Diadochi

For other uses, see Diadochus.

of the period. A certain basic meaning is included in all
The Diadochi (/dadka/; from Greek: , denitions, however.
The New Latin terminology was introduced by the historians of universal Greek history of the 19th century.
Their comprehensive histories of ancient Greece typically covering from prehistory to the Roman Empire ran
into many volumes. For example, George Grote in the
rst edition of History of Greece, 1846-1856, hardly
mentions the Diadochi, except to say that they were
kings who came after Alexander and Hellenized Asia.
In the edition of 1869 he denes them as great ocers
of Alexander, who after his death carved kingdoms for
themselves out of his conquests.[1]
Grote cites no references for the use of Diadochi but
his criticism of Johann Gustav Droysen gives him away.
Droysen, the modern inventor of Hellenistic history,[2]
not only dened Hellenistic period (hellenistische ...
Zeit),[3] but in a further study of the successors of
Alexander (nachfolger Alexanders) dated 1836, after
Grote had begun work on his history, but ten years before
publication of the rst volume, divided it into two periods, the age of the Diadochi, or Diadochi Period (die
Zeit der Diodochen or Diadochenzeit), which ran from the
death of Alexander to the end of the Diadochi Wars
(Diadochenkmpfe, his term), about 278 BC, and the
Epigoni Period (Epigonenzeit), which ran to about 220
BC.[4] He also called the Diadochi Period the Diadochi
War Period (Zeit der Diadochenkmpfe). The Epigoni
he dened as Sons of the Diadochi (Diadochenshne).
These were the second generation of Diadochi rulers.[5]
In an 1843 work, History of the Epigoni (Geschichte
der Epigonen) he details the kingdoms of the Epigoni,
280-239 BC. The only precise date is the rst, the date
of Alexanders death, June, 323 BC. It has never been in
question.

Bust of Seleucus Nicator (Victor"; c.358 281 BC), the last of

the original Diadochi.

Diadokhoi, meaning Successors) were the rival generals, families and friends of Alexander the Great who
fought for control over his empire after his death in 323
BC. The Wars of the Diadochi mark the beginning of the
Hellenistic period.

1
1.1

Grote uses Droysens terminology but gives him no credit

for it. Instead he attacks Droysens concept of Alexander
planting Hellenism in eastern colonies:[6] Plutarch states
that Alexander founded more than seventy new cities in
Asia. So large a number of them is neither veriable
nor probable, unless we either reckon up simple military
posts or borrow from the list of foundations really established by his successors. He avoids Droysens term in
favor of the traditional successor. In a long note he attacks Droysens thesis as altogether slender and unsatisfactory. Grote may have been right, but he ignores entirely Droysens main thesis, that the concepts of successors and sons of successors were innovated and perpetuated by historians writing contemporaneously or nearly

Background
Modern concept

Diadochi is a New Latin word currently in use among

modern scholars of ancient Greek history to refer primarily to persons acting a role that existed only for a limited
time period and within a limited geographic range. As
there are no modern equivalents, it has been necessary
to reconstruct the role from the ancient sources. There
is no uniform agreement concerning exactly which historical persons t the description, or the territorial range
over which the role was in eect, or the calendar dates
1

BACKGROUND

so with the period. Not enough evidence survives to prove Alexanders birth, an act that suggests love may have been
it conclusively, but enough survives to win acceptance for a motive as well. Macedon was then an obscure state. Its
Droysen as the founding father of Hellenistic history.
chief oce was the basileia, or monarchy, the chief ofM.M. Austin localizes what he considers to be a problem cer being the basileus, now the signatory title of Philip.
with Grotes view. To Grotes assertion in the Preface Their son and heir, Alexander, was raised with care, being
to his work that the period is of no interest in itself, educated by select prominent philosophers. Philip is said
but serves only to elucidate the preceding centuries, to have wept for joy when Alexander performed a feat
Austin comments Few nowadays would subscribe to this of which no one else was capable, taming the wild horse,
Bucephalus, at his rst attempt in front of a skeptical auview.[2] If Grote was hoping to minimize Droysen by
not giving him credit, he was mistaken, as Droysens dience including the king. Amidst the cheering onlookers Philip swore that Macedonia was not large enough for
gradually became the majority model. By 1898 Adolf
[15]
The two developed a close and aectionHolm incorporated a footnote describing and evaluating Alexander.
ate relationship. When Philip was on campaign Alexan[7]
Droysens arguments. He describes the Diadochi and
Epigoni as powerful individuals.[8] The title of the vol- der would remark with pride at the report of each victory
that his father would leave him nothing of note to do.
ume on the topic, however, is The Graeco-Macedonian
Age..., not Droysens Hellenistic.
And yet the faithless king fell in love with a young woman,
Droysens Hellenistic and Diadochi Periods are Cleopatra. He married her apparently for love when he
canonical today. A series of six (as of 2014) interna- was too old for marriage, having divorced Olympias. By
tional symposia held at dierent universities 1997-2010 that time Philip had built Macedonia into the leading milon the topics of the imperial Macedonians and their Di- itary state of the Balkans. He had acquired his experadochi have to a large degree solidied and international- tise ghting for Thebes and Greek freedom under his paized Droysens concepts. Each one grew out of the previ- tron, Epaminondas. When Alexander was a teen-ager,
ous. Each published an assortment of papers read at the Philip was planning a military solution to the contention
symposium.[9] The 2010 symposium, entitled The Time with the Persian Empire. In the opening campaign against
of the Diadochi (323-281 BC), held at the University Byzantium he made Alexander regent (kurios) in his abof A Corua, Spain, represents the current concepts and sence. Alexander used every opportunity to further his fainvestigations. The term Diadochi as an adjective is be- thers victories, expecting that he would be a part of them.
ing extended beyond its original use, such as Diadochi There was a source of disaection, however. Plutarch reChronicle, which is nowhere identied as such, or Di- ports that Alexander and his mother bitterly reproached
him for his numerous aairs among the women of his
adochi kingdoms, the kingdoms that emerged, even
court.[16]
[10]
past the Age of the Epigoni.

1.2

Ancient role

In ancient Greek, diadochos[11] is a noun (substantive or adjective) formed from the verb, diadechesthai,
succeed to,[12] a compound of dia- and dechesthai,
receive.[13] The word-set descends straightforwardly
from Indo-European *dek-, receive, the substantive
forms being from the o-grade, *dok-.[14] Some important English reexes are dogma, a received teaching,
decent, t to be received, paradox, against that which
is received. The prex dia- changes the meaning slightly
to add a social expectation to the received. The diadochos expects to receive it, hence a successor in command
or any other oce, or a succeeding work gang on work
being performed by relays of work gangs, or metaphorically light being the successor of sleep.
1.2.1

Basileus

It was exactly this expectation that contributed to strife

in the Alexandrine and Hellenistic Ages, beginning with
Alexander. Philip had made a state marriage to a woman
who changed her name to Olympias to honor the coincidence of Philips victory in the Olympic Games and

Alexander was at the wedding banquet when Attalus,

Cleopatras uncle, made a remark that seemed inappropriate to him. He asked the Macedonians to pray for
an heir to the kingship (diadochon tes basileias). Rising to his feet Alexander shouted, using the royal we,
Do we seem like bastards (nothoi) to you, evil-minded
man? and threw a cup at him. The inebriated Philip,
rising to his feet, drawing his sword, presumably to defend his wifes uncle, promptly fell. Making a comment
that the man who was preparing to cross from Europe to
Asia could not cross from one couch to another, Alexander departed, to escort his mother to her native Epirus
and to wait himself in Illyria. Not long after, prompted by
Demaratus the Corinthian to mend the dissension in his
house, Philip sent Demaratus to bring Alexander home.
The expectation by virtue of which Alexander was diadochos was that as the son of Philip, he would inherit
Philips throne.
After a time the king was assassinated. In 336 BC, at
the age of 20, Alexander received the kingship (parelabe ten basileian).[17] In the same year Darius succeeded
to the throne of Persia as he hn, King of Kings,
which the Greeks understood as Great King. The role of
the Macedonian basileus was changing fast. Alexanders
army was already multinational. Alexander was acquiring dominion over state after state. His presence on the

2.1

The Diadochi category

battleeld seemed to insure immediate victory.

1.2.2

Hegemon

Main article: Wars of Alexander the Great

When Alexander the Great died on June 10, 323 BC,
he left behind a huge empire which comprised many
essentially independent territories. Alexanders empire
stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, along
with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to
Bactria and parts of India in the east. It included parts
of the present day Balkans, Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt,
Babylonia, and most of the former Persia, except for some
lands the Achaemenids formerly held in Central Asia.

The successors

An army on campaign changes its leadership at any level

frequently for replacement of casualties and distribution
of talent to the current operations. The institution of the
Hetairoi gave the Macedonian army a exible capability
in this regard. There were no xed ranks of Hetairoi,
except as the term meant a special unit of cavalry. The
Hetairoi were simply a xed pool of de facto general ofcers, without any or with changing de jure rank, whom
Alexander could assign where needed. They were typically from the nobility, many related to Alexander. A
parallel exible structure in the Persian army facilitated
combined units.
Sta meetings to adjust command structure were nearly
a daily event in Alexanders army. They created an ongoing expectation among the Hetairoi of receiving an important and powerful command, if only for a short term.
At the moment of Alexanders death, all possibilities were
suddenly suspended. The Hetairoi vanished with Alexander, to be replaced instantaneously by the Diadochi, men
who knew where they had stood, but not where they
would stand now. As there had been no denite ranks
or positions of Hetairoi, there were no ranks of Diadochi.
They expected appointments, but without Alexander they
would have to make their own.

3
Craterus was an infantry and naval commander under
Alexander during his conquest of Persia. After the revolt of his army at Opis on the Tigris River in 324,
Alexander ordered Craterus to command the veterans as
they returned home to Macedonia. Antipater, commander of Alexanders forces in Greece and regent of the
Macedonian throne in Alexanders absence, would lead
a force of fresh troops back to Persia to join Alexander
while Craterus would become regent in his place. When
Craeterus arrived at Cilicia in 323 BC, news reached him
of Alexanders death. Though his distance from Babylon prevented him from participating in the distribution
of power, Craterus hastened to Macedonia to assume the
protection of Alexanders family. The news of Alexanders death caused the Greeks to rebel in the Lamian War.
Craeterus and Antipater defeated the rebellion in 322
BC. Despite his absence, the generals gathered at Babylon
conrmed Craterus as Guardian of the Royal Family.
However, with the royal family in Babylon, the Regent
Perdiccas assumed this responsibly until the royal household could return to Macedonia.

2.1.2 Antipater
Main article: Antipater
Antipater was an adviser to King Philip II, Alexanders father, a role he continued under Alexander. When
Alexander left Macedon to conquer Persia in 334 BC,
Antipater was named Regent of Macedon and General
of Greece in Alexanders absence. In 323 BC, Craterus
was ordered by Alexander to march his veterans back to
Macedon and assume Antipaters position while Antipater was to march to Persia with fresh troops. Alexanders
death that year, however, prevented the order from being carried out. When Alexanders generals gathered in
Babylon to divide the empire between themselves, Antipater was conrmed as General of Greece while the
roles of Regent of the Empire and Guardian of the Royal
Family were given to Perdiccas and Craterus, respectively. Together, the three men formed the top ruling
group of the empire.

For purposes of this presentation, the Diadochi are 2.1.3 Somatophylakes

grouped by their rank and social standing at the time of
Alexanders death. These were their initial positions as Main articles: Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Lysimachus,
Diadochi. They are not necessarily signicant or deter- Peucestas, Peithon and Leonnatus
minative of what happened next.

2.1
2.1.1

The Diadochi category

Craterus

Main article: Craterus

2.1.4 Macedonian satraps

Main articles:
Antigonus I Monophthalmus,
Neoptolemus (general), Seleucus I Nicator and
Polyperchon

4
2.1.5

3 DIADOCHI PERIOD
Royal family

satraps of the various parts of the Empire. Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia;
Main articles: Philip III of Macedon, Alexander IV Philotas took Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus reof Macedon, Olympias, Eurydice II of Macedon and ceived Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander received
Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received
Cleopatra of Macedon
Thrace; Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and
Neoptolemus had Armenia. Macedon and the rest of
Greece were to be under the joint rule of Antipater, who
2.1.6 Non-Macedonian satraps and generals
had governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexanders most able lieutenant, while Alexanders old secreMain articles: Eumenes of Cardia and Pyrrhus of Epirus tary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to receive Cappadocia and
Paphlagonia.
In the east, Perdiccas largely left Alexanders arrangements intact Taxiles and Porus ruled over their
2.2 The Epigoni category
kingdoms in India; Alexanders father-in-law Oxyartes
ruled Gandara; Sibyrtius ruled Arachosia and Gedrosia;
Main articles: Cassander, Demetrius Poliorcetes and
Stasanor ruled Aria and Drangiana; Philip ruled Bactria
Ptolemy Keraunos
and Sogdiana; Phrataphernes ruled Parthia and Hyrcania;
Peucestas governed Persis; Tlepolemus had charge
over Carmania; Atropates governed northern Media;
Archon got Babylonia; and Arcesilaus ruled northern
3 Diadochi period
Mesopotamia.

3.1
3.1.1

Struggle for unity (323319 BC)

Partition of Babylon

3.1.2 Revolt in Greece

Main article: Lamian War

Main article: Partition of Babylon

Without a chosen successor, there was almost immedi- Meanwhile, the news of Alexanders death had inspired a
revolt in Greece, known as the Lamian War. Athens and
other cities joined together, ultimately besieging Antipater in the fortress of Lamia. Antipater was relieved by a
force sent by Leonnatus, who was killed in action, but the
war did not come to an end until Crateruss arrival with
a eet to defeat the Athenians at the Battle of Crannon
on September 5, 322 BC. For a time, this brought an end
to Greek resistance to Macedonian domination. Meanwhile, Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek settlers in the
eastern parts of the Empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes
subdued Cappadocia.
The distribution of satrapies in the Macedonian Empire after the
Settlement in Babylon (323 BC).

3.1.3 First War of the Diadochi (322320 BC)

ately a dispute among Alexanders generals as to who his
successor should be. Meleager and the infantry supported
the candidacy of Alexanders half-brother, Arrhidaeus,
while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexanders unborn child
by Roxana. A compromise was arranged Arrhidaeus
(as Philip III) should become King, and should rule
jointly with Roxanas child, assuming that it was a boy
(as it was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself
would become Regent of the entire Empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed
full control.

Soon, however, conict broke out. Perdiccas' marriage

to Alexanders sister Cleopatra led Antipater, Craterus,
Antigonus, and Ptolemy to join together in rebellion. The
actual outbreak of war was initiated by Ptolemys theft
of Alexanders body and its transfer to Egypt. Although
Eumenes defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, in a battle at
which Craterus was killed, it was all for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon,
Seleucus, and Antigenes during an invasion of Egypt.

Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccass murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus regents in his place, but soon
these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the
The other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas Treaty of Triparadisus. Antipater was made regent of
were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Mace-

4.2

Decline and fall

don. Antigonus remained in charge of Phrygia, Lycia,

and Pamphylia, to which was added Lycaonia. Ptolemy
retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the
three murderers of PerdiccasSeleucus, Peithon, and
Antigeneswere given the provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former
Regent, received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was
charged with the task of rooting out Perdiccass former
supporter, Eumenes. In eect, Antipater retained for
himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as leader of
the largest army east of the Hellespont, held a similar position in Asia.
3.1.4

Partition of Triparadisus

4.2 Decline and fall

Main article: Hellenistic period
This division was to last for a century, before the
Antigonid Kingdom nally fell to Rome, and the
Seleucids were harried from Persia by the Parthians and
forced by the Romans to relinquish control in Asia Minor.
A rump Seleucid kingdom limped on in Syria until nally
put to rest by Pompey in 64 BC. The Ptolemies lasted
longer in Alexandria, though as a client under Rome.
Egypt was nally annexed to Rome in 30 BC.

5 Historical uses as a title

Main article: Partition of Triparadisus

5.1 Aulic
3.1.5

Death of Antipater

Soon after the second partition, in 319 BC, Antipater

died. Antipater had been one of the few remaining individuals with enough prestige to hold the empire together. After his death, war soon broke out again and
the fragmentation of the empire began in earnest. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater had declared
Polyperchon his successor as Regent. A civil war soon
broke out in Macedon and Greece between Polyperchon
and Cassander, with the latter supported by Antigonus
and Ptolemy. Polyperchon allied himself to Eumenes
in Asia, but was driven from Macedonia by Cassander,
and ed to Epirus with the infant king Alexander IV
and his mother Roxana. In Epirus he joined forces with
Olympias, Alexanders mother, and together they invaded
Macedon again. They were met by an army commanded
by King Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice, which
immediately defected, leaving the king and Eurydice to
Olympiass not so tender mercies, and they were killed
(317 BC). Soon after, though, the tide turned, and Cassander was victorious, capturing and killing Olympias,
and attaining control of Macedon, the boy king, and his
mother.

3.2

Wars of the Diadochi (319275 BC)

Ironically in the formal 'court' titulature of the Hellenistic

empires ruled by dynasties we know as Diadochs, the title
was not customary for the Monarch, but has actually been
proven to be the lowest in a system of ocial rank titles,
known as Aulic titulature, conferred ex ocio or nominatim to actual courtiers and as an honorary rank (for
protocol) to various military and civilian ocials. Notably in Ptolemaic Egypt, it was reported as the lowest
aulic rank, under Philos, during the reign of Ptolemy V
Epiphanes.

6 Notes
[1] Grote 1869, p. 15
[2] Austin 1994, p. vii
[3] Droysen, Johann Gustav (1833). Geschichte Alexanders
des Grossen (in German). Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes.
p. 517.
[4] Droysen 1836, Einleitung
[5] Droysen 1836, p. 670
[6] Grote 1869, pp. 205206
[7] Holm 1898, p. 83
[8] Holm 1898, p. 67

Main article: Wars of the Diadochi

4
4.1

Epigoni period
Kingdoms of the Diadochi (27530 BC)

Main articles: Hellenistic period and Hellenistic civilization

[9] Carney, Elizabeth; Ogden, Daniel (2010). Preface.

Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives
and Afterlives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[10] Diadochi and Successor Kingdoms. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Greece and Rome. Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. 2010.
[11] Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "". A
Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
[12] Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "". A
Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.

[13] Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "". A

Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
[14] Frisk, Hjalmar (1960). "". Griechisches Etymologisches Wrterbuch (in German) I. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
[15] Plutarch, Alexander, Section VI.
[16] Plutarch, Alexander, Section IX.
[17] Plutarch, Alexander, Section XI.

References
Austin, M. M. (1994). The Hellenistic world from
Alexander to the Roman conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Boiy, Tom (2000). Dating Methods During the
Early Hellenistic Period (PDF FORMAT). Journal
of Cuneiform Studies 52.
Droysen, Johann Gustav (1836). Geschichte der
Nachfolger Alexanders (in German). Hamburg:
Friedrich Perthes.
Grote, George (1869). A History of Greece: from
the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation
Contemporary with Alexander the Great XI (New
ed.). London: John Murray.
Holm, Adolf (1898) [1894]. Clarke, Frederick
(Translator), ed. The History of Greece from Its
Commencement to the Close of the Independence of
the Greek Nation (in English and translated from the
German). IV: The Graeco-Macedonian age, the period of the kings and the leagues, from the death
of Alexander down to the incorporation of the last
Macedonian monarchy in the Roman Empire. London; New York: Macmillan.
Shipley, Graham (2000). The Greek World After Alexander. Routledge History of the Ancient
World. New York: Routledge.
Walbank, F.W. (1984). The Hellenistic World.
The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume VII. part I.
Cambridge.

External links
Lendering, Jona. Alexanders successors: the Diadochi. Livius.org.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Text

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