4 uses of force Robert Art

1. Compellence
2. Defense
3. Deterrence
4. Swaggering

1. Compellence: deployment of military power to prevent adversary from doing something that
he has already undertaken or to get him to do something that he has not undertaken and
would have otherwise undertaken
e.g. Making Iraq leave Kuwait
Both physical and peaceful employment of force may be involved
Hard to achieve

2. Defense: the deployment of mil power to do two things: ward off attack & minimize damage
if attacked
Can take form of both peaceful & physical employment of force and both repellent (second)
and offensive (first) strike
Preventive and preemptive strike

3. Deterrence: threat of retaliation in the form of unacceptable levels of punishment - to

prevent adversary from doing something one does not want him to do that he might otherwise
be tempted to do
Employment of force peacefully
Effectiveness of threat depends on ? Ability to convince adversary that you have both will +
power to carry on with your threat

Defense and deterrence

1. Both are for protecting a state from physical attack

2. Purpose of both is dissuasion to persuade others not to undertake harmful action
against it message is you cant win militarily and will suffer bad consequences if you
attack
3. While defense persuades by presenting powerful military force, deterrence by threat of
retaliation

Defense and deterrence possible without the other

Whether a state can defend or deter depends on
1. Quantitative balance of forces between 2 states
2. Qualitative balance of forces first strike capabilities; whether mil tech or some other
factors favour defense or deterrence

3 Cs of deterrence
1. Communication: Drawing a Red Line
Make adversary understand what action is prohibited and what the cost will be
2. Capabilities
3. Credibility: is the threat believable - Bluffing?

Compellence and deterrence

Active / passive use of force
Deterrence success = without use of force; Compellence success = how quickly adversary does
what you want
Successful deterrence = attempt is to show a negative, something that did not happen
Successful compellence = you need to show something that happened
Compellence easier to demonstrate than deterrence BUT harder to achieve

4. Swaggering much harder to define than the other three; in part, it is a residual category,
which is the use of force for reasons other than deterrence, compellence or defense
The use of swaggering is vague /unclear; aims to enhance national pride/ feel good factor; show
off, perhaps to enhance prestige

In conclusion

It is one thing to identify and define the 4 uses of force and another to discriminate between
them analytically
Why?
Because we need to know motive behind action to judge its purpose without that, impossible
to know the precise purpose of the use of force actions or words not = motive X action can
be for more than one purpose; words are just words

Especially problematic to discriminate between:

1. Defensive and compellent actions; and
2. Deterrent from swaggering.
Peaceful defensive preparations look similar to peaceful compellent preparations; the latter
could lead to preemptive war
Defensive attacks similar to compellent attacks; is attacking first defense or compellence?
Deterrence and swaggering both involve display of weapons and showing off where is the
exact boundary between the two?
Key issue is intent and particularly, communication of intent

1. Offense/Defense: Balance
Defense stronger then Offense: Increased Stability
Offense Stronger then Defense: Increased Instability

Sources of Variation:
Weapons Technology
Civilian Technology (transport & Communication)
Geography

2. Offense/Defense: Posture
if an offensive posture can be distinguished from a defensive posture: Increased Stability
Sources of variation:
Deployment?
Weapons technology
Nuclear weapons?