporaneous verbal behavior would be that of
monologuing individuals.

Feedback performance in language thus would be a biological and

psychological factor, rather than a physical process for control of
automatic workings. Along the inquiry, feedback phenomena have been
found in the single neuron, as well as language capable network
schemata in the brain, auditory compensation to evidence connected
feedback abilities.

10. Conclusions

Natural language is a prerequirement for teaching or learning any

scholarly skill. Human linguistic, as well as scientific and logical
competences cannot become of performance in detachment from the
nervous system. Positioning of natural language within an information

35

processing perspective to solicit a processing structure, the human

nervous system meets the expectation in everyday practice. Further
important aspects of information processing are those of processing of
options, an information pool, a program, signal specificity, and use of
feedback.
The all-or-none cellular actuation is an option. However, the neural
activity for speech and language is compound, action or graded potential.
Language as a coordinated nerve, muscle, and cognitive scope thus uses
options, yet it motivates a pool model for language information, speech
and language observably not to be option-ridden. The nervous system
ignores singular action potentials by a biological default; individual
neurons are not predetermined to produce signals, isolated cell incitation
to have given inconclusive results (Vander et al., 1985).

In management of information pools, human brains are genetically

predisposed for language. However, particular language uses are not
prescribed by DNA programs, humans of various origins to remain able
to learn languages as well as language structures and styles of choice.
Closed-loop,

feedback

phenomena

are

part

every

neuro-motor-

articulatory pattern build. The resultant open-loop sequences can

compare with programs, yet remain limited to the segmental level of
speech and language.

36

In a basic sense, signal specificity can be observed in speech sound or

letter shape forming and perceiving. In a broad sense, linguistic
specificity can help view feedback as an initially biological phenomenon
functionally to expand into inner or interpersonal communication.
Feedback can be found in cellular as well as systemic functioning by
principle. The present quest along the human internal hierarchy began
with the single cell and concluded with the brain, as the highest level for
internal equilibrium. Not only cellular functioning would be impossible
without a feedback process. A frame for relatively autonomous organ
subsets in the linguistically variform earthly environment, the human
bodily makeup uses feedback to build and model neural patterns for
language generally.

Conformity with regard to the postulations of a processing system, use of

options, information pools, programs, as well as signal specificity and
feedback function having been achieved, differences between humans
and

artificial

intelligence

deserve

emphasis,

particularly

on

the

proportion as well as nature of option or program use. The subsequent

chapter brings a discussion of the role of feedback in language learning.

37