Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture I. .................................................................................................................................................. 4
What is Grammar? .............................................................................................................................. 4
Approaches: Descriptive vs. Prescriptive ................................................................................... 4
Language Variation (G&Q).......................................................................................................... 5
Words and Word Classes..................................................................................................................... 6
Types of Grammatical Units ....................................................................................................... 6
Families of Words ....................................................................................................................... 7
Structure of Words: Morphology ............................................................................................... 7
Sequences of Words ................................................................................................................... 8
Lexical Words, Function Words, and Inserts across Registers ................................................... 8
Function Words ................................................................................................................................. 11
Determiners .............................................................................................................................. 11
Pronouns................................................................................................................................... 11
Auxiliary verbs .......................................................................................................................... 11
Prepositions .............................................................................................................................. 11
Adverbial particles .................................................................................................................... 12
Conjunctions, Subordinators .................................................................................................... 12
Special Classes of Words .......................................................................................................... 14
Lecture II. ............................................................................................................................................... 15
A First Look At Phrase Structure........................................................................................................ 15
Characteristics of Phrases......................................................................................................... 15
Types of Phrases ....................................................................................................................... 15
Types of Phrases vs. Syntactic Roles of Phrases ....................................................................... 16
Clause patterns .................................................................................................................................. 16
Subject Predicatives vs. Object Predicatives ............................................................................ 16
Obligatory vs. Optional Adverbials ........................................................................................... 17
Terms ................................................................................................................................................. 17
Lecture III. .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Kinds of Variation in the Structure of Verb Phrases .......................................................................... 18
Tense vs. Time ................................................................................................................................... 18
Past and Present Across Registers..................................................................................................... 19
Use of the Simple Past .............................................................................................................. 20
Basic Uses of The Past Progressive ........................................................................................... 20
Whats the Difference?............................................................................................................. 21
Perfects.............................................................................................................................................. 21
Present Perfect - Uses .............................................................................................................. 21
Lecture I.
(LSGSWE pp1-54, SGEL pp1-23)
WHAT IS GRAMMAR?
The systematic study and description of a language
A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures (morphology) of a
language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language
(NORDQUIST, 2012)
Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of
how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others
use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression
available in English. And it can help everyone not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything,
for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.
(David Crystal, "In word and deed," TES Teacher, April 30, 2004)
It is necessary to know grammar, and it is better to write grammatically than not, but it is well to
remember that grammar is common speech formulated. Usage is the only test.
(William Somerset Maugham, The Summing Up, 1938)
Approaches: Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
Descriptive grammar (definition #1) refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by
speakers and writers.
Prescriptive grammar (definition #2) refers to the structure of a language as certain people think
it should be used.
Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules but in different ways.
Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use
of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about
what they believe to be the correct or incorrect use of language.
II.
In terms of role
o
In terms of meaning
o
Writing
Families of Words
Lexical words
nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
open classes
they often have a complex internal structure and can be composed of several parts: e.g.
unfriendliness = un +friend + li + ness.
can be heads of phrases: e.g. the noun completion is the head (or main word) of the noun phrase
[the completion of the task]
Function words
prepositions, coordinators, auxiliary verbs, and pronouns
They usually indicate meaning relationships and help us to interpret units containing lexical
words, by showing how the units are related to each other.
few types, many tokens
closed classes
Inserts
Inserts are found mainly in spoken language.
Inserts do not form an integral part of a syntactic structure, but tend to be inserted freely in a
text.
They are often marked off by a break in intonation in speech, or by a punctuation mark in
writing: e.g. well, we made it.
They generally carry emotional, interpersonal and discoursal meanings, such as oh, ah, wow,
used to express a speaker's emotional response to a situation, or yeah, no, okay used to
signal a response to what has just been said.
Inserts are generally simple in form, though they often have an atypical pronunciation (e.g. hm,
uh-huh, ugh, yeah).
Structure of Words: Morphology
Simple vs. Complex words (single stem vs. More than one parts)
Inflection
Lexical words can take inflectional suffixes to signal meanings and roles which are important to
their word class, function words (except for pronouns) are invariable
Nouns
boy
Verbs
participle
write
Adjectives
dark
Adverbs
soon
Derivation
involves adding an affix (prefix or suffix) to the stem
creates new nouns, adjectives, adverbs (with or w/o category change)
applies before inflection
less productive than inflection
o
Compounding
compound word contain more than one stem
o
Sequences of Words
A multi-word unit is a sequence of orthographic words which functions like a single grammatical
unit: e.g. the preposition on top of or the adverb of course.
An idiom is a multi-word unit with a meaning that cannot be predicted from the meanings of its
constituent words. A typical example is a verb expression like fall in love or make up (one's)
mind.
A collocation is the relationship between two or more independent words which commonly
appear together (or co-occur). E.g. broad accent, broad agreement, broad daylight, broad
grin, broad shoulders, etc.; but!!! Wide appeal, wide area, wide experience, wide interests,
wide margin, etc.
Lexical bundle: more than two words frequently co-occurring, e.g. I don't think and would you
mind.
Lexical Words, Function Words, and Inserts across Registers
A: Is that the time?
B: Yeah, it's twenty minutes to four.
A: Oh my clock is slow, yeah.
B: Do you want us to just go out there and come back and pick you guys up?
A: Uh huh.
C: Yeah.
A: You can go if you want to, Ill, I think Ill <. . .>
D: He really doesn't trust me, does he?
C: That's right, how 'bout I pin you?
D: Okay. Oh, let me tell you something.
B: Do you, do you want to go by yourself?
D: No, no, no. You'll feel better and we'll be following you.
A: Will you feel better?
D: It doesn't.
C: I need three safety pins, you had one in your pocket.
B: Uh huh.
Morphological: what forms does a word have (e.g in terms of stems and affixes)?
Syntactic: what syntactic roles does a word play in phrases or other higher units?
Nouns
Morphological characteristics
o
nouns have inflectional suffixes for plural number (except for uncountable nouns), and
for genitive case
Syntactic characteristics
o
nouns can occur as the head of a noun phrase: [a new book about the cold war], [the
ugliest person you've ever seen]
Semantic characteristics
o
Nouns commonly refer to concrete, physical entities (people, objects, substances): e.g.
book, friend, iron. They can also denote abstract entities, such as qualities and states:
e.g. freedom, wish, friendship.
(Lexical) verbs
Morphological characteristics
o
Lexical verbs have different forms signalling tense (present and past), aspect (perfect,
progressive), and voice (active and passive).
Multi-word verbs and derived verbs: bring up, rely on, look forward to, hyphenate,
itemize, soften.
Syntactic characteristics
o
Also occur in the final or main verb position of verb phrases: [has written] a letter; [will
be writing] tomorrow.
Semantic characteristics
o
Denote actions, processes, and states of affairs that happen or exist in time.
Adjectives
Morphological characteristics
o
can take the inflectional suffixes -er (comparative) and -est (superlative)
Syntactic characteristics
o
Adjectives can occur as the head of an adjective phrase: [very dark], [eager to help],
[guilty of a serious crime].
Semantic characteristics
o
Adverbs
Morphological characteristics
o
many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the suffix -ly (derived adverbs)
a few adverbs allow comparative and superlative forms like those for adjectives: soon -+
sooner + soonest; fast +faster + fastest
Syntactic characteristics
o
They occur as head of adverb phrases: [very noisily], [more slowly than i had expected].
Adverbs, with or without their own modifiers, are often used as modifiers of an
adjective or another adverb: really old, very soon.
They can act as adverbials in the clause: Ill see you again soon.
Semantic characteristics
o
Verbs ending in -ing can act as the main verb of a verb phrase, and may be followed by a
noun or an adjective (underlined here): e.g. is eating lunch; becoming misty overnight.
Nouns ending in -ing can sometimes have a plural form (e.g. paintings), and can usually be a
head noun after a determiner: e.g. [the banning of some chemicals], [her dancing].
Adjectives ending in -ing can appear before a noun, and can also occur after verbs such as be
and become: e.g. the travelling public; it was (very) confusing.
They are very often gradable, and can be preceded by degree adverbs such as very, so, and
too: very forgiving, so interesting, too boring.
Living standards (n+n) vs. living creatures (a+n), dancing classes (n+n) vs. the dancing children
(a+n), working conditions vs. a working mother
FUNCTION WORDS
Determiners
Pronouns
Auxiliary verbs
primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) show how the main verb is to be understood
have for perfect aspect
be for progressive aspect and passive voice
do for negative statements and in questions
modal auxiliaries express possibility, necessity, prediction and volition, there are 9 of
them:
Will
can
shall
may
must
Would
could
should
might
Prepositions
Prepositions can be linked to a preceding verb, such as rely on and confide in. These multiword units are referred to as prepositional verbs
Complex prepositions
multi-word units which have a meaning that cannot be derived from the meaning of the
parts
Ending in
Examples
As
such as
For
From
apart from
Of
To
Examples
Of
To
As
Adverbial particles
they are used to build phrasal verbs, in which they follow verbs, and are closely bound to
them in meaning
they are also used to build extended prepositional phrases, where a particle precedes the
preposition.
We were going back to the hotel when it happened
Conjunctions, Subordinators
Coordinators (also called coordinating conjunctions)
And, but, and or
[Mother] and [I] saw it. (CONV)
[I don't want to speak too soon], but [I think I have been fairly consistent this season]. (NEWS)
Correlative coordinators
Both [x] and [y], either [x] or [y]
Not (only) [x] but (also) [y], neither [x] nor [y]
Complex subordinators
Ending in
Examples
As
That
Misc.
existential there
Numerals
Cardinals
1,2,3,4, etc.
Ordinals
First, second, third, fourth, etc.
Word-Class Ambiguities
Determiner
Pronoun
Adverb
Adverb
Preposition
Subordinator
Adjective
Adverb
Noun
Verb
Verb
Adjective
Preposition
Subordinator
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition
Lecture II.
(LSGSWE pp102-135, SGEL pp24-34)
A phrase can consist of either one word or more than one word.
Phrases can be embedded (i.e. one phrase can be part of the structure of another phrase).
1.
2. a
2. b
Types of Phrases
The main classes of phrases are: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase,
and prepositional phrase.
The classes can be identified by their meaning, structure, and syntactic role.
Each of these phrases has a head from the corresponding word class: e.g. noun phrases
usually have a noun as their head.
The frequency of longer and more complex phrases varies from one register to another,
increasing from conversation, to fiction, to news writing, to academic prose
Verb
Object
[Mommy]
[The kitty]
[loves]
[loves]
[the kitty].
[mommy].
CLAUSE PATTERNS
Intransitive pattern:
Sarah and Michael disappeared.
Subject (S) + Verb Phrase (V)
Monotransitive pattern:
She changed her dress.
Subject (S) +Verb Phrase (V) +Direct Object (Do)
Copular patterns:
The Swiss cheese has gone bad.
Marc was in the bathroom.
Subject (S) +Verb Phrase (V) +Subject Predicative (Sp)
Subject (S) +Verb Phrase (V) +Adverbial (A)
Ditransitive pattern:
You gave her the wrong kind of egg.
Subject (S) +Verb Phrase (V) + Indirect Object (Io) + Direct Object (Do)
Complex transitive patterns:
That makes me so mad.
Theyre sending us to Disneyland.
Subject (S) + Verb Phrase (V) +Direct Object (Do) +Object Predicative (Op)
Subject (S) + Verb Phrase (V) +Direct Object (Do) +Adverbial (A)
Subject Predicatives vs. Object Predicatives
Subject predicatives
The main verb has to be a copular verb (be, seem, become, get, turn,etc.)
The main verb is a complex transitive verb (make, find, consider, name)
TERMS
1.
Lecture III.
(LSGSWE pp148-166, SGEL pp47-60)
Tense:
o
o
Aspect:
o
o
o
o
Unmarked (sees)
With modal verb (will/can/might see)
Negation:
o
o
Active (sees)
Passive (is seen)
Modality:
o
o
Voice:
o
o
Present (sees)
Past (saw)
Positive (sees)
Negative (doesn't see)
But there are several ways of expressing future time (simple present, pr. Progressive, will, about to,
etc.)
Present tense referring to past time:
I wanted just a small box. He wasn't satisfied with it - he goes and makes a big one as well.
(CONV)
And the daughter comes home from school one day and says, mum i want to be like you. And
the mum goes, okay dear. (Historic present)
Verbs that occur in the present tense over 80 per cent of the time:
Bet, doubt, know, matter, mean, mind, reckon, suppose, think (mental verbs)
Verbs that occur in the present tense over 70 per cent of the time:
Verbs that occur in the past tense over 80 per cent of the time:
Exclaim, eye, glance, grin, nod, pause, shrug, sigh, smile (activity verbs)
Remark, reply, whisper (communication verbs)
Verbs that occur in the past tense over 70 per cent of the time:
Bend, bow, lean, light, park, seat, set off shake, stare, turn away, wave, wrap
Use of the Simple Past
There have been times when i wished myself safely home in bed.
Interrupted action:
While I was getting ready for bed, the doorbell rang.
Background descriptions:
I looked into the busy street: people were pushing along, cars were hooting.
They started producing the car in 1946 and were still producing it 30 years later. (Emphasis)
Her performances were getting better and better. (Changing situation/increasing difficulty)
PERFECTS
Present Perfect - Uses
Use it to refer to events connected to the present, without a definite past time (but with just,
yet, recently, already)
Someone has (just) stolen my bike!
To refer to an item of news / new information (the event might have happened a long time
ago, but it has relevance to the present)
Archaeologists have discovered an old palace in London.
Noone has proven that aliens exist.
Achievements
United have scored three goals, and theres thirty minutes left.
He has painted some of the best portraits of recent years.
For a repeated activity but!!!! Without mentioning the number of times it has occurred
Hes been bugging me ever since we dated.
Refers to events in the past which happened before other events, usually when there is no
time expression to make this clear:
He felt tired because hed been working hard all morning.
By the time we got to the cinema, the film had started.
Only use past perfect when absolutely necessary! When we describe a series of events in
sequence, we use the simple past
Correct or Not?
Shes lived in rome for a long time. - She lived in rome for a long time.
What have you done with the knife? - What have you been doing with the knife?
When he had seen the pictures he said he was ready to leave. - When he saw the pictures he
said he was ready to leave.
Hey, did you read through this yet? - Have you read it yet?
The ceremony took place in the main state department lobby next to the honor roll of
American diplomats who gave their lives in the line of duty. (AME NEWS)
She praised the gallantry, determination and sense of duty of the servicemen and women
who had given their lives for their country. (BRE NEWS)
Uses of Going To
PRACTICE
Whats The Difference?
Correct forms
are back
havent arrived
Whether the plane (to be late) or not, they (get) a terrific welcome.
There (be) a lot of fans at the airport whenever the group (arrive).
Don't worry - I (give) you your camera back when / after / as soon as/
immediately I (take) a photo!
If you girls and boys (stop) pushing and shoving, we (be) a lot more
comfortable, (be we)?
have spoken
TERMINOLOGY
Verbs that refer to actions and events associated with a volitional activity: buy, go, take.
The doer of an action: Dad bought that for us. This term is also used for the noun phrase
following a passive + by: Im influenced by all kinds of things.
A choice in the verb phrase that expresses time meanings, related to whether an action is
finished or still in progress: have eaten, was going.
The form of a word to which affixes are added: friendliness = the ____ friendly + the affix ness.
A verb that indicates that some person or thing brings about, or helps to bring about, a new
state of affairs: help, let, allow, require.
Verbs that refer to speaking and writing activities: tell, shout, write.
A phrase or clause that completes the meaning required by some other form. For example,
that clauses can be verb ______s: She said that she has changed.
Any verb that occurs with a ______ valency pattern, taking a subject predicative as
complement: He's American. It tastes different.
A phrase or clause that is contained within a higher-level phrase or clause: [reduction [in the
risk [of death [from job-related accidents]]]].
A combination in which each word contributes its own meaning: He was afraid to look back.
The use of a verb phrase in the present tense to refer to an event that occurred in the past:
They went to some park and got an ice cream . . . So we get there . . .
A fixed expression with a meaning that cannot be determined from the individual parts: Kick
the bucket.
A clause element that follows verbs like give and tell, referring to the recipient of the action:
Dave gave me this stuff.
A verb which does not use the regular ed inflection for past tense and/or past participle:
speak, spoke, spoken; send-sent-sent.
A phrase including the verb phrase and any other clause elements which follow the main
verb: My mother was born in Canada.
Lecture IV.
(LSGSWE pp135-148, SGEL pp34-40)
It usually links the subject noun phrase with a subject predicative: Radio waves are useful.
It can also link the subject noun phrase with an obligatory adverbial: She was in her room a
lot.
Be as an Auxiliary
These two auxiliary uses of be can occur together in the same clause (the progressive
passive): A mutual investment fund for Eastern Europe is being launched today.
Have as a main verb is one of the most common lexical verbs in English.
In the causative use have is a main verb!!! (Perhaps you should have your hair dyed)
It occurs in a number of idiomatic phrases such as have a look, have a go, have a say in sg,
etc.
Auxiliary Have
Do as a Main Verb
It often combines with a noun phrase to form idiomatic expressions (e.g. do the dishes, it
does the job, so some good);
As a main verb, do can also function as a transitive pro-verb (I didnt do it, do that);
It can be an intransitive pro-verb, i.e. an alternative to ellipsis (e.g. I must have done.)
Do as an Auxiliary Verb
As an auxiliary verb, do is used in the do support construction for forming negation and
questions (e.g. Didnt you know?);
Auxiliary do is also used for emphatic meaning (e.g. Oh do shut up!; I do like descriptive
grammar).
COPULAR VERBS
State-of-existence:
o
to be,
Sensory perception
o
I grew sick.
He became angry.
There are nine central modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will,
would, and must;
They take a bare infinitive verb as the main verb in the verb phrase;
In most dialects of English, only a single modal can be used in a verb phrase (but! In Southern
AME or Scottish English might could, might should can occur together).
Characteristics of Semi-Modals
In spoken language they often have reduced forms (gotta, gonna, better);
They can co-occur with central modals (might have to, might be able to);
Avoid Able To
When we talk about something that is happening as we speak: Watch me, mum; I can stand
on one leg. (Not... I'm able to stand on one leg.)
If we talk about a single achievement, rather than a general ability in the past, we usually use be
able to rather than could. Compare: Sue could play the flute quite well. (or .. . Was able to ... ; a
general ability)
But!!!!!
She swam strongly and was able to cross the river easily.
Yesterday I got on the bus and was able to (managed to) find a seat.
In negative sentences
I tried to get up but I couldnt move.
To say that in the past someone had general permission to do something - that is, to do it at
any time - we can use either could or was/were allowed to;
However, to talk about permission for one particular past action, we use was/were allowed
to, but not could (cf. Could vs. Was/were able to):
Anyone could/was allowed to fish in the lake when the council owned it.
Although he didnt have a ticket, Ken was allowed to enter.
We use must and must not in formal rules and regulations and in warnings;
Bookings must be made at least seven days before departure.
The government must not be allowed to appoint judges.
In spoken English we often use must and mustn't to propose a future arrangement, such as a
meeting or social event, without making detailed plans:
We must get together more often.
We mustn't leave it so long next time.
To draw a conclusion about - something that happened in the past we use must + have + past
participle:
That's not Kates car. She must have borrowed it from her parents.
For something that is likely to happen in the future we use must be going to or must be + ing:
I was wrong about the meeting being today. It must be happening next Friday.
To draw a conclusion about a present situation we use must be, or have (got) to be in
informal speech:
Their goalkeeper has got to be/must be at least two metres tall!...
In questions that hope for or expect a negative answer we prefer have (got) to, although in
formal contexts must is sometimes used:
Do we have to answer all the questions? (or have we got to ... ?; must we ... ? Is also possible
but rather formal)
We use have to in questions that imply a criticism. Must can also be used, although some
people think this is rather old-fashioned. We usually stress have and must in sentences like
this:
Do you have to play your trumpet here? It's deafening me! (or more formally must you play
?)
We use have to with frequency adverbs such as always, never, normally, rarely, sometimes,
etc:
I often have to work at the weekend to get everything done.
With the past simple we use had to especially in questions and negative sentences:
When did you have to give it back? (not When had you got to give it back?)
We didn't have to wait too long for an answer.
If have is contracted (e.g. Ive, he's, it'd) then we must include got:
The experiment has failed twice before, so it's got to work this time. (not ... So it's to work)
Will and would can refer to things that are or were always true:
Cold weather will kill certain plants.
During the war, people would eat all kinds of things that we don't eat now.
We don't use will or would in this way to talk about a particular occasion, negative wont and
wouldnt can be used this way:
I gave him a problem yesterday and he wouldnt solve it / * he would solve it
In speech, we can stress will or would to criticise people's characteristic behaviour or habits.
It often suggests that criticisms have been made before but ignored:
She just wont do the washing up when I ask her.
I was happy when Sam left. He would talk about people behind their backs.
We can also criticise a person directly or express disapproval of something they have done or
do regularly using will:
'I feel sick.' 'Well, if you will eat so much, Im not surprised.' (indicating disapproval)
When we talk about repeated events in the past that don't happen now we can use either
would or used to + infinitive.
But!!!
Whenever we went to my uncle's house, we would/used to play in the garden.
We can use used to but not would when we talk about past states that have changed:
The factory used to be over there.
Didn't you use to smoke at university?
As a modal it doesn't change its tense and doesn't add '-s' for the third person singular.
I needed to leave early.
She's thirsty. She needs a drink.
You needn't speak so loudly. (= modal verb)
When it is a modal, need is most commonly used in negative sentences, often with verbs like
bother, concern , fear, panic, worry:
I've already cleaned the car so you needn't bother to do it.
I was very nervous before the interview, but I needn't have worried.
It is sometimes used in questions, but we prefer to use need as an lexical verb or have to:
Need you go so soon? vs. Do you need to go so soon?
Do you have to go so soon?
Neednt refers to a particular event, dont need to is preferred when we talk about general
necessity:
You neednt cut the grass, Ill do it later vs. You dont need to be over 18 to drink in this pub.
PRACTICE
Correct or Not?
I was wondering if I could have tomorrow off.
yes
yes
If you will keep your watch half an hour slow it is hardly surprising that you
are late for our dates.
yes
Whats it matter?
yes (British)
yes
yes
He wasnt and I probably arent normally prepared for that kind of situation.
yes
yes (Br)
The swimmer was tired, but she could eventually reach the shore.
nope (particular, so
was able to)
this an obligation
When the alarm rings passengers will assemble at the boat stations.
obligation
may not/cannot
- may not is Im telling you
- cannot: rules dont allow
if no will
igen, kpes r
obligation
Ki a hibs?
Who's to blame?
You (shall/)can...
right now
plural
Lecture V.
(LSGSWE pp174-185, SGEL pp60-69)
OVERVIEW
There are nine central modals in English: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would,
and must.
In addition, there are a number of semi-modals (e.g. be going to, have to);
These are sequences of words that function like modal verbs.
The main function of modals and semi-modals is to convey stance.
Four modals and semi-modals are used primarily to express time meanings: will, shall, and be
going to for future time, and used to for past time.
Modals fall into three major categories of meaning; each category combines personal
(intrinsic) meanings and logical (extrinsic) meanings.
The categories are: permission/possibility or ability; obligation/necessity, and
volition/prediction.
You can't mark without a scheme. You must make a scheme. (CONV)
Personal ability and obligation meanings, with human subject you and dynamic verbs mark
and make
Well, it must be somewhere in the office / it cant be in the office
Necessity meaning, with stative main verb be
We shall not attempt a detailed account of linguistic categories in this book, but will use as
far as possible those which are well enough known. (ACAD)
Personal volition or intention meanings, with human subject we and dynamic verbs attempt
and use
But in other cases his decisions will seem more radical.
Prediction meaning, with non-human subject (his decisions) and stative verb seem
The only problem may be that the compound is difficult to remove. (ACAD) The seeds from
the plant may grow up to 20 cms.
Well you can get cigarettes from there, can't you? (CONV)
We use may, might or could to describe what is possible in particular situations. They are
common with be.
This may / might / could be the last time i ever see you
We don't use may to ask questions about the possibility of something happening. Instead we
use, for example, could{n't) or the phrase be likely;
Could it be that you don't want to leave? (not May it be that you ... ?)
Are you likely to be in Spain again this summer? (not May you be in Spain ... ?)
We can use may in formally asking for permission and offering help:
May I leave now? / May I help you?
Might (not 'may') + bare infinitive is sometimes used to talk about what was typically the
case in the past. This is a formal or literary use:
During the war, the police might arrest you for criticising the king. (cf. Would)
Years ago children might be sent down mines at the age of six. (passive form)
We can also use could + bare infinitive in examples like this to talk about past ability:
During the war, the police could arrest you (the police were legally able to arrest you).
We use might as well to express that there is no reason for not doing sg, usually expressing
disappointment or irony
Weve just missed the bus, we might as well walk.
- Have I told you my other halfs thinking of going for a PhD?
- Oh, you might as well do one as well then.
We use may not or might not for negative possibilities, could not is not used this way:
I may / might not be here tomorrow.
We use the perfect forms of may, might, could for possible events in the past:
Jack isnt here yet, he may/might/could have missed the train
Might have or could have is used for events whose outcome is known (but we are shocked
because sg nearly happened):
Why did you go there? You might/could have got yourself killed. vs. He may have got himself
killed by now (we dont know)
We use cant have or couldnt have when we are certain that something in the past was
impossible
Helen cant have / couldnt have taken the car. The keys are here.
Can have and couldnt have is frequently used with only and hardly to express a restrictive
(negative) meaning:
That could hardly have been an easy thing to do.
Judging by the pawprints, it can only have been a very large animal.
We can use may/might have been + -ing to talk about possible situations or activities that
went on over a period of past time:
David didn't know where the ball was, but he thought his sister might have been playing with
it before she left for school.
When we say that a person or thing compensates to some extent for a limitation or
weakness by having another characteristic, we can use a pattern with may/might not + bare
infinitive ... But.. . Or may/might not have . Past participle ... But ... :
The painting may not be a masterpiece, but you've got to admit that the colours are striking.
She might not have danced very gracefully, but she had a lot of energy and enthusiasm.
This is the sort of case in which judges must exercise the discretionary power described a
moment ago.
Obligations and recommendations (intrinsic use, e.g. You should/ought to finish your
homework before you go out)
Ought to is used particularly in speech and most often to talk about obligation rather than
probability.
We use should (or would), not ought to, when we give advice with if i were you:
I should leave early tomorrow, if i were you. (or I would leave ... ; or Id leave ... )
Some people might use 'what ought I to do ... ?' And 'ought I to .. . ?', But this is rather
formal.
We can use should in questions that are offers or that request confirmation or advice:
Should I phone for a taxi for you?
Who should I pass the message to?
In sentences like these we can also use shall with a very similar meaning, and ought to is also
used in questions, although less commonly.
We use should/ought to + have + past participle to talk about something that didn't happen
in the past and we are sorry that it didn't:
We should/ought to have waited for the rain to stop. (Im sorry we didn't)
The negative forms shouldnt/oughtnt to have are almost always used in this way.
(but! Thats a nice present. Oh, you shouldnt have)
We also use should/ought to + have + past participle to talk about an expectation that
something happened, has happened, or will happen:
If the flight was on time, he should/ought to have arrived in Bali early this morning.
The builders should/ought to have finished by the end of the week.
We can use had better instead of should/ought to, especially in spoken English, to say that
we think it is a good idea to do something:
If youre not well, you'd better ask Ann to go instead. (or ... You should/ought to ... )
We don't use had better to talk about the past or to make general comments:
You should/ought to have caught a later train. (not You had better have caught ... )
I don't think parents should/ought to give their children sweets. (not I don't think parents had
better give their children sweets.)
We prefer had better if we want to express particular urgency and in demands and threats:
There's someone moving about downstairs. We'd better call the police, quickly.
In question forms the subject comes after had, although many people avoid questions with
had better:
Hadn't we better get a taxi? (or Shouldn't we get ... ?)
PRACTICE
Whats the Difference?
I must do my homework.
I should do my homework.
I should be doing my homework.
I should go slowly here, it is a village area.
I have to go slowly here, it is a village area.
You couldve told me about the accident.
You shouldve told me about the accident.
You must see that film.
You should see that film.
You shouldnt have answered the phone. It may
have been my boss.
You shouldnt have answered the phone. It
might have been my boss.
You must shake hands with the guests.
You have to shake hands with the guests.
Something must be done to stop hooliganism.
Something has to be done to stop hooliganism.
I must take these pills.
I have to take these pills twice a day.
You neednt come to school earlier than usual.
You dont need to come to school earlier than
usual.
He neednt have left home at 6 a.m.
he couldnt have left home at 6 a.m.
I didnt have to give him my name.
You didnt have to give him my name.
You neednt have given him my name.
You shouldnt have given him my name.
He looks sad. He must talk to the headmaster.
He looks sad. He must be talking to the
headmaster.
Who did you go out with last night?
It had to be Sheila
It must have been Sheila.
He should have finished by now.
He will have finished by now.
Lets go fishing. It should/shouldnt/will/wont
be raining in the countryside.
I go with 100km/h
I go with 40km/h
nice
angry
must is stronger than should
got disconnected so they dont know whether it
was him or not
it wasn't the boss
decency
etiquette
I'll stop it
"waiting for God to do something"
must: only right now
twice: only have to can be used
szksgtelen
nem kell
left at 6
left later
no necessity, no action
no necessity, (no) action - depends on stress
no necessity, action
annoyed, no necessity, action
He must talk to him because hes sad.
He's talking with him right now thats why hes
sad.
no difference
less certain
uncertain
should is weird (you like fishing in the rain)
(kzben elvesztettem a fonalat xD)
TERMINOLOGY
A type of auxiliary verb used to express logical or personal meanings: can,
should, might.
The expression of logical meaning or personal meaning through the use of
modal auxiliary verbs.
The smallest structural unit that has meaning, e.g. prefixes, suffixes, and
stems.
A construction with two or more negation markers: You've never seen
nothing like it.
A clause (or verb phrase) that has no tense and does not include a modal
verb: I want to be careful.
A cover term for nominal clause elements occurring after the main verb,
including direct ____ and indirect ____. ____s can usually become the subject
of a passive clause.
A clause element that occurs after the direct object and characterizes the
object: A jury found him guilty.
A term describing lexical words (verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs),
signifying that it is not possible to list all the members of the class and that
new members are regularly added.
The verb used to construct negative or interrogative clauses: I will not allow
you to go there. Is she walking?
Another term for word class.
Verb construction that describes events or states taking place in the past, but
linked to a subsequent time, especially the present. It is formed with have +
past participle.
A multi-word verb consisting of a lexical verb plus adverbial particle: turn on
the television set.
A multi-word verb consisting of a lexical verb plus adverbial particle plus
reposition: look forward to.
The 'logical center' of a clause, consisting sometimes of a verb, and
sometimes of a copular verb plus predicate adjective. It determines what
elements occur as complements in the clause: I thought he was there. I'm
sure she will.
An adjective that occurs in the subject predicative position, following a
copular verb: He seems tired.
A clause element that characterizes the referent of some other clause
element, either the subject (subject ______) or the object (object _______)
One of the verbs be, have, and do, which can function as either auxiliary
verbs or main verbs.
A verb construction describing an event or state of affairs which is in progress
or continuing; formed with be + ing-participle: is staying, were flying.
A reduced interrogative clause added to the end of a declarative clause, used
to seek confirmation or agreement in conversation: This is a beautiful spot
isn't it?
The meaning classes of verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs: e.g. activity
verbs, time adverbials.
Modal verb
Modality
Morpheme
Multiple negation
Non-finite clause/
-verb phrase
Object
Object predicative
Open class
Operator
Part of speech
Perfect aspect
Phrasal verb
Phrasalprepositional verb
Predicate
Predicative
adjective
Predicative
Primary verb
Progressive aspect
Question tag
Semantic
categories