Chemistry Revision MP & JEs (First of course)

Amount of Substance
1 mole = Ar in grams
Molecular formula: Actual number of atoms (C 2H6)
Empirical formula: Simplest ratio of atoms (CH 3)
Treat percentages (%) the same as you would weights
Atomic number: Number of protons (smaller number)
Mass number: Number of protons and neutrons (bigger
number)
Isotope = Same number of protons, different neutrons
Relative abundance = ( (% Ar) + (% Ar) ) 100

Nuclear Reactions
decay releases a helium nuclei (2p +2n)
decay releases an electron (1e-)
releases energy in the form of a wave
A radioactive equation must be equal on both sides
Half life: The time it takes for half the radioactive nuclei in a
sample to decay
Uses for HLs:
Dating archeological artifacts
Find out the age of igneous rocks
Tracers: Radioactive isotopes whose decay is monitored.
Mustnt have to long a half life (damage patient) no too short (decay
before diagnosed)
Tracers are used to aid diagnosis of cancer
Nuclear fusion: joining of two or more nuclei to form a heavier
new element

Light and Electrons

Absorption spectra: coloured background, , the excited
electrons absorb light
Emission spectra: dark background, , The excited electrons
emit light
Electrons move to certain energy levels, NOT between
Lyman series (1-2-1-3-1) and Balmer series (2-3-2-4-2)
The energy given out/absorbed has a definite frequency
(E=hv)
Lines of the spectra get closer the higher up the frequency of
the light
Elements in same group = similar chemical properties

Chemical Bonding and Properties

Ionic Lattice NaCl, high mp, most soluble, conducts when

molten/dissolved

Ionic Lattice = Strong electrostatic forces between anions

& cations in lattice

Giant Covalent Diamond, high mp, insoluble, dont

conduct (ex. Graphite)
Graphite conducts = The C atoms have 3 bonds,
delocalized e- carry charge
Simple Covalent Water, low mp, most insoluble, wont
conduct
Metallic Lattice Sodium, high mp, insoluble, always
conduct
Metal Conducts = Sea of delocalized electrons are free to move and
carry charge

Shapes of Molecules
Electron repulsion theory: more lone electron pairs, smaller bond
angles
Lone pairs arrange to be as far apart as possible
Tetrahedral, Bent, Linear, Trigonal Bipyramidal, Planar Triangular,
Octahedral, Ion
Bond angles (resp.): 109, 105, 180, 120 & 90, 120, 90, Changes
depending of shape.
Mass Spectrometry
Ionisation: Electron fired at gaseous atom:
X (g) + e- X+ (g) + 2e
Key words: sample inlet, ionization area, acceleration area, drift
region, ion detector

On Graph: Molecular ion (last line), base peak (most abundant ion)

Relative mass = (percentage mass number) + (p mn) 100

S Block Groups
M + 2H2O M(OH)2 + H2
Form alkaline solutions when (hydr)oxides dissolve in water (most
strongly alkaline = bottom of table)
Hydroxide (M[OH]2) + Acid (e.g HCl) Salt (MCl2) + H2O
Carbonate (MCO3) heat-> Oxide (MO) + CO2
Thermal stability increases as you go down the table
Hydroxides (-1) :- more soluble as you go down group
Carbonates (-2) :- less soluble as you go down the group
Enthalpy Changes/Experiments
Exothermic: Release heat (Bond-Making), Enthalpy = negative Endothermic: Absorbs heat (Bond-Breaking), Enthalpy = positive +
Heat transferred = mass specific heat capacity (H20 = 4.18 kJmol)
temp difference
(Difficult to replicate) standard Conditions (in lab):
298K temperature
1 atmosphere pressure
1 dm-3 concentration
Percentage error = (Max error Quantity measured) 100

Small measurements = higher error percentage (want errors < 2)

Hr, 298 - React as stated in the equation
Hc, 298 1 mole of substance is burned
Hf, 298 1 mole of compound is formed; both element & compound
in standard states
Hesss Law - H1 = H3 H2 OR H1 = - H2 - H3
Piece of data w/most uncertainty = least sig figs
Improvement to experiment = insulate/increase shielding
Bond Enthalpies
Bond (dissociation enthalpy) = Amount of energy needed to break 1
mole of bonds
Usually, shorter bond = more energy to break closer together =
stronger attraction
H (kJmol-1) = (energy to break bonds) + (energy to make bonds)
When calculating, draw/count ALL bonds broken
Alkanes and Other Hydrocarbons
Alkanes (saturated), Alkenes (unsaturated), Arenes (aromatic)
Aliphatic: A compound which is straight chained, branched or nonaromatic
Types of structure: Molecular, structural, full structural (display) and
skeletal
Any side chains go in brackets and are preceded by CH - e.g
CH3CH(CH3)CH3
You can rewrite alkanes if theyre really long e.g CH 3(CH3)18CH3
Structural Isomer: Different structures but same molecular formula
Most bond angles are 109

When naming hydrocarbons:

Look for the longest chain and name it
Use prefixes in ALPHABETICAL order for alkyl side chains
Use di, tri, tetra before the prefix if the side chains are the
same
Use the lowest number to show the position of the side
chains
Engines + Emissions
Diesel/Lean burn engine has oxidation catalyst so produces less CO
and unburnt CxHy
Diesel engines = more NO because work at higher temps
Stoichiometric: involving exact amount shown in equation (avg. 15:1,
air:fuel)
CO2 Acid rain, corrosion of CaCO3, problems for people with asthma
Photochemical Smog haziness, bad visibility, eye and nose irritation
N (g) + O (g) 2NO (g)

Catalysis
Catalyst: speeds up the rate of reaction, chemically unchanged at
end of reaction, can be used again.
Homogenous: catalysing same states as reactants
Heterogeneous: catalysing different states as reactants
Honeycomb structure Stronger and higher surface area
Catalyst Poisoning when stubborn elements adsorb to surface of
catalyst so stops it from working
Key words: reactants, products, adsorbed, surface, bonds, broken,
formed, diffusion.
Gas Calculations
Under standard conditions any gas occupies 24dm 3
Volume = 24 num of moles
Entropy
A measure of the degree of disorder in a system.
Increases: up states, bigger molecules, more moles of products
Higher entropy if there are more ways of arranging molecules