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An ideal relay contact would consist of highly conductive metal with chemically clean
surfaces (no oxidation) and a large, wear resistant, effective contact area.
Open contacts would ideally have infinite dielectric strength for electrical isolation.
Unfortunately, actual relay contacts do not have these characteristics. An optimal contact
material with high conductivity, resistance to oxidation or chemical reactions and resistance
against wear and thermal influences during switching can only be a compromise. Design
and cost clearly limits parameters such as the size of contact area, contact forces, relay
sensitivity, and the need for big contact gaps for high dielectric strength.
Typical and most basic influences on electrical contacts and their respective effects are
shown in the following table.
POWER RELAYS
Influences
electrical
thermal
mechanical
ambient conditions
chemical
14
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact Resistance
contact resistance
RC
constriction resistance
RE
Rcontact=Rconstriction+Rlayer
film resistance
RF
RE~M/A~M*(H/f)1/2
Rcontact
contact resistance
Rconstriction constriction resistance
Rlayer
layer resistance
RF~ F*d/ A
macromolecular
layer
m range
oxide, sulphide
organic vapour
nm range
oxygen
RC=RE+RF
S051
fig 4.2
Contact Points
current
constriction
contamination
contact a
contact surface
contact b
S087
fig 4.3
Contact Points
Contact Resistance
Constriction resistance
is the increase of resistance for metallically
clean contacts due to the constriction of the
electrical current when being forced through
a small, effective contact area.
The contacts do not touch over the entire
apparent contact area but in fact, due to the
roughness, touch only on a few relatively
small points.
Increasing contact pressure can enlarge the
effective contact area by elastic and plastic
deformation of the micro contact spikes on
the surface. The larger the effective contact
area and the contact pressure, the lower the
constriction resistance.
Layer resistance
is the contact resistance of metallically clean surfaces and is extremely small, typically
several m. Absolutely clean metallic surfaces do not exist in practice because the contact
surface is covered by thin layers with low conductivity, semiconductor properties or even
isolating characteristics.
15
POWER RELAYS
These layers of oxides, sulphides and other compounds will be formed on the surface of
metals by absorption of gas molecules from the ambient atmosphere within a very short
time. The growth of these layers will be slowed down and eventually stopped as the layer
itself prevents further chemical reaction. The thickness of the layers and the speed of growth
are dependent on the contact material, ambient atmosphere, temperature and time.
Very thin layers cause little increase in resistance due to the tunnel-effect. The resistance of
thicker layers depends on the depth of the layer, effective contact area and the specific
resistance of the contact material/layer. To get a reliable electric contact these layers have to
be destroyed. This can be done by mechanical or electro-thermal destruction.
Apart from different layers or films, other contaminants may be on the surface of the
contacts, increasing the resistance or even preventing electrical contact. These contaminants
may be atmospheric dust or particles created by wear of the moving parts within the relay
such as plastics and fibres. Other contaminants can be the result of outgassing of the plastic
materials within the relay or generated by catalytic effect, through decomposition of organic
vapours under the influence of arc, silicon sediments, oil or grease.
Mechanical cleaning
When the contacts are closing, the metal
surfaces will collide and hit against each
other several times (bouncing), causing
elastic deformation of the effective contact
area and mechanical destruction of the thin
layers.
The same effect can be obtained by
applying high contact pressure to cause
micro deformations on the contact surface
destroying the insulating film.
Furthermore, the design of most relays
allows the contact surfaces to wipe across
each other destroying the non conductive
films on the contact surfaces. This contact
wipe is often enough to clean the surface
and reduce resistance to an acceptable
level, as well as keeping the resistance
stable throughout the electrical life of the relay.
Contact Wipe
initial position
after relative
movement
S001
fig 4.4
Contact Wipe
Electrical cleaning
The low and non conductive layers can also be destroyed by the effects of:
a) electrical voltage (fritting)
b) current (heating of contact points)
c) thermal effects (high temperatures due to the electrical arc)
16
CONTACT SYSTEM
a) Fritting
If the layers have not been mechanically destroyed by the closing of the contacts, or if the
contacts have been closed for a long period of time without conducting sufficient current, the
electrical effect of fritting will contribute towards establishing a metallic contact, despite
layers on the effective contact area.
The term fritting describes the electrical
breakdown of the oxide/foreign layer when
a sufficiently high voltage (fritting voltage) is
applied
across
a
closed
contact.
Due to the applied voltage and the very
short distance (the thickness of the layers)
between the two potentials an extremely
high electric field is generated. The low
conductive layer will break down and a
small current (a few nA) is forced through
very thin channels in the layer. The resulting
local high current density, heats the
conducting channels up quickly, destroying
the layers, until finally (within a few ms) a
metal to metal bridge is established,
fig 4.5
electrically linking the two surfaces.
The value of fritting voltage depends on the
contact material, composition and thickness of the layers, conductivity and composition of
the contact surface. Voltages in the range of only a few volts up to some hundreds of volts
may be necessary for fritting to occur.
Contact Fritting
b) High currents
High continuous currents and increased contact resistance due to the layers causes heating
of the contact. The layers will eventually be destroyed thermally and a larger effective
contact area is created, reducing the constriction resistance. Therefore, higher contact
current may considerably reduce contact resistance.
c) Arc, sparks
Under certain circumstances an electric spark or arc will be generated during contact
making (bounce) or contact breaking under load. The extremely high temperatures of these
arcs may destroy the contact layers and burn or disintegrate other contaminants or particles
in the vicinity of the point of contact.
17
POWER RELAYS
Contact Resistance
Measurement/Test
Minimum test
current (mA)
10
100
1000
Contact
current
Load
U
Supply voltage
S003
Rated contact
current (A)
0.01 - 0.1
0.1 - <1
>1
Contact
voltage drop
fig 4.6
Resistance Test
fig 4.7
18
CONTACT SYSTEM
For low level applications, the effect of contact resistance can usually be ignored if the load
resistance is much higher than the contact resistance. In this case the full signal voltage will
be available at the load (e.g. fig 4.8).
Dry circuits, low level switching
The term dry circuit describes applications
with extremely low loads (e.g. LED's) or
circuits which are switched with the electrical
load having been previously disconnected,
e.g. by electronic means. In these cases the
current is too low to establish an electrothermal cleaning effect and the voltage is
below the fritting voltage. The non
conductive oxide layers on the contact
surface will not therefore, be electrically
destroyed.
The only remaining cleaning effect is the
mechanical destruction of the layers which is
sometimes insufficient (e.g. low switching
fig 4.8
frequency) to give a reliable contact or to
keep the contact resistance within
specification limits. The correct choice of contact materials is critical in such cases for
reliability.
Voltage Drop
Contact Reistance
19
POWER RELAYS
especially important when the contact resistance is tested after a prolonged period of
storage. The testing procedure has to provide both types of cleaning effect:
mechanical cleaning by switching the relay several times
electrical cleaning by using the appropriate test voltages/currents.
Electric Arc
RARC
ARC
Contact
current
Load
U
Supply voltage
S006
fig 4.10
Electric Arc
fig 4.11
20
Electric Arc
CONTACT SYSTEM
Material Migration
cathode
anode
Material Migration
Arc in DC circuits
Switching resistive loads
In dc circuits it is generally during contact breaking that arcs occur. When breaking, the
contacts move further apart and, as the gap between the contacts increases, the minimum
voltage to maintain an arc normally rises above the source voltage and the arc is
extinguished. If, however, the supply voltage/current is sufficiently high enough to maintain a
stable arc across the open contacts, the relay will be destroyed as it cannot withstand the
prolonged high temperatures generated by the arc.
Switching inductive loads
In inductive circuits, the emf (energy L*I2/2 stored in the inductance) is a secondary energy
source which causes the arc to be maintained until the energy in the circuit has been
converted to heat. This leads to considerably longer arc durations. To prevent destruction of
the contacts and to keep the arc duration within limits, the switching voltage/current has to
be within the maximum DC breaking capacity. This data is given for each relay type.
21
POWER RELAYS
Arc in AC circuits
In AC circuits the supply helps to extinguish the arc as it will collapse when the current
becomes too low or reaches zero (every 10ms for 50Hz supply).
The arc may however be re-established if the supply voltage is above the maximum
switching voltage for the particular relay or if the contacts at the current zero-crossing are not
completely opened. In this case the air gap is still relatively small and the electric field may
be strong enough to cause electrical breakdown, especially with surge voltages associated
with inductive loads.
The arc may also be re-established if the high temperature generated by the previous arc
allows re-ionization of the air path.
After a few cycles however, the contact gap will be sufficiently large and the energy in the
circuit too weak to re-ignite the arc.
In order to limit the negative effects of the arc and to extend contact life, it is necessary to
extinguish the arc as quickly as possible. This can be done by relay design or by using
certain electric arc suppression circuits.
Design
The primary design factors influencing
arcing are the length of the air gap between
the contacts and their opening speed. The
wider the contact gap the better the arc
extinguishing properties as more energy
(voltage/current) would be necessary to
maintain (DC) or re-ignite (AC) the arc (see
fig 4.11).
Design limits for a relay often mean it is not
possible to provide a sufficiently large air
gap to elongate the arc. However, in order
to increase the maximum breaking capacity
the contacts of a multi-pole relay may be
connected in series, leading to more than
one arc and hence giving a longer total arc
length and better arc extinguishing
properties.
Contacts in Series
arc 1
11
arc 2
21
arc 3
31
arc 4
41
Supply voltage
U
14
24
34
44
Load
S009
fig 4.13
Contacts in Series
Electric circuits
Contact protection circuits reduce the duration of electrical arcs and can significantly
increase the service life of the relay and suppress electrical noise. This is especially important
when switching inductive loads. For arc suppression circuits see chapter 4.5.3.
22
CONTACT SYSTEM
Despite the extremely high temperatures and other adverse effects resulting from arcing, the
electric arc also has some advantages such as the electrical cleaning effect and surge
limitation.
Electrical cleaning
The high temperature created by the arc clean the contact surfaces by destroying (burning,
decomposing) chemical layers and other non conductive contaminants in the vicinity of the
actual contact point. Also, existing small particles may eventually be burnt away. As a result,
this cleaning effect keeps the contact resistance stable and therefore has a positive effect on
relay reliability.
Surge voltage peaks - The electrical arc can be considered as an additional resistor in the
load circuit (see fig 4.10). This helps to limit the surge voltages when switching inductive
loads.
ELECTRIC LOADS
the electrical type of load
resistive
capacitive
inductive
type of supply
DC
AC
level of load
low level
intermediate
high level
typical load characteristics inrush current
switching current, e.g. lamp loads,
motors, solenoids, etc.
Type of load/supply
Resistive loads
Voltage and current are directly dependent variables, Ohms law
U=R*I
applies at all times, regardless of DC or AC supply.
23
POWER RELAYS
Inductive loads
The load inductance has an inertia effect on the current. Inductive loads always have a
resistive component (coil resistance etc.). Once DC voltage is applied the current is
I=U/R(1-e-t/T)
T=R/L, being the time constant, given in ms.
fig 4.14
Inductive DC Load
fig 4.15
AC-Loads
For an AC supply the current lags the voltage, expressed as phase shift angle or power
factor cos. The higher the time constant or lower the power factor, the higher the
inductivity.
When inductive loads are switched off, the energy stored in the inductance generates high
surge voltages. Typical inductive loads are electromagnetic components such as coils,
transformers, motors, solenoids, contactors, other relays, etc.
24
CONTACT SYSTEM
Capacitive loads
If DC voltage is applied to a combined
capacitive/resistive load the current is
I=U/Re-t/T
the time constant T=RC in ms.
For an AC supply the stable state current
leads voltage. When capacitive loads are
switched on, the resulting peak current can
be extremely high if the circuit resistance is
low (see inrush current).
fig 4.16
Capacitive DC Load
Load level
The load currents usually applied to power relay contacts extend from a fewA up to 30A or
higher. With regard to thermal contact effects and arc phenomena, loads can be classified
as:
Dry circuits
Voltage <80mV, current <10mA, no electrical cleaning effect
Low level circuits
Voltage 80mV to <300mV, current <10mA,
practically no electrical cleaning effect.
Relays for these loads range from micro
relays to small PCB relays for signal
switching. The most important consideration
in this load range is contact resistance and
contact reliability.
fig 4.17
Load Levels
Intermediate level
Voltage 300mV to <10V, current <300mA,
short arcing will occur and the electrical
cleaning effect helps keep contact resistance
low. There is a wide variety of applications
in this load range, such as household
appliances, air conditioners, audio devices
and business machines.
25
POWER RELAYS
Heavy loads
Voltage >10V , current >300mA. For these loads, stable arcs, contact erosion and material
migration are predominant features.
Minimum, maximum load
The minimum contact load (current/voltage) influences the choice of contact material which
should be selected to maintain a stable contact resistance over the electrical life of the relay.
If there is no electrical cleaning effect, the contact material has to be chosen according to its
resistance to oxidation and other chemical reactions to minimize contact resistance (e.g.
gold plated contacts).
Another selection criteria is the relay design e.g. the mechanical cleaning characteristics of
the contacts (high relative movement, wipe, twin contacts).
The limits for maximum contact load are determined by the:
switching capacity of the relay for inrush currents and when breaking the load circuit
contact material needed to obtain a reasonable electrical life
contact design to withstand inrush currents and resistance against contact welding
design of the contact system for conducting high currents, while taking into account
heating of contacts and contact springs
ambient temperature
Typical load characteristics
Inrush currents for some loads can be
significantly higher than the steady state
current or the currents given in the
specification of the equipment. Typical
examples are:
Load Characteristics
Incandescent
lamp II/IN=10-15
Incandescent lamps
For incandescent lamps the inrush current
may be 10-15 times the steady (rated)
current. This is due to the increase of the
load resistance with the temperature rise of
the filament. The steady state current is
given for hot filament, for cold wire the
resistance is much lower.
For halogen lamps the inrush current can be
as much as 20 times the steady state
current.
Capacitive
load II/IN=20-40
(-100)
Halogene
lamp II/IN=10-20
Motor
load II/IN=10-50
Solenoid
load II/IN=(3)-10-20
S013
fig 4.18
Load Characteristics
The inrush current for sodium vapour lamps is approximately 1-3 times and for mercury
lamps approximately 3 times the rated lamp current.
26
CONTACT SYSTEM
The same effect of high inrush currents due to low initial component temperature exists for
other resistive loads such as heaters. The temperature difference between cold and hot
heating elements is not as big for incandescent lamps and therefore the difference in
resistance is smaller.
Fluorescent lamps
The inrush current is typically 5-10 times the steady state current. Depending on the
capacitive effect of the power correction circuit however, the inrush currents may be
considerably higher.
Motor loads
When a motor starts, there is no EMF as the rotor is standing still. The inrush current for the
acceleration phase can be 5-10 times the rated current.
Solenoids, contactors
Unenergized solenoids have a low inductance due to the big air gap in their magnetic
system. The inrush current can be 10-20 times the steady state current measured in the
pulled in position. The same applies to other electromechanical loads such as contactor
coils.
Load categories AC-x, DC-x
EN 60947-1 and VDE 0660 describe the typical electrical load of applications and
respective test characteristics (inrush current, T or cos for switching on, switching current
and T cos for switching off). The defined categories are as infig 4.19 and fig 4.20.
Category
AC-1
AC-2
AC-3
AC-4
AC-5
AC-11
AC-14
AC-15
AC-20
AC-21
AC-22
AC-23
UTILIZATION CATEGORY
according to VDE0660
Typical applications
non-inductive or slightly inductive loads,
resistance furnaces
slip-ring motors: starting, plugging
squirrel-cage motors: starting, switching, off
during running
squirrel-cage motors: starting, plugging, inching
different incandescent lamp loads
AC electromagnets
low electromagnetic loads
AC electromagnetic loads
switching without load
resistive load with overload
resistive-inductive load with overload
motor loads and other heavy inductive loads
fig 4.19
Utilization Category
Category
DC-1
DC-2
DC-3
DC-4
DC-5
DC-13
DC-14
DC-20
DC-21
DC-22
DC-23
UTILIZATION CATEGORY
according to VDE0660
Typical applications
non-inductive or slightly inductive loads,
resistance furnaces
shunt motors: starting, switching off during
running
shunt motors: starting, plugging, inching
series motors: starting, switching off during
running
series motors: starting, plugging, inching
DC electromagnets
electromagnetic loads with shunts
switching without load
resistive load with overload
resistive-inductive load with overload
motor loads and other heavy inductive loads
fig 4.20
Utilization Category
27
POWER RELAYS
fig 4.21
28
Closing Contacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
Bouncing
When the moving contact arrives at the fixed contact, part of its kinetic energy will cause
elastic deformation and the contact will rebound several times. This period is the relay
bounce time.
Although bouncing has an advantageous mechanical cleaning effect, there are negative
effects such as wear due to arcing. If preventative measures are not taken, pulse triggered
control circuits or circuits acting as counters can receive false input information because of
multiple closures of the contacts.
Electrical effects on closing contacts
When power switching, closure of the contacts and subsequent bouncing creates an
electrical discharge. Every bounce of the contact is like one switching operation. The high
inrush currents usually present tend to generate an arc, leading to high temperatures on the
contact surface, contact erosion, material transfer and even contact welding as the molten
surface areas are forced together.
Depending on the application the contact wear during switching ON can be as high or
considerably higher than for switching OFF. This has an important impact on the electrical
life of the relay.
On the other hand, the discharge and subsequent high temperatures during power switching
have a cleaning effect on the contact surface. Layers of oxides, sulphides and other
contaminants which cause high contact resistance are burnt away or disintegrated, keeping
the contact resistance low.
At a sufficiently high contact voltage, fritting will take place generating a highly conductive
metallic contact between the two contact surfaces.
Inrush current
As previously described, arcing combined with contact bouncing is one of the parameters
that limits inrush current.
The maximum make or inrush current for a relay is the maximum current that can be applied
for a four second period immediately after contact closure. This parameter is specified for a
duty cycle of 10%.
Care has to be taken during the design and test phase of an application to ensure that the
peak inrush current will not exceed the relay specification. Inrush currents can be extremely
high compared to the rated current of the load to be switched. Typical current vs. time
diagrams for different typical electrical loads are shown infig 4.18.
Dry switching, low level switching
For dry circuits and low level contact voltages up to 100mV and contact currents of less than
10mA, no electrical discharge in the form of an arc will occur. Nor will fritting take place.
Therefore there is no electrical cleaning effect.
29
POWER RELAYS
The destruction of the layers on the contact surfaces can only be achieved by the mechanical
effects of contact bouncing and relative movement. Contact materials with high resistance to
the building up of oxide layers have to be selected (e.g. gold plated contacts). If typical
contact materials for power switching are used in such applications (e.g. AgCdO), the
resultant increase in contact resistance can cause reliability problems (see contact
resistance).
Contact material - required properties
The choice of contact materials has a great impact on a relay's characteristics during the
switching ON process and the maximum inrush current capability. The properties required
by contact material for this switching phase are:
elasticity/softness to absorb kinetic energy to reduce bouncing
high thermal conductivity to maintain a low temperature at the contact surface
high melting temperature to avoid material migration, evaporation, sputtering and
welding
4.5.2 CLOSED CONTACTS - CONDUCTING
During the time when the contacts are closed only thermo-electric effects have to be
considered.
The load current heats the contact point due to the contact resistance. The heat generating
power is P=I2*Rcontact.
For high load currents, the heat generated will be sufficient to either destroy low conductive
layers or to heat the contact point beyond the softening temperature leading to a larger
effective contact area. Both effects will reduce the contact resistance, leading to a reduction
of heat generation which in turn will result in a stable thermal situation.
The maximum ambient temperature for a
relay is given assuming full load current on
all relay poles. This full load will also heat
the coil system by approximately 10K.
Maximum thermal current
This is the maximum load current that can
be permanently applied without being
switched.
fig 4.22
30
Contact Resistance
CONTACT SYSTEM
degradation of the mechanical properties of contact springs. In addition, plastic parts like
actuators or the relay base may deform as a result of being in direct contact with the
overheated metal parts.
I2t, short-circuit protection
Relay contacts will withstand limited
overcurrents of very short duration (current
peaks) without welding. This is due to the
fact that it takes time to heat the thermal
mass of the contact, and the contact points,
to the melting temperature. However, there
is an absolute maximum current, above
which tack welding will occur.
Therefore, two values have to be considered
for short duration overcurrents without
switching. In applications or for the design
of short-circuit protection (see switching
characteristic of a melting fuse fig 4.23)
both limits have to be satisfied.
I2t-value - As the heating power applied
fig 4.23
to the contacts is P=I2*R, the energy limit
can be expressed as the square of the current multiplied by the duration of the pulse; e.g.
500A for 5ms give an I2t-value of 5002*5*10-3=1250A2sec.
Absolute maximum current in A
Operation Area
These maximum values range from 20000A2sec/500A for industrial power relays to
1000A2sec/200A for PCB-relays.
When considering continuous high currents or electrical overload, heat dissipation via the
relay terminals is of great importance and care has to be taken in the design of connections
and selection of terminal type. The minimum specified PCB conductor widths and wire cross
section must be adhered to.
Contact material, required properties
The properties required by contact material for the conducting state are:
high melting temperature to prevent welding
low specific resistance
31
POWER RELAYS
fig 4.24
Opening Contacts
32
CONTACT SYSTEM
33
POWER RELAYS
Arcs can be extinguished more easily by increasing the air path between the contacts. As the
relay design sets limits to the contact gap, this longer air path may be achieved by
connecting the contacts of a multi-pole relay in series.
Contact protection circuits, arc suppression
To increase electrical life it is necessary to reduce the negative effects of the arc as far as
possible by suppressing or quickly extinguishing the arc. This can be achieved using contact
protection circuits, also called arc suppression circuits.
The basic function of these protection circuits is to take some of the switching energy out of
the arc, or the switching process itself (e.g. by RC circuits across the contacts).
Flywheel circuits allow the inductivity to maintain a load current via the diode. The switching
characteristics of the contacts in this case are similar to a resistive load.
The use of protection circuits is especially important when the relay is used to switch
inductive AC and DC loads as the back EMF needs to be suppressed to a low level.
Although inductive DC loads are more difficult to switch than resistive loads (see maximum
breaking capacity), the use of a proper arc suppression circuit can make the switching
characteristics similar to that of resistive loads.
Contact protection circuits not only protect the contacts, but are often also necessary to
protect other electronic components in the circuit or to limit other interference and comply
with EMC standards.
34
CONTACT SYSTEM
Protective circuits do, however, have disadvantages. The most obvious is the initial cost of
adding the protection components. This cost however may be recouped by being able to use
a relay with a lower current rating and/or by obtaining a longer electrical life.
There are several methods of protecting the relay contacts. The most suitable for a given
application will depend on the supply (AC or DC) and the characteristics of the load to be
switched. For every application a suitable circuit has to be selected. An optimum solution
can often only be found by examining the waveforms on an oscilloscope and by
comparative life cycle testing.
The most commonly used circuits and information regarding their characteristics are given
below.
Diode circuit (for DC circuits only)
This is the most commonly used method of
arc suppression.
suitable for all loads, low cost, easy
mounting, effective, no surge peaks
very long reaction delay, i.e. release
delay for loads such as relays, magnets,
contactors etc.
Protection Circuits
Diode circuit
RL
RL
L
Varistor circuit
RC circuit
RL
RL
RV
Protection Circuits
The breakdown voltage of the zener diode has to be higher than the power supply voltage.
Diode and zener diode circuit (for DC circuits only)
Advantages and disadvantages as above
Varistor circuit (for AC and DC circuits)
Similar to the zener diode circuit, the varistor prevents excessively high emf surge voltages.
low overvoltage levels, short delay, independent of polarity, can be used at relatively
high voltages
35
POWER RELAYS
low arc suppression properties, no significant extension of contact life, not suitable for all
loads
RC circuits across the contacts (for AC
and DC circuits)
For this contact protection, an RC circuit is
connected in parallel to the relay contacts.
When the relay contacts open, the capacitor
suppresses the arc discharge. The series
resistor limits the current when the contacts
close again.
no delay, good arc extinction properties
no suppression but reduction of surge
peaks, additional contact load because
of higher inrush current
Protection Circuits
C circuit
RC diode circuit
RL
C
RL
RC circuit
RV
C circuit
RL
L
RV
RL
Protection Circuits
Protection circuits shown in fig 4.27.a have to be avoided due to extreme inrush currents
and the probability of contact welding.
Combination of RC circuit and diodes (for DC circuits only)
This combination is often used if highly inductive currents have to be switched and a diode
alone is not sufficient to suppress the switching arc.
the arc can be almost completely extinguished and the electrical life increased by up to a
factor of 10
delay (diode), large capacitors necessary
Combination of RC circuit and zener diodes (for AC and DC circuits)
as for RC and diode, independent of supply polarity
36
CONTACT SYSTEM
EMC considerations
Electromagnetic compatibilit of equipment is a further consideration. Whereas relays do not
pose any problem as to susceptibility to external interference (immunity), the topic of
emission or electromagnetic disturbance needs further deliberation.
An electromagnetic disturbance is defined by law as "any electromagnetic phenomenon
which may degrade the performance of a device, unit of equipment or system". All
frequencies and all forms of interferences are involved. The EU Directive covers all electric,
electrical and electronic appliances, equipment and installations containing electrical
and/or electronic components.
As relays are just components, they do not fall within the scope of the EU Directive, but any
equipment using relays will.
37
POWER RELAYS
Emission from the relay contacts during switching may cause problems depending on the
type of load switched and to some extent on the relay design. In particular, the switching arc
and voltage spikes due to back EMF are likely to cause emissions. These factors are
generally beyond the control of the relay manufacturer.
Where emission problems occur, a contact protection circuit should be used to reduce or
eliminate the effects of arcing and/or back EMF spikes. An optimum arc suppression circuit,
however, does not necessarily eliminate all EMC emission problems. Equipment testing will
be necessary to guarantee compliance with the directives and standards.
Switching frequency, NOx generation (corrosion)
When switching at a high frequency rate and with high arc intensity, abnormal corrosion
may occur. NOx will be generated which will react with other substances (e.g. water vapour)
under the influence of the electrical arc, eventually forming nitric acid which may form a
blue-green corrosive deposit. To reduce this effect, the vent tab of sealed relays should be
opened when switching at a high frequency.
This phenomenon also has to be considered when carrying out accelerated contact life
testing of relays under high load conditions.
4.5.4 OPEN CONTACTS - ISOLATION
Once the arc is extinguished and the air path loses its conductivity, the air between the
contacts resumes its function as an insulator.
Dielectric strength
Dielectric strength is the effective voltage insulation can withstand without electrical
discharge or breakdown. For an air gap this limit is dependent on the distance between the
contacts and other parameters such as atmospheric pressure, humidity, contact shape and
temperature.
38
CONTACT SYSTEM
fig 4.29
Breakdown Voltage
fig 4.30
Dielectric Strength
POWER RELAYS
Contact Material
40
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact Material
Properties
CONDUCTIVITY
+ low contact
resistance
+ short bouncing
+ high inrush currents
+ mech. destruction
of layers
+ advantages in
production
processes
+ resistant against
arc reignition
+ low weldability
+ electrical destruction
of layers
MECHANICAL
RESISTANCE
+ hardness
+ resistance against
mechanical wear
+ price
TEMPERATURE
RESISTANCE
+ resistant to
inrush currents
+ resistant to
electrical wear
S019
fig 4.32
Contact Material
fig 4.33
Application Range
These examples prove that an optimal contact material, fulfilling all technical requirements
does not and cannot exist. This, however, does not prevent the wide use and application of
relays. Different contact materials can be selected for respective applications, e.g. signal
switching (prime objective: contact resistance) versus power switching (prime objective:
electrical life).
There is no known universal contact material which suits the entire range of high power
applications. The choice primarily depends on the type of load (AC , DC, resistive, inductive,
capacitive, lamp, etc.) and switching voltage and current.
Other important factors include ambient
atmosphere, switching frequency, etc., not
forgetting the relay design itself. Contact
size and air gap directly effect the electrical
life and opening speed or available space
in the contact area leads to different
electrical life results.
In practice, power relays are used in a
variety of applications with different
electrical loads and a wide range of
voltage, current and power ratings. fig 4.33
shows an outline of voltage/current areas
for common applications.
fig 4.34
Range of Application
41
POWER RELAYS
fig 4.35
Ag Contacts
fig 4.36
AgCdO Contacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
In application a minimum load of 100mA at 12V is recommended, but during relay testing
these values should be exceeded.
For resistive loads at mains voltage AgCdO shows better results than AgSnO
2.
AgCdO contacts:
typical power relay contact material
medium to heavy load switching
high mechanical resistance
high resistance against welding
Silver Nickel (AgNi10)
Silver Nickel 90/10 is a contact material
with a wide range of applications in the
range of >100mA up to power switching
(e.g. 16A).
In comparison with AgNi0.15 this material
shows better resistance against contact wear
and higher resistance to contact welding at
high loads. The disadvantage is a slightly
higher contact resistance.
AgNi10 is suitable for medium to high
contact loads. The most important uses are
in DC switching, particularly in automotive
applications where high inrush currents
occur e.g. when switching lamps, window lift
motors etc.
fig 4.37
AgNi10 Contacts
Silver Nickel:
universal material for medium to high contact loads
higher resistance than AgNi0.15
high mechanical resistance
high resistance against welding
Hard silver (AgCu3)
Hard silver is similar to fine grain silver being suitable for switching loads in the range 10mA
to 10A at 12V or greater. Hard silver has, however, a greater mechanical strength than fine
grain silver, making it less susceptible to welding and contact wear.
This gives a greater contact life when switching high loads but with a higher contact
resistance. An important criteria to be considered is the wiping movement necessary to
destroy any surface film mechanically.
43
POWER RELAYS
AgSnO Contacts
44
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact
material
Fine Gold
CONTACT MATERIALS
Typical properties
Typical applications
Range of
applications
Gold plating of 1m
thickness as storage
protection. Economical
contact protection in
sulphuric atmosphere, with
2..3m thickness (minimum)
Hard Gold Very good corrosion resistance, Dry circuits, use in sulphuric V..60V
AuNi1
low and stable contact resistance, atmosphere (min 2..3m)
A..0.2A
AuCo1
for very small contact loads
Gold-Silver Lowest contact resistance (stable Dry circuits, measuring
V..60V
AuAg10
even with smallest loads)
circuits
A..0.2A
Gold-Nickel Free from material transfer within For medium current and
100mV..
AuNi5
a wide range of loads; small
voltage levels
..60V
contact resistance; easy arcing;
1mA..0.3A
friction oxidation is possible in
case of small breaking capacity,
high number of operations and
big contact overtravel; very
expensive
SilverBetter tarnishing resistance than Signal circuits with medium 1V
Palladium
with Ag, greater hardness, low
loads
1mA..1A
AgPd30
contact wear, expensive; stable
contact resistance
Tungsten
Highest melting point, high wear Circuits having highest
60V
W
resistance with heavy loads, little making and breaking
1A
transfer of material
requirements
45
POWER RELAYS
Plated contacts
Gold plated contacts
Used for signal switching, low level and dry
circuits, gold has an excellent resistance
against chemical reactions and formation of
films. However, it is very soft and has a low
resistance to mechanical wear. The low
melting temperature may lead to increased
electrical wear and welding. The softness of
gold can result in cold welding under
certain circumstances, when the relay is
ultrasonically cleaned, for example.
A compromise between the cost and
benefits of gold plated contacts is the use of
a 1-2m gold plate which is thick enough to
completely cover the surface (without any
fig 4.39
microscopic holes which might cause
corrosion) but thin enough to give the same
switching characteristics as a thicker plating at low loads. At higher loads the plating will be
burnt away, the switching characteristics then being determined by the underlying contact
material.
Au-plated Contacts
fig 4.40
46
Au-plated Contacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact design
As contact material is expensive, contacts are usually made of copper with a layer of contact
material (e.g. AgCdO) on the contact face. The thickness of the layer is sufficient to
withstand electrical wear during the specified life of the relay. In some special applications
where extreme arcing and contact erosion is expected, the entire contact rivet may be made
from the contact material.
Multi-layered contacts have been designed in the search for a "universal contact". Materials
highly resistant to wear are covered with other contact metals with less resistance to electrical
erosion and low contact resistance. If such contacts are used in low power applications, the
top layer gives the advantage of having a low and stable contact resistance. In the case of
high power switching the top layers will quickly be burnt away, exposing the highly arc
resistant material below.
However, such multi-layer contacts are not widely used in power relays. The reason is that
extensive sputtering of the soft surface material can reduce the insulation properties of
plastic parts near the contacts. Furthermore, this erosion effect is irreversible. Once used for
switching high loads, the advantage of low contact resistance for low loads is gone.
For the relatively large contacts used in power relays, the cost of multi-layer contacts is
considerable.
Riveted/welded contacts:
Another aspect of contact design depends
on manufacturing methods, and to a lower
extent, the application.
Contact Design
Welded and riveted contacts
riveted contact
Cu rivet
contact
material
contact
material
contact
spring
C/O contact
welding
points
Welded contact
S026
fig 4.41
Contact Design
47
POWER RELAYS
2-pole
relay
4-pole
relay
(1)
12
(4)
42
(1)
12
(2)
22
(3)
32
(4)
42
(5)
14
(8)
44
(5)
14
(6)
24
(7)
34
(8)
44
(9)
11
(12)
41
(9)
11
(10)
21
(11)
31
(12)
41
(13)
A1
(14)
A2
(13)
A1
(14)
A2
S048
fig 4.42
Multi-pole Configuration
Contact Configuration
Designation
GB
USA
Make contact
Normally open
contact
SPST-NO
Break contact
Normally closed
contact
SPST-NC
21
SPDT
(11)
SPST-NO
DM
Changeover
contact
Twin make
contact
S027
fig 4.43
48
Contact Configuration
Symbol
Number of poles
indicates the number of electrically
independent, but mechanically linked,
contact sets in the relay, e.g. a three pole
relay can switch three separate electrical
circuits or loads. fig 4.42 shows the
schematic of a 2- and 4-pole relay.
Contact function
Contact configurations and design of
contact groups are defined according to
their function and based on DIN 41020 and
by NARM, where the various combinations
have been given form letter symbols. The
most common contact configurations are:
N/O - normally open contact
is a contact which is open in the non
energized position of the relay and will be
closed after coil energization. Also called
form A, or make contact
N/C - normally closed contact
is a contact being closed in the non
energized relay position and opens when
energized, breaking the circuit. Also called
form B or break contact.
C/O - change over contact
is the contact configuration comprising both
make and break contacts, electrically
connected. Also called form C contact or
double throw. This contact form has three
terminals.
CONTACT SYSTEM
POWER RELAYS
Terminal Designation
N/C
.2
N/O
.4
.1
.1
C/O
.4
.2
.1
12
2-pole relay
11
14
22
21
24
S028
fig 4.44
Terminal Designation
fig 4.45
Terminal Designation
Terminal designations of octal type plug-in relays are defined according to IEC 67, DIN
41556. The system consists of consecutive numbers to indicate the terminal. For modern
octal plug-in relays both numbering systems are indicated on the case.
Types of contact
Contacts used in power relays are one of two types, single or twin.
Single contacts
are contact sets with one contact rivet per contact spring and are preferred when switching
high currents.
Twin contacts
(or bifurcated contacts) are contacts with two contact tips per contact spring. Both tips
operate in parallel, are electrically connected, and switch simultaneously.
The main advantage of using bifurcated contacts over single contacts is a substantial
increase in contact reliability, particularly when switching low level or signal currents. The
mathematical probability of a good contact being established when two parallel contacts
are used rather than one is higher. In practice it has been found that the failure probability is
reduced by a factor of between 4 and 25, compared to a single contact.
These figures should only be used as a guide, the actual reliability will depend on many
application parameters.
50
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact Type
51
POWER RELAYS
product, application and requirement profile are matched as closely as possible, can one be
assured that operation will take place with the minimum of problems.
Parameters for electrical life
CONTACT FAILURE MODE
Arc discharge
Surface layer
Particle
contact welding
inorganic layer
abrasion (plastics)
(oxide, sulphide)
contact erosion
dust
organic layer (oil,
material transfer
grease, vapour)
influence of contact
influence on contact
influence on contact
material
resistance
reliability
Quality of electrical contact should be considered with regard to contact reliability. Contact
failure modes might include high or unstable contact resistance due to layers, isolating films
on the contact surfaces or other contaminants like micro-particles or dust.
Probability of failure
The occurrence of failures in the life of a
component can be described in probability
terms i.e. in the form of a Gaussian
function.
The probability of a failure occurring at a
certain time is specified by its probability
density function.
For electrical life, the mean value X
indicates the typical life.
Some components will fail after and some
before this value.
The cumulative failure probability function is
fig 4.47
the integral of the probability density
function and gives the percentage of
failures, (i.e. the percentage of components which attained the end of their service life) as a
function of time.
Probability Functions
The complete diagram for the probability density function and the cumulative failure
probability is shown in fig 4.47.
52
CONTACT SYSTEM
Bathtub curve
Similar to other electrical and electronic
components, the failure rate of relays over a
number operations can be shown in a
diagram. The expected failure rate is not
constant over the entire period of use.
Because of the shape of this curve it is
called the bathtub curve.
The bathtub curve can be divided into three
phases:
Phase 1: initial period, early failures.
In this phase, contact reliability is the prime
factor. Particles from the production process
and transport and/or layers built up during
storage, increase the probability of an early
failure.
fig 4.48
Bath-tub Curve
When switching low power the chance is that, if contaminants exist, they will lead to faulty
switching operations.
When switching high power, the electrical cleaning effect will increase the quality of contact
and the failure rate during the initial phase will be drastically reduced.
Phase 2: random failures, service life - see contact reliability.
During this phase the failure rate is constant and very low. Early failures have been
eliminated and failures due to contact wear are still far away. Only random failures without
any specific related cause will occur.
Phase 3: wear failures - see electrical life
When switching low power, the end of electrical life is generally due to contact wear. This
takes a long time, and as a result, the bathtub curve deteriorates into a rather flat curve over
operational life. Contact reliability during this period is the main cause for concern.
Switching high power considerably reduces the problems of contact reliability (quality of the
electrical contact) as the electrical cleaning effect reduces the influence of contaminant
layers or particles. The contact failure rate for low and high power switching is shown infig
4.49 and fig 4.50.
53
POWER RELAYS
fig 4.49
Bath-tub Curve
fig 4.50
Bath-tub Curve
Contact reliability
Contact reliability can be improved by:
increasing electrical cleaning, selection
of the correct type of relay for the
application (e.g. signal relay or power
relay), correct circuit design taking into
account switching voltage and current.
twin contacts. Bifurcated contacts are
designed to establish a good contact
even in the case of a non conductive
layer or an insulating particle being
trapped between the contact surfaces.
burn-in procedure. The object of this is
to reduce the early failure rate in an
application by applying a test procedure
to fail relays showing poor contact
fig 4.51
reliability in the initial phase.
reliability testing. In these tests, switching
operations are continuously repeated under a specified load. Contact failure modes such
as the increase in contact resistance and eventual contact welding are checked at each
switching operation.
Burn-in
54
CONTACT SYSTEM
POWER RELAYS
reduced insulation
The depositing of scattered contact metal and condensation of evaporated contact
material on the surfaces of insulators, as well as thermal deterioration, can cause a
reduction in their insulation properties such as insulation resistance and dielectric
strength.
According to IEC 255, the life of a component is considered to be reached if any of the
insulation characteristics fall below 75% of the specified values.
powder deposits on the contact surfaces caused by wear of plastic parts such as the
contact actuator, oxide powders caused by rubbing motion of moving parts and those
produced by erosion of contact metal. Carbide deposits produced by dissolution of
organic gases absorbed by the contact surfaces.
As with reliability, electrical life is a statistical
approach to defining part of a relay's
specification. This means that there is not
one single value for electrical life, but a
probability function of contact failure as a
function of switching operations.
The electrical life of a relay can be indicated
in different ways. In terms of either statistical
values B10, T and b (see Weibull diagram
and fig 4.55) or as typical life.
Typical life
is the mean value of switching operations
under a specified load. For relays, the typical life represents the number of operations
for which statistically approximately 50% of
the relays will still be functional.
56
fig 4.52
Electrical life
CONTACT SYSTEM
fig 4.53
Contact Life
Example:
for the nominal voltage of 220VAC and a breaking
capacity of 1.1kVA (current 5A) the expected typical life
for resistive load is 350.000 operations; under the
assumption of an inductive load with a cos of 0.4 the
expected typical life is -350.000*reduction factor 0.7
giving 245,000 operations.
fig 4.54
Reduction Factor
Usually, the electrical life is given for some typical loads. The life for other loads is estimated
by interpolation or by testing in the actual application.
Contact life with DC loads is highest for pure resistive loads. For inductive loads, the larger
the inductance (longer time constant L/R), the shorter the expected contact life. This may be
partially compensated by contact protection circuits.
57
POWER RELAYS
Weibull diagram
Apart from the typical electrical life of a
relay, it may also be defined by a
cumulative failure probability. In order to
process
the
probability
distributions
mathematically, and be able to convert the
data to relatively simple graphs, the
probability density function is approximated
by functions such as Gauss' distribution, or
in the case of relays and other components,
by the Weibull distribution.
The absolute failure probability for a
specified contact load is approximated by a
straight line in the Weibull diagram.
The general formula for the probability
distribution is:
probability of survival is R=e-(t/n)b
probability of a failure is defined by F=1-R.
fig 4.55
Weibull Diagram
Three parameters B10, T and b represent the failure probability of the relay:
Characteristic life T, indicates the point where statistically 63.2% of the relays will have
failed.
B10 represents the number of operations for which statistically 90% of the relays will still
work.
Weibull exponent b, gives an indication of the degree of random failure. In the diagram,
b is represented by the gradient of the Weibull line. For b<1 the failure rate diminishes
as the number of operations increases, indicating that the failures are early failures. For
b=1 the failure rate is constant (random failures) and for b>1 the failure rate increases
with switching operations, indicating failure due to wear.
58
CONTACT SYSTEM
fig 4.56
Electrical Life
Sealed relays
When switching a full load on the contacts
at extremes of switching rate and ambient
temperature, nitric acid may be produced as
a result of the high energy arc discharge. To
maintain specified performance the relay
should be opened or vented. Usually, this
can be accomplished by opening a vent
hole after completion of any cleaning
process.
If the relay has to remain sealed during
application because of a harsh ambient
environment (gases, humidity, dust), and
used at maximum current and switching
frequency, the electrical life has to be
derated.
fig 4.57
Sealed Relays
59
POWER RELAYS
Polarity switching
The contact gap in relays with C/O contacts
is rather small and the response time may
be shorter than the arc extinction time.
This means that the N/C contact could be
closed before the arc to the N/O contact is
extinguished. In this case the arc between
the opening contacts will give an electrical
connection to the closing contact. The N/C
contact will be electrically connected to the
N/O contact causing a short circuit. If the
supply can supply enough energy to
maintain a stable arc, welding and the
complete destruction of the contact system
will occur. Such circuits must be avoided
under all circumstances!
60
fig 4.58
fig 4.59
AC-DC Switching
Polarity Switching
CONTACT SYSTEM
Motor reversing
When reversing a motor by switching
between two polarities, the arc between the
opening contacts may short to the closing
contacts, leading to a short-circuit of the
power supply (see above).
As there is practically no load in this circuit,
the current will be strong enough to
maintain the arc and burn the relay contact
system.
A motor reversing circuit using only C/O
contacts must not be used.
An additional relay should be used to first
disconnect the motor from the power source,
and only then the reversing relay switched
after the arc has extinguished.
fig 4.60
Motor Reversing
Multi-pole relays
When selecting relays and circuit design for switching multiple poles with different
voltages/loads, special considerations are necessary.
Loads and contacts should be connected with the same polarity and potential as shown in
fig 4.61.
If the loads are connected as No.2 in fig
4.61 there is a chance that under some
load conditions (spikes, surge voltage) the
dielectric strength between adjacent relay
poles may not be sufficient, and an arc
discharge may cause short circuits.
This is especially important when switching
loads at or near the maximum breaking
voltage given per pole! The maximum
voltage between the poles guaranteeing
sufficient creepage and clearance distances
is given by the voltage rating according to
VDE0110.
If switching different potentials within one
relay is unavoidable, a type with sufficient
dielectric strength has to be selected.
Alternatively, a large gap between two
fig 4.61
Multi-pole Wiring
61
POWER RELAYS
adjacent contacts should be created by interposing an unused contact set between the sets
of switching contacts.
3 phase switching
The same considerations for multi-pole
relays applies to the switching of a 3 phase
power supply.
Even if using the relay poles within their
specified limits, maximum switching voltage
and current per pole, the arc discharge and
connected ionization during the switching
procedure may lead to short-circuits
between adjacent poles. In such cases, the
resulting short circuit current may maintain a
stable arc, destroying the contact system.
When switching 3 phase supplies, relays
with sufficient isolation characteristics have
to be selected. For switching 3x380VAC,
fig 4.62
relays with an insulation category of C380
according to VDE0110 should be used. In
certain cases, it may be possible to use relays with a B380 rating (depending on load
conditions).
3-Phase Switching
When selecting a relay, choose one with a higher maximum breaking capacity as the
insulation characteristics will degrade during the electrical life of the relay. Stronger contacts
are less susceptible to wear and hence to these negative effects.
Special attention has to be paid when switching 3 phase inductive loads such as motors.
Back-EMF surge voltage peaks, generated during switching, may be higher than the
dielectric strength between adjacent poles. The resulting breakdown of the insulation will
lead to an arc, causing a short circuit between two phases, destroying the relay. Testing in
the application is necessary to ensure safe design.
Connecting contacts in parallel
The switching capacity of a relay cannot be increased by connecting relay poles in parallel.
The contacts will not switch simultaneously. Only one contact will switch the overload and be
affected by the arc. The overload will increase contact wear or cause welding.
Phase synchronization of AC loads
If the switching of an AC load is synchronized with the AC phase, the polarity of the contacts
during the switching procedure will always be the same, leading to material migration and
the mechanical locking effect as for DC switching. Reduced electrical life will be the
consequence.
62
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contacts in Series
arc 1
11
arc 2
21
arc 3
31
arc 4
41
Supply voltage
U
14
24
34
44
Load
S009
fig 4.63
Contacts in Series
63
POWER RELAYS
CONTACT SYSTEM
PARAMETER
contact configuration
load
switching characteristics
64
CHARACTERISTIC
number of poles
contact function
N/O, N/C or C/O contacts
type of contact
single, twin contact
supply voltage -VAC, VDC
type of load
resistive, inductive, capacitive
load current
inrush current
contact rating
contact material
contact resistance
maximum contact voltage
breaking capacity
make current
electrical life
dielectric strength between open
contact/poles
SELECT
CHECK