5 elements of IS

1. Hardware
- Hardware is the electric, electronic, and mechanical components contained in a
computer. The hardware must be reliable and capable of handling the expected
workload.
2. Software
- Software also called a program, consists of the series of instructions that tells a
computer what tasks to perform and how to perform them. The software must be
developed carefully and tested thoroughly.
3. Data
- Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which can include text, numbers,
images, audio, and video. The data entered into the computer must be accurate.
4. People
- People is generally a human. It focuses to people who design and operate the
software, input the data, build the hardware and keep it running. For example
programmers and other visionaries such as Bill Gates and Steve Jobs. Most
companies with mid-sized and large computers have an IT (information technology)
department. Staff in the IT department should be skilled and up-to-date on the
latest technology. IT staff also should train users so that they understand how to use
the computer properly.
5. Procedures
- Procedure is a instruction or set of instructions a user follows to accomplish an
activity. All the information technology(IT) applications should have readily available
documented procedures that address operating the computer and using its
programs.
analysis vs. design
Analysis as the breaking up of any whole so as to find out their nature, function etc.
Analysis gives the conceptual understanding of a system from the logical point of
view by detailing its functionality
Design as to make preliminary sketches of; to sketch a pattern or outline for; to
plan and carry out especially by artistic arrangement or in a skilful way.
Designing gives us the blueprint on the basis of which the actual system is
developed

water-fall approach

systems development life cycle

water fall approach

The waterfall model is a sequential software development process which fl

ows steadily downwards like a waterfall
planning
analysis
design
implementation
operation & support

Alternative to the water fall

Agile is all about embracing change, and managing software development in

smaller iterative processes that involve the business owner. It thus differs from
Waterfall in its approach to implementation. Agile methodology grew from the real
experiences of professional software developers who had experienced challenges
with the Waterfall model. Their need to create software that met business needs
and delivered value as early as possible, helped to create a clear value proposition
for moving to the Agile mode.The emphasis of the Agile model is on building a
product that is aligned with both customer needs and company goals. It does this by
developing production-ready pieces of functionality throughout the process. Each
piece of functionality is verifi ed by the business and continually improved. Further
functionality is added throughout the life of the project, making Agile a step-by-step
process to success, rather than Waterfalls lengthy, restricted implementation that
frequently delivers an unsuccessful end result.
How software is made
proprietary (build from scratch)
many legacy systems
supporting industry/firm specific processes
off-the-shelf (buy read-made software)
various industry/function specific software
ERP (SAP, Oracle, Microsoft Dynamics; on-premise/cloud)

Types of IS
TPS

A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for business

transactions involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all transaction data.
Characteristics of a TPS include performance, reliability and consistency.
TPS is also known as transaction processing or real-time processing.
OAS
KMS
MIS
ERP
DSS
IOS
finance IS
accounting IS
sales IS
marketing IS
manufacturing IS
operations IS
HRM IS
Others
SWOT refers to strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. SWOT analysis is a process
where the management team identifies the internal and external factors that will affect the
companys future performance. The companys strengths and weaknesses are the internal
factors. Opportunities and threats deal with factors external to the company--environmental
factors. SWOT analysis is done as part of the overall corporate planning process in which
financial and operational goals are set for the upcoming year and strategies are created to
accomplish these goals.

Using Resources Efficiently

Evaluating the companys strengths helps it determine how to allocate these resources in a
manner that will result in the highest possible potential for revenue growth and profitability.

Improving Operations
When the management team looks at the companys weaknesses, it is not to assign blame for
past shortfalls in performance. It is to identify the most critical areas that need to be improved in
order for the business to more effectively compete
Types of Feasibility
Operational -- Define the urgency of the problem and the acceptability of any
solution; If the system is developed, will it be used? Includes people-oriented and
social issues: internal issues, such as manpower problems, labour objections,
manager resistance, organizational conflicts and policies; also external issues,
including social acceptability, legal aspects and government regulations.
Technical -- Is the project feasibility within the limits of current technology? Does the
technology exist at all? Is it available within given resource constraints (i.e., budget,
schedule,...)?
Economic (Cost/Benefits Analysis) -- Is the project possible, given resource
constraints? Are the benefits that will accrue from the new system worth the costs?
What are the savings that will result from the system, including tangible and
intangible ones? What are the development and operational costs?
Schedule -- Constraints on the project schedule and whether they could be
reasonably met

The internal factors that affect planning are limited growth

opportunities due to saturation requiring diversification, changing
patterns of work force, more complex organizational structures,
decentralization etc.
External factors are all those things that are beyond your control. Tight lending conditions,
government regulations and competition are some of the external factors that affect virtually
every small business. Strategic planners anticipate and manage some of the circumstances
that affect their business. Exploring alternative financing sources until lending restrictions
ease, developing plans for compliance with regulations and enhancing innovation and
service to stay ahead of the competition are forward-thinking ways to keep external factors
from threatening the survival of
A failed project is one that is cancelled before any return is received on the
investment, and a challenged project delivers only some of the anticipated benefits.
Lack of research, risk management and long-term commitment:

The "acceptability" of failures:

Despite the huge amounts of money involved, there is no obvious traceable accountability
in the project management process in the past.
Inappropriate use of technology:
Technology is a tool and nothing more. Information Technology cannot exist and solve
problems on its own, nor can it increase productivity or profit without the right work
processes already in place and with adequately trained staff whom are ready and able to
use it appropriatel
Goes way over budget
Is not operational at a specific time
Does not do what it was intended to do
Does not fit in the organisational structure or work processes
Here are some causes of Information system failure in:
Requirements do not represent the actual needs
of the customer.
Improper planning
Lack of and poor communication
Requirements are incomplete or conflicting.
Customers, requirements analysts, and
software engineers who develop the system
have problems understanding and communicating with each other.
Both a lack of proper leadership and poor leadership
Unrealistic expectations
Inability to keep within the budget
Project Success is a measure of the effectiveness of the organisations processes for
implementing new IS projects, up to the point of deployment of the new system to
the end user community. This incorporates all the project related activities to ensure
Project delivery on-time Project delivery on budget Project delivery of required
features & functions Project delivery to the requisite quality standard
Service delivery improvement o Service quality improvement o Increased revenue o
Decreased cost o Increased profits
Option to avoid project failure

Sampling methods

systematic sampling

SAMPLING'

DEFINITION OF 'SYSTEMATIC

A type of probability sampling method in which sample members from a

larger population are selected according to a random starting point and a
fixed, periodic interval.

For example, if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people from a
population of 50,000 using systematic sampling, you would simply select
every 50th person, since 50,000/1,000 = 50.

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling

technique wherein the researcher divides the entire population into
different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.
stratified sampling

random sampling
A functional decomposition diagram (FDD) is a topdown representation of a function
or process. Using an FDD, an analyst can show business functions and break them
down into lower-level functions and processes. Creating an FDD is similar to drawing
an organization chart you
start at the top and work your way down. Figure 4-8 shows an FDD of a library
system drawn with the Visible Analyst CASE tool. FDDs can be used at several
stages of systems development. During requirements modeling, analysts use FDDs
to model business functions and show how they are organized into lower-level
processes. Those processes translate into program modules during application
development.

systems request

prepared by the system user

define what the system need to do

request for proposal (RFP)

example