OSI Ref Model PDF

Networking Basics
&
OSI Reference Model
NIC, OSI Reference Model
Networking: An Overview
A network is a group of interconnected
systems which share services and interact
with each other by means of a shared
communication link.
These systems can be located anywhere.
Network is often classified according to its
geographical size.
Networking
Benefits of networking
Goal of having networking environment is to
provide services and to reduce the equipment
costs. The primary reasons for networking PC's
are as follows:
Sharing printers and other devices
Providing Distributed Computing.
Sharing Files
Centralised administration of resources
Security of Resources.
Personal communications (like e-mail,
chat, audio/video
conferencing)
World Wide
Web ... and many other uses
Networking Basics
Networking Basics
n
Network consist many components:

Hardware
Transmission Facilities
Access Devices
Devices that repeat transmitted signals
Software
Protocol that define and regulate the way two
or more device communicate.
Drivers, that guide the functionality of NIC
Communication Software.
Networking Basics: Hardware

n
Transmission Facilities
Are the media used to transport networks signals to their
destination.
Coaxial Cable, Twisted Pair, Fiber- Optic
Access Devices
Is known as Network Interface Card (NIC), and is
responsible for
Properly formatting data so that it can be accepted in the network
Placing data on the network
Accepting transmitted data thats addressed to it.
Repeaters/Hubs
Accepts transmitted signals, amplify it and puts them back
on the network
7
Network Basics : Software

n
Protocol
Are standards that allow computer to communicate.

Define how computer identify one another on a network
How information be processed once it reach its final
destination.
Define procedure for handling lost or damaged
packets.
n
Device Drivers
Is a hardware level program that control NIC
NIC, provide an interface for its host operating system
Communication Software
That enable the users to communicate and share
resources
Windows Explorer,
WWW, Telnet, FTP
Networking Basics: LAN

Hardware and Software are to be
integrated to make a LAN
n Repeater-less LAN
n
Hub Based LAN
Networking Basics : LAN
10
Networking Basics : LAN
11
Multiaccess vs. Point-to-point

n
Multiaccess means shared medium.

many end-systems share the same physical
communication resources (wire, frequency, ...)
There must be some arbitration mechanism.
Point-to-point
only 2 systems involved
no doubt about where data came from !
12
Multiaccess
Point-to-point
13
LAN - Local Area Network

n
connects computers that are physically

close together ( < 1 mile).
high speed
multi-access
Technologies:
Ethernet
10 Mbps, 100Mbps
Token Ring 16 Mbps
FDDI
100 Mbps
14
WAN - Wide Area Network

n
connects computers that are physically

far apart. long-haul network.
typically slower than a LAN.
typically less reliable than a LAN.
point-to-point
Technologies:
telephone lines
Satellite communications
15
MAN - Metropolitan Area

Network
n
Larger than a LAN and smaller than a

WAN
- example: campus-wide network
- multi-access network
Technologies:
coaxial cable
Microwave (Wireless Technology)
16
Internetwork
Connection of 2 or more distinct
(possibly dissimilar) networks.
n Requires some kind of network device
to facilitate the connection.
n
Net A
Net B
17
Network Models
Using a formal model allows us to deal
with various aspects of Networks
abstractly.
n We will look at a popular model (OSI
reference model).
n The OSI reference model is a layered
model.
n
18
OSI Reference Model

The
International
Organization
for
standardization (ISO) proposed for the
standardization of the various protocols
used in computer networks (specifically
those networks used to connect open
systems) is called the Open Systems
Interconnection Reference Model (1984),
or simply the OSI model.
19
OSI Model
Although the OSI model is a just a model
(not a specification), it is generally
regarded as the most complete model (as
well it should be - nearly all of the popular
network protocol suites in use today were
developed before the OSI model was
defined).
20
OSI 7 Layer Model:

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data-Link
Physical
High level protocols
Low level protocols
21
Layering
Divide a task into pieces and then solve
each piece independently (or nearly so).
n Establishing a well defined interface
between layers makes porting easier.
n Major Advantages:
n
Code Reuse
Extensibility
22
Layering Example: Postal deptt.

Letter in envelope, address on outside
n Adds addressing information, pincode.
n Local office drives to airport and
delivers to hub.
n Sent via airplane to nearest city.
n Delivered to right office
n Delivered to right person
n
23
Layers
Letter
Addressed
Envelope
Letter
Addressed
Envelope
24
OSI model consists of seven layers
25
Layering & Headers

n
n
n
Each layer needs to add some control

information to the data in order to do its job.
This information is typically prepended to the
data before being given to the lower layer.
Once the lower layers deliver the data and
control information - the peer layer uses the
control information.
26
Headers
DATA
Process
DATA
Transport
H H
DATA
Network
H H H
DATA
Data Link
Process
Transport
Network
Data Link
27
The upper (3) layers

n
Primarily concerned with the

application, or what the user can see.
FTP
Telnet
SNMP
28
Mid (Layers 3-5)

n
often referred to as transport protocols and

are primarily concerned with establishing and
maintaining (logical) connections and
resolving network names.
TCP/IP
IPX/SPX
NetBEUI
Net BIOS
DEC net
Appletalk
29
Lower Level Protocols

n
(Physical Layer Standards)

802.3 (8802.3)Ethernet
802.4 (8802.4)Token Bus
802.5 (8802.5)Token Ring (4 Mbps, 16 Mbps)
FDDI
ATM
30
OSI from the bottom up
31
The Physical Layer

n
Responsibility:
transmission of raw bits over a
communication channel.
Issues:
mechanical and electrical interfaces
time per bit
distances
32
n
n
Cables (or wireless) are often referred to as

the "medium media
Most common media types:
Fiber-optic Cable
Unshielded-Twisted Pair (UTP-100mts, 10100mnps)
Coaxial Cable (Thin-185mts,10mbps, Thick500mts,10mbps)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
These cables are used to carry digital signals

between devices.
33
34
35
Analog Signaling
n
analog signals can be

represented by a sine
wave
Data in the form of 0s
and 1s is extracted from
analog signals through
various voltage and
frequency modulation
techniques.
36
Digital Signaling
n
LANs use digital

singling to transfer their
data.
0s and 1s are
represented with or
conveyed through the
use of positive and
negative voltages. A
negative voltage might
represent a 0, while a
positive voltage might
represent a 1.
37
Encoding
n
Now it might be easy, but not

efficient to have a positive
voltage represent a 0 and a
negative voltage represent a
1. Because of this inefficiency,
various "encoding schemes"
use changes in voltages to
represent one bit or the other,
rather than just using a positive
or negative voltage to represent
the two states.
Encoding schemes seek to
efficiently utilize voltage
variations to turn 0s and 1s into
voltages which can be
transferred over a cable
(media).
38
Manchester Encoding
0
Probably the most well known

encoding scheme is "Manchester
Encoding
Manchester encoding uses a

transition during each bit period
(duration) for synchronization as
well as data. So, if the voltages
changes from a low or negative
voltage to a high or positive voltage
in the middle of its bit period, a
binary 1 is transmitted. The
transition from positive to negative
voltage in the middle of the bit
period represents a binary 0.
39
The Data Link Layer Data Link Control

n
Responsibility:
provide an error-free communication link
Issues:
framing (dividing data into chunks)
header & trailer bits
addressing
10110110101
01100010011
10110000001
40
Data Link Layer

n
Transmit
Encapsulates packet from Internet Layer in frame
add header for addressing and trailer for error control
Header says 00-A0-CC-39-2D-78, Im talking to
you
Uses the physical layer to transmit frame
Receive
Uses physical layer to receive data

Identifies address, You talking to me?
Performs necessary error recovery
Delivers data to layer above
41
OSI Layer 2. Data-Link Layer
42
Media Access Control:
Sharing the Wire

n
n
n
n
n
Broadcast a frame onto the medium.

All nodes on the shared medium see the
message, but ignore it unless it is addressed
to them.
Media access control (MAC) refers to the
need to control when devices transmit.
MAC makes sure no two devices attempt to
transmit data at the same time.
Essentially using Statistical TDMA
43
Media Access Control

Methods
Contention
Simultaneous
Listen then talk
2 talking causes a
collision
Token Passing
Controlled Access
Sequentially take turns

Talk/Listen
44
Relative Performance
In general, contention approaches work better
than controlled approaches for small
networks that have low usage.
In high volume networks, many devices want to
transmit at the same time, and a wellcontrolled circuit prevents collisions.
45
Efficiency:
Data & Transmission

Efficiency
Data field holds 46 bytes to 1500 bytes
n Transmission efficiency - information bits
divided by total number of bits
n Ethernet Efficiency
= 1500 / (1500 + 26) = 96.7%
n
46
CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3)

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
The most common MAC layer access

method in Local Area Networks
n CSMA/CD based protocol for the
transmission of data at 10/100 Mbps.
Medium Access
Transmission
Collisions Detection
Re-Transmission
n
47
Ethernet / CSMA/CD
Stations wishing to transmit listen to the
line to determine if it is in use.
n If no is heard, the station will transmit a
message called a frame.
n Every computer "hears" every
transmission, but only the "destination"
computer listens to the message.
n All other stations 'filter' or disregard
transmissions not addressed to them.
n
48
Ethernet Variations
n
Ethernet runs over a variety of cable

types at 10 Mbps.
10Base2
10Base5
10BaseF
10BaseT
100BaseT
1000BaseT
49
Broadband vs. Baseband

n
n
Broadband
Signaling
n
n
transmission system that

multiplexes multiple
independent signals onto
one cable. In
telecommunications
terminology, any channel
having a bandwidth greater
than a voice-grade channel
(4 kHz). In LAN terminology,
a coaxial cable on which
analog signaling is used.
Also called wideband.
Baseband Signaling
Characteristic of a
network technology
where only one
carrier frequency is
used. Ethernet is an
example of a
baseband network.
Also called
narrowband.
51
The Network Layer

n
Responsibilities:
path selection between end-systems (routing).
subnet flow control.
fragmentation & reassembly
translation between different network types.
Issues:
packet headers
virtual circuits
52
Network layer header examples

protocol suite
version
n type of service
n length of the data
n packet identifier
n fragment number
n time to live
n
protocol
n header checksum
n source network
address
n destination network
address
n
53
The Transport Layer

n
Responsibilities:
provides virtual end-to-end links between
peer processes.
end-to-end flow control
Issues:
headers
error detection
reliable communication
54
Modes of Service
connection-oriented vs. connectionless
n sequencing
n error-control
n flow-control
n byte stream vs. message based
n full-duplex vs. half-duplex.
n
55
Connection-Oriented vs.
Connectionless Service
n
A connection-oriented service includes the

establishment of a logical connection (circuit)
between 2 processes.
establish logical connection

transfer data
terminate connection.
Connectionless services involve sending of

independent messages.
56
Sequencing
Sequencing provides support for an
order to communications.
n A service that includes sequencing
requires that messages (or bytes) are
received in the same order they are
sent.
n
57
Every IP datagram is an individual

entity and may take a different
route
58
Error Control
Some services require error detection (it
is important to know when a
transmission error has occured).
n Checksums provide a simple error
detection mechanism.
n Error control sometimes involves
notification and retransmission.
n
59
Flow Control
Flow control prevents the sending
process from overwhelming the
receiving process.
n Flow control can be handled a variety of
ways - this is one of the major research
issues in the development of the next
generation of networks (ATM).
n
60
Byte Stream vs. Message

Byte stream implies an ordered
sequence of bytes with no message
boundaries.
n Message oriented services provide
communication service to chunks of
data called datagrams.
n
61
Full- vs. Half-Duplex

n
Full-Duplex services support the

transfer of data in both directions.
Half-Duplex services support the

transfer of data in a single direction.
62
End-to-End vs. Hop-toHop

n
Many service modes/features such as

flow control and error control can be
done either:
between endpoints of the communication.
-orbetween every 2 nodes on the path between
the endpoints.
63
End-to-End
Process A
Process B
64
Hop-by-Hop
Process A
Process B
65
Buffering
n
n
Buffering can provide more efficient

communications.
Buffering is most useful for byte stream
services.
Process A
Send
Buffer
Recv.
Buffer
Process B
66
The Session Layer

n
Responsibilities:
establishes, manages, and terminates
sessions between applications.
service location lookup
Many protocol suites do not include a

session layer.
67
The Presentation Layer

n
Responsibilities:
data encryption
data compression
data conversion
Many protocol suites do not include a

Presentation Layer.
68
The Application Layer

n
Responsibilities:
anything not provided by any of the other
layers
Issues:
application level protocols
appropriate selection of type of service
69
Application Layer
n
Function to define a standard set of

commands understood by clients and servers
irrespective of underlying platform
Request / Response model
70
Important Summary
Data-Link :- communication between
machines on the same network.
n Network :- communication between
machines on possibly different
networks.
n Transport :- communication between
processes (running on machines on
possibly different networks).
n
71
Connecting Networks
n
Repeater:
physical layer
Bridge:
data link layer
Router:
network layer
Gateway:
network layer and above.
72
Repeater
Copies bits from one network to another
n Does not look at any bits
n Allows the extension of a network
beyond physical length limitations
n
REPEATER
73
Bridge
Copies frames from one network to
another
n Can operate selectively - does not copy
all frames (must look at data-link
headers).
n Extends the network beyond physical
length limitations.
n
BRIDGE
74
Router
Copies packets from one network to another.
n Makes decisions about what route a packet
should take (looks at network headers).
n
ROUTER
ROUTER
75
Gateway
Operates as a router
n Data conversions above the network
layer.
n Conversions:
n
encapsulation - use an intermediate network

translation - connect different application
protocols
encryption - could be done by a gateway
76
Encapsulation Example
Gateway
Gateway
Provides service connectivity

even though intermediate
network does not support
protocols.
77
Translation
Gateway
Translate from green protocol to brown

protocol
78
Encryption gateway
Secure
Network
Encryption/Decryption
Gateways
GW
?
?
?
Secure
Network
GW
Insecure Network
79
Hardware vs. Software

Repeaters are typically hardware devices.
n Bridges can be implemented in hardware or
software.
n Routers & Gateways are typically
implemented in software so that they can be
extended to handle new protocols.
n Many workstations can operate as routers or
gateways.
n
80
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol
81
TCP/IP & OSI

In OSI reference model terminology -the
TCP/IP protocol suite covers the
network and transport layers.
n TCP/IP can be used on many data-link
layers (can support many network
hardware implementations).
n
82
Comparison of OSI model with TCP/IP model
83
Internet Protocol
The IP in TCP/IP
n
IP is the network layer

packet delivery service (host-to-host).
translation between different data-link
protocols.
84
IP Datagrams
IP provides connectionless, unreliable
delivery of IP datagrams.
n Connectionless: each datagram is
independent of all others.
n Unreliable: there is no guarantee that
datagrams are delivered correctly or at
all.
n
85
IP addresses are not the

same as the underlying
data-link (MAC)
addresses.
R e n s s e l a e r
IP Addresses
Why ?
86
IP Addresses
IP is a network layer - it must be
capable of providing communication
between hosts on different kinds of
networks (different data-link
implementations).
n The address must include information
about what network the receiving host is
on. This makes routing feasible.
n
87
IP Addresses
IP addresses are logical addresses (not
physical)
n 32 bits.
n Includes a network ID and a host ID.
n Every host must have a unique IP address.
n IP addresses are assigned by a central
authority (the Inter-NIC at SRI
International).
n
88
The four formats of IP

Addresses
Class
A 00 NetID
NetID
B 10
10
HostID
HostID
NetID
NetID
110
110
1110
8 bits
HostID
HostID
HostID
HostID
NetID
NetID
Multicast Address
8 bits
8 bits
8 bits
89
Class
Class AA
l
l 128
128 possible
possible network
network IDs
IDs
l
l over
over 44 million
million host
host IDs
IDs per
per network
network ID
ID
Class
Class BB
l
l 16K
16K possible
possible network
network IDs
IDs
l
l 64K
64K host
host IDs
IDs per
per network
network ID
ID
Class
Class C
C
l
l over
over 22 million
million possible
possible network
network IDs
IDs
l
l about
about 256
256 host
host IDs
IDs per
per network
network ID
ID
90
Network and Host IDs

A Network ID is assigned to an
organization by a global authority.
n Host IDs are assigned locally by a
system administrator.
n Both the Network ID and the Host ID
are used for routing.
n
91
IP Addresses
IP Addresses are usually shown in
dotted decimal notation:
1.2.3.4
00000001 00000010 00000011 00000100
n cs.rpi.edu is 128.213.1.1
n
10000000 11010101 00000001 00000001
CS has a class B network

92
Host and Network Addresses

A single network interface is assigned a
single IP address called the host
address.
n A host may have multiple interfaces,
and therefore multiple host addresses.
n Hosts that share a network all have the
same IP network address (the network
ID).
n
93
IP Broadcast and Network

Addresses
An IP broadcast addresses has a host ID of
all 1s.
n IP broadcasting is not necessarily a true
broadcast, it relies on the underlying
hardware technology.
n An IP address that has a host ID of all 0s is
called a network address and refers to an
entire network.
n
94
Mapping IP Addresses to
Hardware Addresses
IP Addresses are not recognized by
hardware.
n If we know the IP address of a host, how do
we find out the hardware address ?
n The process of finding the hardware
address of a host given the IP address is
called
Address Resolution
n
95
Reverse Address Resolution

n
The process of finding out the IP

address of a host given a hardware
address is called
Reverse Address Resolution
Reverse address resolution is needed

by diskless workstations when booting.
96
ARP
The Address Resolution Protocol is
used by a sending host when it knows
the IP address of the destination but
needs the Ethernet address.
n ARP is a broadcast protocol - every
host on the network receives the
request.
n Each host checks the request against
its IP address - the right one responds.
n
97
ARP (cont.)
ARP does not need to be done every
time an IP datagram is sent - hosts
remember the hardware addresses of
each other.
n Part of the ARP protocol specifies that
the receiving host should also
remember the IP and hardware
addresses of the sending host.
n
98
ARP conversation
HEY - Everyone please listen!
Will 192.168.0.44 please send me
his/her Ethernet address?
not me
Hi Green! Im 192.168.0.44, and

my Ethernet address is
87:A2:15:35:02:C3
99
RARP conversation
HEY - Everyone please listen!
My Ethernet address is
22:BC:66:17:01:75.
Does anyone know my IP address ?
not me
Hi Green! Your IP address is

128.213.1.17.
100
Services provided by IP
Connectionless Delivery (each
datagram is treated individually).
n Unreliable (delivery is not guaranteed).
n Fragmentation / Reassembly (based on
hardware MTU).
n Routing.
n Error detection.
n
101
IP Datagram
1 byte
1 byte
1 byte
1 byte
VERS
HL
Service
Fragment Length
Datagram ID
FLAG
Fragment Offset
TTL
Protocol
Header Checksum
Source Address
Destination Address
Options (if any)
Data
102
IP Datagram Fragmentation
Each fragment (packet) has the same
structure as the IP datagram.
n IP specifies that datagram reassembly
is done only at the destination (not on a
hop-by-hop basis).
n If any of the fragments are lost - the
entire datagram is discarded (and an
ICMP message is sent to the sender).
n
103
IP Flow Control & Error

Detection
If packets arrive too fast - the receiver
discards excessive packets and sends
an ICMP message to the sender
(SOURCE QUENCH).
n If an error is found (header checksum
problem) the packet is discarded and an
ICMP message is sent to the sender.
n
104
ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP is a protocol used for exchanging
control messages.
n ICMP uses IP to deliver messages.
n ICMP messages are usually generated
and processed by the IP software, not
the user process.
n
105
ICMP Message Types

Echo Request
n Echo Response
n Destination Unreachable
n Redirect
n Time Exceeded
n Redirect (route change)
n there are more ...
n
106
Process
Process
Process
Process
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
ICMP, ARP
&
RARP
Process Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
IP
IP
802.3
802.3
Data-Link Layer
107
UDP User Datagram Protocol

n
UDP is a transport protocol

communication between processes
UDP uses IP to deliver datagrams to the

right host.
n UDP uses ports to provide
communication services to individual
processes.
n
108
Ports
TCP/IP uses an abstract destination
point called a protocol port.
n Ports are identified by a positive integer.
n Operating systems provide some
mechanism that processes use to
specify a port.
n
109
Ports
Host A
Host B
Process
Process
Process
Process
Process
Process
110
UDP
Datagram Delivery
n Connectionless
n Unreliable
n Minimal
n
UDP Datagram Format

Source Port
Destination Port
Length
Checksum
Data
111
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is an alternative transport layer
protocol supported by TCP/IP.
n TCP provides:
Connection-oriented
Reliable
Full-duplex
Byte-Stream
n
112
Connection-Oriented
Connection oriented means that a
virtual connection is established before
any user data is transferred.
n If the connection cannot be established
- the user program is notified.
n If the connection is ever interrupted the user program(s) is notified.
n
113
Reliable
Reliable means that every transmission
of data is acknowledged by the receiver.
n If the sender does not receive
acknowledgement within a specified
amount of time, the sender retransmits
the data.
n
114
Byte Stream
Stream means that the connection is
treated as a stream of bytes.
n The user application does not need to
package data in individual datagrams
(as with UDP).
n
115
Buffering
TCP is responsible for buffering data
and determining when it is time to send
a datagram.
n It is possible for an application to tell
TCP to send the data it has buffered
without waiting for a buffer to fill up.
n
116
Full Duplex
TCP provides transfer in both directions.
n To the application program these
appear as 2 unrelated data streams,
although TCP can piggyback control
and data communication by providing
control information (such as an ACK)
along with user data.
n
117
TCP Ports
Interprocess communication via TCP is
achieved with the use of ports (just like
UDP).
n UDP ports have no relation to TCP
ports (different name spaces).
n
118
TCP Segments
The chunk of data that TCP asks IP to
deliver is called a TCP segment.
n Each segment contains:
n
data bytes from the byte stream

control information that identifies the data
bytes
119
TCP Segment Format

1 byte
1 byte
1 byte
1 byte
Source Port
Destination Port
Sequence Number
Request Number
offset Reser.
Control
Window
Checksum
Urgent Pointer
Options (if any)
Data
120
Addressing in TCP/IP
n
Each TCP/IP address includes:

Internet Address
Protocol (UDP or TCP)
Port Number
121
TCP vs. UDP

Q: Which protocol is better ?
A: It depends on the application.
TCP provides a connection-oriented,
reliable byte stream service (lots of
overhead).
UDP offers minimal datagram delivery
service (as little overhead as possible).
122
TCP/IP Summary
n
IP: network layer protocol

unreliable datagram delivery between hosts.
UDP: transport layer protocol

unreliable datagram delivery between
processes.
TCP: transport layer protocol

reliable, byte-stream delivery between
processes.
123
IP Addressing and Sub-netting
124
IP Address Management
n
Managed by the IANA

(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
Host IP addresses are assigned by the

network administrator.
n Managed Statically or Dynamically.
n
125
IP v4
Ipv4 uses 32 bit unique addresses
n Displayed in 4 part (field, byte) dotted
decimal notation.
n
xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx
126
Breaking down the Bytes

n
Each of the 4 bytes can be broken into

a unit of 8 bits.
10101110.11111000.01100110.00000110
127
Calculating Byte Values

Each Bit has a value.
n Calculation starts on the left with the
High order bit
n 128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1 = 11111111
n 01111111 = 64+32+16+8+4+2+1
n 10111111 = 128+32+16+8+4+2+1
n
128
Network Address Class

Determination
n
5 Classes of IP addresses can be

created by changing the value of the
high order bits in the first byte.
129
Classes of networks
Class A
n Class B
n Class C
n Class D
n
130
Specifying Classes
Class A High Order Bit 0
n Class B High Order Bits 10
n Class C High Order Bits 11
n Class D High Order Bits 1110
n Class E High Order Bits 11110
n
131
Class A Addresses
Up to 126 addresses
n Up to 16,777,216 hosts each.
n 1-126.xxx.xxx.xxx
n 0 and 127 are reserved
n 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 are Private
Reserved (Non-Routable Class A
Addresses)
n
132
Class B Addresses
up to 16,384 Networks
n Each network with 65,000 addresses
n 128-191.xxx.xxx.xxx
n Private / Reserved Class B Addresses
172.16.0 - 172.31.255.255
n
133
Class C Addresses
Up to 2,097,152 class C networks with
254 addresses each
n (0 and 255 are reserved)
n The first two high order bits must be 1 &
1.
n 192-254.xxx.xxx.xxx
n Private Reserved Class C Addresses
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
n
134
Class D & E
n
Class D- used for multicasting

High Order bits set to 1110
224.0.0.0-239.xxx.xxx.xxx
Class D addresses can not be assigned to
hosts.
Class E- experimental
High order bits set to 11110
240-247.xxx.xxx.xxx
Class E addresses can not be assigned to
hosts
135
Private (Reserved Addresses)

Class A 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
n Class B 172.16.0 - 172.31.255.255
n Class C 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
n
Network Portion of address in a Subnet

must not = all 1s or all 0s
136
Subnet Addresses
n
n
An organization can subdivide its host

address space into groups called subnets.
The subnet ID is generally used to group
hosts based on the physical network
topology.
10
10
NetID
NetID
SubnetID
SubnetID HostID
HostID
137
Subnetting
router
Subnet 1
128.213.1.x
Subnet 2
128.213.2.x
Subnet 3
128.213.3.x
138
Subnetting
Subnets can simplify routing.
n IP subnet broadcasts have a hostID of
all 1s.
n It is possible to have a single wire
network with multiple subnets.
n
139
Sub-netting
Sub-nets- Sub-nets divide a single
network into smaller networks.
n Routers are used to connect the smaller
Subnetworks to the main network.
n Subnetting borrows host bits and adds
them to the main network's section.
n
140
Sub Network Borrowing

[x][xxxxxxx] (x=0 or 1)
n ^ Network ^ Hosts
n
141
Sub-netting
Sub-nets- Sub-nets divide a single
network into smaller networks.
n Routers are used to connect the smaller
Subnetworks to the main network.
n Subnetting borrows host bits and adds
them to the main network's section.
n Subnet Mask- tells TCP/IP which bits
have been borrowed for sub-netting.
n
142
143
Subnet Mask Continued

n
Flat networks are networks which do not

employ subnets.
IP Address 137.150.64.1=
10001001.10010110.01000000.00000001
Subnet Mask 255.255.0.0
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
144
Subnet Mask Cont.

n
The Subnet Mask identifies which

portion of the address is used for the
network, and which portion is used for
the host.
145
Common Subnets
n 255 11111111
n 254 11111110
n 252 11111100
n 248 11111000
n 240 11110000
n 224 11100000
n 192 11000000
n 128 10000000
n 0
146
Theoretical Networks Created

Number of
Host Bits
Sub
Used
Networks
2
1 bits
2 bits
3 bits
16
4 bits
32
5 bits
64
6 bits
128
7 bits
255
8 bits
147
Class A Subnet Table

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
# of Subnets
0
2
6
14
30
62
126
254
Hosts per subnet

invalid
4,194,302
2,097,150
1,048,574
524,286
262,142
131,070
65,534
Number of bits
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Subnet Mask
invalid
255.192.0.0
255.224.0.0
255.240.0.0
255.248.0.0
255.252.0.0
255.254.0.0
255.255.0.0
148
Class B Subnet Table

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
# of Subnets
0
2
6
14
30
62
126
254
Hosts per subnet

invalid
16,382
8,190
4,094
2,046
1,022
510
254
Number of bits
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Subnet Mask
invalid
255.255.192.0
255.255.224.0
255.255.240.0
255.255.248.0
255.255.252.0
255.255.254.0
255.255.255.0
149
Class C Subnet Table

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
# of Subnets
0
2
6
14
30
62
Hosts per subnet

invalid
62
30
14
6
2
Number of bits
1
2
3
4
5
6
Subnet Mask
invalid
255.255.255.192
255.255.255.224
255.255.255.240
255.255.255.248
255.255.255.252
150
Calculating First and Last

Address
n
When bits are borrowed from the host

portion of the address and given to the
network portion of the address, the
ranges of address should consist of a
network address and a first and last
host address.
151
Class B Example
172.16.xxx.xxx
n 255.255.224.0
n 3 subnet bits taken
n 8 subnets created 8190 hosts each
n
152
Class B: 3 3bit Address

Ranges
0 [000]172.16.0.1 to 172.16.31.254
n 1 [001]172.16.32.1 to 172.16.63.254
n 2 [010]172.16.64.1 to 172.16.95.254
n 3 [011]172.16.96.1 to 172.16.127.254
n 4 [100]172.16.128.1 to 172.16.159.254
n 5 [101]172.16.160.1 to 172.16.191.254
n 6 [110]172.16.192.1 to 172.16.223.254
n 7 [111]172.16.224.1 to 172.16.255.254
n
153
Class C Addresses : 2 bits

Subnet Mask 255.255.255.192
n 4 Subnets 62 hosts each
n
0 192.168.121.1 to 192.168.121.62
n 1 192.168.121.65 to 192.168.121.126
n 2 192.168.121.129 to 192.168.121.190
n 3 192.168.121.193 to 192.168.121.254
n
154
Class C Example : Continued

2 subnet bits = [xx][xxxxxx]
n All 0 and 1 hosts are excluded
n Possible network addresses
n 0 = [00][xxxxxx]
n 64 = [01][xxxxxx]
n 128= [10][xxxxxx]
n 192= [11][xxxxxx]
n
155
Class C Example: Bit

Counting
n
= [00][xxxxxx] .1 to .62
[00][000001] to [00][111110]
n
64 = [01][xxxxxx] .65 to .126

[01][000001] to [01][111110]
128= [10][xxxxxx] .129 to .190

[10][000001] to [10][111110]
192= [11][xxxxxx] .193 to .254

[11][000001] to [11][111110]
156
Subnet Calculations &

Calculators
Be careful when converting decimal to
binary that bits are not dropped.
n Sub-net Calculators are available and
can be used to calculate address
ranges and network addresses for
hosts.
n
157
IP Version 6
n Necessary because we are running out of 32
bit IPv4 Addresses. And Routing Tables are

becoming too large.
n IP v6 uses 128 bit addresses
n IP v 6 Equipment will also support IPv4.
158

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Networking Basics

NIC, OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Network consist many components:

Networking Basics: Hardware

Network Basics : Software

Are standards that allow computer to communicate.

Networking Basics: LAN

Hub Based LAN

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Networking Basics : LAN

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Networking Basics : LAN

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Multiaccess vs. Point-to-point

Multiaccess means shared medium.

NIC, OSI Reference Model

LAN - Local Area Network

connects computers that are physically

WAN - Wide Area Network

connects computers that are physically

MAN - Metropolitan Area

Larger than a LAN and smaller than a

NIC, OSI Reference Model

OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

OSI 7 Layer Model:

High level protocols

Low level protocols

NIC, OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Layering Example: Postal deptt.

NIC, OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

OSI model consists of seven layers

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Layering & Headers

Each layer needs to add some control

NIC, OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

The upper (3) layers

Primarily concerned with the

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Mid (Layers 3-5)

often referred to as transport protocols and

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Lower Level Protocols

(Physical Layer Standards)

NIC, OSI Reference Model

OSI from the bottom up

NIC, OSI Reference Model

The Physical Layer

NIC, OSI Reference Model

Cables (or wireless) are often referred to as

These cables are used to carry digital signals

NIC, OSI Reference Model

NIC, OSI Reference Model

analog signals can be

NIC, OSI Reference Model

LANs use digital

NIC, OSI Reference Model