Handling

Low-speed turning
High-speed turning
Understeer

Low-speed Turning
do

L =----L
-1 ----d=
tan
i
R-t/2
R-t/2

di

L =----L
-1 ----d=
tan
o
R+t/2 R+t/2
For large radii, R >> t/2
L
d=-Ack
R

Inboard off-tracking
2
L
2R

Turn
Center

High Speed Turning

Under Steer Path
R > R0

Original Path/
Neutral Steer Path

Over Steer Path

R < R0

R0

R R
R
R

Tire Slip Angle

F
y

M
z

Pneumatic Trail, P

Direction of Heading
Slip Angle,

Directio
Slip Region

Contact Patch

n of Tra

vel

Lateral Force, Fy (lb)

Tire Cornering Stiffness

800

Direction
of Travel

600

Slip Angle (-)

400
200
0

Fy

C
0

10

Slip Angle, (deg)

12

Fy = C
C = C

dFy

=0

d
is positive

Factors affecting cornering stiffness

High-speed Turning
NSL for force and moment
analysis
Geometry for steer angle vs.
radius
From Newtons Second Law

W V2
Fyy = Fff Frr = g R
c
Tzcg = Fff b - Frr c = 0
From tire properties

Fff

Wfs V 2
f =
=
f C f Cf R gc
f
f
Frr Wrs V 2
rr =
=
Cr C r R gc

V
R gc
V2
Fr r= Wrs
R gc
Fff = Wfs

L/R

F
f
b

W V2
gR

From the geometry:

L
d = 57.3 f - r
R

F
r

L Wfs V 2
Wrs V 2
d = 57.3
R Cf R gc C r R gc

Wfs Wrs V 2
L
d = 57.3 (
)
R Cf C r R gc
Understeer Gradient

Understeer Gradient
Wfs Wrs V 2
L
d = 57.3 (
)
R Cf C r R gc
Understeer Gradient, K
Positive understeer
Zero neutral steer
Negative oversteer
Has a critical speed
Vehicle is unstable
Oscillatory
Divergent

Steer Angle vs. Speed

Speeds & Gains

Characteristic speed = speed at which steer angle required to negotiate a
turn is 2 times Ackerman angle
Vchar

= 57.3Lg/K

Critical speed

= speed at which steer angle required to negotiate a

turn is 0

Vcrit

= -57.3LgK

Lateral acceleration gain ay/ = V2/57.3Lg(1+ KV2/57.3Lg)

Yaw velocity gain

r/ = V/L(1+ KV2/57.3Lg)

Effect on Lateral Acceleration Gain

Understeer Very controlled gain with speed
Neutral steer Increasing gain with speed
Oversteer Increases dramatically with speed

Lateral Acc. Gain (g/deg)

Stability limit
88 mph

Understeer (5 Deg/g)

Neutral Steer

SW Angle/g
5 deg

Oversteer (1 Deg/g)

Understeer (2 Deg/g)

108 in wheelbase

6 deg

10 deg

20 deg
40 deg

0
0

20

40

60
Speed (mph)

80

100

120

Effect on Yaw velocity gain

Slip Angle Calculation (primary tire effect)

1. Calculate front and rear vertical wheel loads Wf and Wr
2. Assume lateral acceleration ay/g as % (g).
3. Lateral tire force (front & rear) Fyf = Wf*ay and Fyr = Wr*ay
4. From tire data find slip angles for all 4 tires, use extrapolation
5. Find average slip angle for front and rear f and r

6. Calculate under steer f r

7. Do calculations for ay/g from 0.1 to 1.0

Effect of Body Roll

Fz0 > Fzi

Effect of Body Roll

No roll: For 800 lb load on each wheel 760 lb of lateral force at 5 deg slip angle
Body Roll: In hard cornering inside & outside wheel loads can be 400 & 1200 lb
with average lateral force of 680 lb, requiring more slip angle to
maintain the turn

Effect of Body Roll

Overturning moment M = Wh1 [ V2/(Rg) + ]
M = Mf + Mr = (Kf+Kr)
Hence, = Wh1V2/[Rg(Kf+Kr-Wh1)]
Roll rate R = d/day = Wh1/[Kf+Kr-Wh1]
Where = roll angle, K = roll stiffness, h1 = distance between C.G. & roll
ctr.

Vertical load difference between outside and inside wheel

(Fzof Fzif)tf = Kf* + WfhfV2/Rg

and (Fzof +Fzif) = Wf

(Fzor Fzir)tr = Kr* + WrhrV2/Rg

and (Fzor +Fzir) = Wr

Where hf and hr = roll center height front and rear

Slip Angle Calculation (roll effect)

1. Calculate front and rear vertical wheel loads Wf and Wr
2. Assume lateral acceleration ay/g as % (g).
3. Lateral tire force (front & rear) Fyf = Wf*ay and Fyr = Wr*ay

4. Calculate roll rate and find roll angle

5. Calculate Fzi and Fzo for front and rear
6. From tire data find slip angles for all 4 tires, use extrapolation
7. Find average slip angle for front and rear f and r
8. Calculate under steer f r
9. Do calculations for ay/g from 0.1 to 1.0

Camber Thrust
Tires produce a lateral force (camber thrust) when inclined
Characterized by camber stiffness, Cg
Camber coefficient

Relative Frequency (%)

Lateral Force (lb)

Radials are lower

Bias-ply are higher
Fz = 1000 lb
Zero Slip Angle

200

150
100

50
0

Cg
0

15

Camber Angle (deg)

Radial

10
5
0

Bias -Ply

20

.01

0.02

Camber Coefficient, Cg /Fz

0.03

(lb/lb/deg)

Camber Coefficient, Cg/Fz (lb/lb/deg)

Camber Thrust

Lateral Tire load due to camber

Fyc = C*
= C*(d/d)*(d/day)*ay
g = b +
Where
g = camber w.r.t. ground
b = camber w.r.t. body
= roll angle

= C*(d/d)*roll rate*ay
- relationship
Lateral tire force causing tire slip = W*ay - Fyc

Slip Angle Calculation (roll/camber effect)

1. Calculate front and rear vertical wheel loads Wf and Wr
2. Assume lateral acceleration ay/g as % (g).
3. Calculate roll rate and find roll angle
4. Calculate Fzi and Fzo for front and rear
5. Calculate - relationship from suspension data
6. Calculate lateral tire force due to camber for each tire
7. Lateral tire force for slip (front & rear) Fyf = Wf*ay-Fycf and
Fyr = Wr*ay-Fycr
8. From tire data find slip angles for all 4 tires, use extrapolation

9. Find average slip angle for front and rear f and r

10. Calculate under steer f r
11. Do calculations for ay/g from 0.1 to 1.0

Roll Steer
All suspensions steer with roll
Steer to the outside is:
Understeer on front
Oversteer on rear
Solid axle on a trailing arm:
Arm angle determines
understeer
Angled down is oversteer
Angled upward is understeer

K roll steer

d
= ( f - r )
da y

Inclination of
Suspension Roll Axis

Roll Center

Overstee
r
Neutral Steer

Under

steer

Front of Vehicle

Lateral Force Compliance Steer

All suspensions steer due to a
lateral force
Minimize compliance steer

dc

Fy

Klfcs = Af W f - ArWr
Deflection Understeer

Deflection Oversteer

Turn

Turn
Yaw center

A=

Cornering
Force

Cornering
Force
Yaw center

Steer Angle/Steering Ratio (deg)

Constant Radius Understeer Test

Limit
Understeer

CONSTANT
RADIUS

Neutral Steer

er
e
t
s
r
e
Und

Ov
e

rst
ee

K (deg/g)
Limit
Oversteer

Lateral Acceleration (g)

Constant Speed Understeer Test

Process for Calculating Cornering Response

Decide on the lateral acceleration requirement

Calculate roll-stiffness based on the suspension properties
Calculate roll rate
Calculate left and right tire vertical loads for the max lateral acceleration
Choose tire to minimize understeer or oversteer
Determine camber vs roll angle relationship for your suspension
Make adjustments to understeer/oversteer
Calculate critical speed
Calculate yaw velocity and lateral acceleration gains

Suspension Design for Handling

Mass, C.G.
Roll Inertia
Tread

Lateral
Acceleration

Vehicle
Roll Stiffness
Roll Stiffness Distribution
Roll Center Height
Tire Capacity
Steering Geometry
Camber

Under-steer
Over-Steer
Stability

Vehicle Roll-over Safety

Roll-over Forces
M*ay*h - M*g**h + Fzi*t M*g*t/2 = 0
ay/g = (t/2 + *h Fzit/Mg)/h

When =0 and ay=0, Fzi = M*g/2

When =ay/g, Fzi = M*g/2
Mg

Roll-over condition ay/g = t/2h +

Where is the cross-slope

Road super-elevation angle

Roll-over Threshold t/2h

Roll-over Forces
M*ay*h + M*g**h + Fzi*t M*g*t/2 = 0
ay/g = (t/2 - *h Fzit/Mg)/h

When =0 and ay=0, Fzi = M*g/2

When =ay/g, Fzi = M*g/2
Roll-over condition ay/g = t/2h -
Mg

Vehicle roll angle

Where is the vehicle roll angle

Roll-over Threshold

Roll-over Forces on a Suspended Vehicle

M0=0= Msayh-Msg[t/2 - (h-hr)]
= R*ay
Hence, max acceleration
ay/g = t/{2h[1+R(1-hr/h)]}

Roll-over Threshold for Suspended Vehicle

Transient Roll-over in Step Steer

I+ C + [K-Mg(h-hr)] =W ay(h-hr)/g
Where
I = Roll moment of inertia
C= Roll damping
K= Roll stiffness
h = C.G. height
hr = roll center height
W = vehicle weight
ay = lateral acceleration
Roll-over condition
ay/g = t/{2h[1+R(1-hr/h)]}
where
R = max/(ay/g)

Lateral Acceleration

Step Steer
V2/R

L/V

time

V
L

Roll Response to Step Steer

Effect of Damping

Transient Roll-over in Sinusoidal Steer

I+C+[K-Mg(h-hr)]=Way(h-hr)sint/g
Where
I = Roll moment of inertia
C= Roll damping
K= Roll stiffness
h = C.G. height
hr = roll center height
W = vehicle weight
ay = lateral acceleration
Roll-over condition
ay/g = t/{2h[1+R(1-hr/h)]}
where
R = max/(ay/g)

Sinusoidal Steer
Y = Y0 sin (*V*t/L) and lateral accn Y = (*V/L)2Y0 sin (*V*t/L)

2L

Y0

Sinusoidal Steer

Suspension Design to Prevent Roll-over

Mass, C.G.
Roll Inertia
Tread

Step &
Sinusoidal
Steer

Vehicle

Roll Stiffness/stabilize bar

Roll Stiffness Distribution
Roll Center Height
Tire Capacity

Roll Angle
Rollover Threshold