Sampling Techniques: Zaki Rashidi

02/10/2013
Slide 7.2
Selecting samples
Population, sample and individual cases
Sampling Techniques
Zaki Rashidi
Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, Research Methods for Business Students, 5th Edition, Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009
Slide 7.3
Slide 7.4
The need to sample
Basics of sampling I
Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when
Samples offer many benefits:

part of a whole Save costs: Less expensive to study the
sample than the population.
to show what the
Save time: Less time needed to study the
rest is like.
A sample is a
A survey of the entire population is impracticable
Sampling helps to
Budget constraints restrict data collection
determine the
corresponding
value of the
population and
plays a vital role
in esearch.
Time constraints restrict data collection

Results from data collection are needed quickly
Slide 7.5
Sampling Cycle
Basics of sampling II
Demands more rigid
control in undertaking
sample operation.
Minority and smallness in
number of sub-groups
often render study to be
suspected.
Accuracy level may be
affected when data is
subjected to weighing.
Sample results are good
approximations at best.
Population
Sampling Process
Defining the
population
Specifying
Sample
Method
Developing
a sampling
Frame
care and studies are conducted by

skilled and qualified interviewers, the
results are expected to be accurate.
Destructive nature of elements: For
some elements, sampling is the way to
test, since tests destroy the element itself.
Slide 7.6
Limitations of
Sampling
sample than the population .

Accuracy: Since sampling is done with
Estimate
Parameter
Draw a
Sample
Determining
Sample
Size
SELECTING THE SAMPLE
Apply
inference
Compute
Statistics
02/10/2013
Slide 7.7
Slide 7.8
Sampling: Step 2
Establishing the Sampling
Frame
Sampling: Step 1
Defining the Universe
The sampling frame

The sampling frame for any probability sample is
Universe or population is the

A sample frame is the list of
whole mass under study.
a complete list of all the cases / units in the

population from which your sample will be
drown.
all elements in the

population (such as
telephone directories,
electoral registers, club
membership etc.) from
which the samples are
drawn.
How to define a universe:

What constitutes the units of
analysis (HDB apartments)?

What are the sampling units
(HDB apartments occupied in

the last three months)?
What is the difference between population and
What is the specific designation
sampling frame?
of the units to be covered (HDB

in town area)?
What time period does the data
refer to (December 31, 1995)
Slide 7.9
A sample frame which does
not fully represent an intended

population will result in frame
error and affect the degree of
reliability of sample result.
Slide 7.10
Choice of Sample Size - Large

Populations
Step - 3
Determination of Sample Size
Sample size may be determined by using:
Sample Sizes
Table 1
Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)

The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of population
Conventional approach: eg. Average of sample sizes of similar
other studies;
Cost basis approach: The number that can be studied with the
available funds;
Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods)
Confidence interval approach.
Slide 7.11
% Margin of Error
95% Confidence
99% Confidence
9,604
16,590
2,401
4,148
1,068
1,844
601
1,037
385
664
267
461
196
339
151
260
119
250
10
97
166
Source :Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research
Slide 7.12
Choice of Sample Size - Small Populations
Sample size determination using statistical formulae:

The confidence interval approach
Sample Sizes
Table 2
N
95% Level of Confidence

3%
5%
10%
99% Level of Confidence

3%
5%
10%
500
250
218
81
250
250
124
1000
500
278
88
500
399
143
1500
624
306
91
750
460
150
2,000
696
323
92
959
498
154
3,000
788
341
94
1,142
544
158
5,000
880
357
95
1,347
586
161
10,000
965
370
96
1,556
622
164
20,000
1,014
377
96
1,687
642
165
50,000
1,045
382
96
1,777
655
166
1,058
383
96
1,809
659
166
100,000
To determine sample sizes using statistical formulae, researchers
use the confidence interval approach based on the following

factors:
Desired level of data precision or accuracy;
Amount of variability in the population (homogeneity);
Level of confidence required in the estimates of population values.
Availability of resources such as money, manpower and time
may prompt the researcher to modify the computed sample size.

Students are encouraged to consult any standard marketing
research textbook to have an understanding of these formulae.
Source : Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research

02/10/2013
Slide 7.13
Slide 7.14
Probability sampling
Non probability samples
Probability of each case / unit being selected from
The probability of each case being selected from the
the population is known (and usually equal to all

cases).
This means that it is possible to answer research
questions and to achieve objectives that require you
to estimate statistically the characteristics of the
population from the sample.
Consequently, probability sampling is often
associated with survey and experimental research
strategies.
total population is not known and it is impossible to

answer research questions or to address research
objectives that require you to make statistical
inferences about the characteristics of the
population.
You may still be able to generalize from non
probability samples about the population, but not on
statistical grounds
Slide 7.15
Overview of sampling techniques

Sampling techniques
Probability Sampling
Figure 7.2 Sampling techniques
Source: Saunders et al. (2009)
Slide 7.17
Slide 7.18
Probability sampling
The four stage process
Identifying a suitable sampling frame

Key points to consider
1. Identify sampling frame from research objectives
Problems of using existing databases
2. Decide on a suitable sample size
Extent of possible generalisation from the sample
3. Select the appropriate technique and the sample
Validity and reliability
4. Check that the sample is representative
Avoidance of bias
02/10/2013
Slide 7.19
Slide 7.20
Sample size
The importance of response rate
Choice of sample size is influenced by
Key considerations
Confidence needed in the data
Non- respondents and analysis of refusals
Margin of error that can be tolerated
Obtaining a representative sample
Types of analyses to be undertaken
Calculating the active response rate
Size of the sample population and distribution
Estimating response rate and sample size
Slide 7.21
Slide 7.22
Selecting a sampling technique
Simple random(Random sampling)
Five main techniques used for a probability sample
Involves you selecting at random frame using either random
number tables, a computer or an online random number

generator such as Research Randomizer.
1. Simple random
2. Stratified random
3. Systematic
4. Cluster
5. Multi-stage
Slide 7.23
Slide 7.24
Stratified random sampling
Three approaches
Stratified random sampling is a modification of random sampling
a)
in which you divide the population into two or more relevant and
significant strata (groups) based on a one or a number of
attributes.
Sampling frame is divided into a number of subsets.
A random sample (simple or systematic) is then drawn from each
of the strata.
Consequently stratified sampling shares many of the advantages
and disadvantages of simple random or systematic sampling
Proportional Allocation
Disproportional Allocation
c) Neymans Allocation
b)
02/10/2013
Slide 7.25
Slide 7.26
Systematic sampling
Cluster Sampling
Similar to stratified as you need to divide the population into
Systematic sampling involves you selecting the sample at regular
discrete groups prior to sampling.
intervals from the sampling frame.

1.
2.
3.
4.
The groups are termed clusters in this form of sampling and
Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique

number . The first is numbered 0, the second 1 and so on.
Select the first case using a random number.
Calculate the sample fraction.
Select subsequent cases systematically using the sample fraction to
determine the frequency of selection
can be based in any naturally occurring grouping.

For example, you could group your data by type of
manufacturing firm or geographical area
Slide 7.27
Slide 7.28
Cluster Sampling
Multi-stage sampling
(multi-stage cluster sampling
For cluster sampling your sampling frame is the complete list
It is a development of cluster sampling
of clusters rather than complete list of individual cases within

population, you then select a few cluster normally using
simple random sampling.
Data are then collected from every case within the selected
clusters.
It is normally used to overcome problems associated with a
geographically dispersed population when face to face contact is

needed or where it is expensive and time consuming to construct
a sampling frame for a large geographical area.
However, like cluster sampling you can use it for any discrete
groups, including those not are geographically based.
The technique involves taking a series of cluster samples, each
involving some form of random sampling method.
What is the difference in the groups of
stratified sampling and cluster sampling?
Slide 7.30
Non-Probability Sampling
Non Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Extreme case Sampling

Heterogeneous /Maximum Variation
Homogeneous Sampling
Critical case Sampling
Typical case Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Self-selection Sampling
5. Convenience Sampling
3.
4.
02/10/2013
Slide 7.31
Slide 7.32
Non- probability sampling
Quota sampling
It is entirely non random and it is normally used for
Key considerations
interview surveys.
It is based on the premise that your sample will represent
Deciding on a suitable sample size
the population as the variability in your sample for

various quota variables is the same as that in population.
Quota sampling is therefore a type of stratified sample in
which selection of cases within strata is entirely nonrandom
Selecting the appropriate technique
Slide 7.33
Slide 7.34
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Divide the population into specific groups.
Purposive or judgmental sampling enables you to use your
Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available
judgment to select cases that will best enable you to answer your
research question(s) and to meet your objectives.
This form of sample is often used when working with very small
samples such as in case research and when you wish to select cases
that are particularly informative.
Purposive sampling can also be used by researchers adopting the
grounded theory strategy. For such research, findings from data
collected from your initial sample inform the way you extend your
sample into subsequent cases.
Such samples, however can not be considered to be statistically
representative of the total population.
data.
Give each interviewer an assignment', which states the number of
cases in each quota from which they must collect data.
Combine the data collected by interviewers to provide the full
sample.
Slide 7.35
Slide 7.36
Continued
The logic on which you base your strategy for selecting cases
for a purposive sample should be dependent on your research

question(s)and objectives.
Select information-rich cases in purposive sampling in
contrast to need to be statistically representative in
probability sampling.
Extreme case or deviant sampling

Extreme case or deviant sampling focuses on unusual or
special cases
You will learn the most to answer your research
question(s) and to meet your objects more effectively.
02/10/2013
Slide 7.37
Slide 7.38
Heterogeneous or maximum variation

sampling
Homogenous Sampling
Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling enables
In direct contrast to heterogeneous sampling , homogenous
sampling focuses on one particular sub-group in which all the

sample members are similar.
This enables you to study the group in great depth.
you to collect data to explain and describe the key

themes that can be observed.
To ensure maximum variation within a sample it is
suggested to identify diverse characteristics (sample
selection criteria) prior to selecting your sample.
Slide 7.39
Slide 7.40
Critical Case Sampling
Continued
Critical case sampling selects critical cases on the bases that
A number of clues that suggest critical cases can be
they can make a point dramatically or because they are

important.
The focus of data collections to understand what is happening
in each critical case so that logical generalizations can be
made.
summarized by the questions such as:

If it happens there, will it happen everywhere?
If they are having problems, can you be sure that
everyone will have problems?

If they cannot understand the process, is it likely that no
one will be able to understand the process?
Slide 7.41
Slide 7.42
Typical case sampling
Snowball sampling
In contrast of critical case sampling, typical case sampling is
Is commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of
usually used as a part of a research project to provide an

illustrative profile using a representative case.
Such a sample enables you to provide an illustration of what is
typical to those who will be reading your research report and
may be unfamiliar with the subject matter.
desired population. For example people who are working while

claiming unemployment benefit you therefore, need to:
1. Make contact with one or two cases in the population.
2. Ask these cases to identify further cases.
3. Ask theses new cases to identify further new cases (and so on)
4. Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is as
large as manageable
02/10/2013
Slide 7.43
Slide 7.44
Self selecting sampling
Convenience sampling
It occurs when you allow each case usually individuals, to
Convenience sampling (or haphazard sampling) involves selecting
haphazardly those cases that are easiest to obtain for your sample,
such as the person interviewed at random in a shopping centre for a
television programme or the book about entrepreneurship you find
at the airport.
The sample selection process is continued until your required
sample size has been reached.
Although this technique of sampling is used widely, it is prone to
bias and influences that are beyond your control, as the cases appear
in the sample only because of the ease of obtaining them.
identify their desire to take part in the research you therefore

1. Publicize your need for cases, either by advertising through
appropriate media or by asking them to take part.
2. Collect data from those who respond
Slide 7.45
Slide 7.46
Choosing probability vs. non-probability sampling

Probability
sampling
Conclusive
Evaluation Criteria
Nature of research
Non-probability
sampling
Larger non-sampling
High
[Heterogeneous]
Population variability
Low
[Homogeneous]
Favorable
Statistical Considerations
errors
Sampling Error [SE]
Non-sampling Error [NSE]
Exploratory
Relative magnitude
sampling vs.
non-sampling error
Larger sampling
Sampling vs non-sampling errors
error
Unfavorable
High
Sophistication Needed
Low
Relatively Longer
Time
Relatively shorter
High
Budget Needed
Low
Very small sample Size

Larger sample size
Still larger sample
Complete census
Slide 7.47

Sampling Techniques: Zaki Rashidi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sampling Techniques: Zaki Rashidi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

02/10/2013

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

The need to sample

Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when

Samples offer many benefits:

A survey of the entire population is impracticable

Budget constraints restrict data collection

Time constraints restrict data collection

Demands more rigid

care and studies are conducted by

sample than the population .

SELECTING THE SAMPLE

The sampling frame

Universe or population is the

whole mass under study.

a complete list of all the cases / units in the

all elements in the

How to define a universe:

analysis (HDB apartments)?

(HDB apartments occupied in

What is the difference between population and

What is the specific designation

of the units to be covered (HDB

A sample frame which does

not fully represent an intended

Choice of Sample Size - Large

Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)

Source :Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research

Choice of Sample Size - Small Populations

Sample size determination using statistical formulae:

95% Level of Confidence

99% Level of Confidence

To determine sample sizes using statistical formulae, researchers

use the confidence interval approach based on the following

Availability of resources such as money, manpower and time

may prompt the researcher to modify the computed sample size.

research textbook to have an understanding of these formulae.

Source : Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research

Non probability samples

Probability of each case / unit being selected from

The probability of each case being selected from the

the population is known (and usually equal to all

total population is not known and it is impossible to

Overview of sampling techniques

Figure 7.2 Sampling techniques

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Identifying a suitable sampling frame

1. Identify sampling frame from research objectives

Problems of using existing databases

2. Decide on a suitable sample size

Extent of possible generalisation from the sample

3. Select the appropriate technique and the sample

Validity and reliability

4. Check that the sample is representative

The importance of response rate

Choice of sample size is influenced by

Confidence needed in the data

Non- respondents and analysis of refusals

Margin of error that can be tolerated

Obtaining a representative sample

Types of analyses to be undertaken

Calculating the active response rate

Size of the sample population and distribution