Emission Estimation from Driving Cycle for Dhaka City

EMISSION ESTIMATION FROM DRIVING CYCLE FOR
DHAKA CITY
Submitted by
Ishtiaque Karim Robin

Student ID: 0810123
Under supervision of
Dr. Noor Al Quddus

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DHAKA-1000, BANGLADESH
June 2014
EMISSION ESTIMATION FROM THE DRIVING CYCLE FOR DHAKA CITY
A thesis submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering

and Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Mechanical Engineering.
Supervisor:
Dr. Noor Al Quddus

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Prepared by
Ishtiaque Karim Robin
(0810123)
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

DHAKA 1000, BANGLADESH
JANUARY 2013
DECLARATION
It is hereby declared that this or any part of it has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of
any degree or diploma.
Ishtiaque Karim
Student Number: 0810123
Acknowledgement
I cannot but express my earnest gratitude to Dr. Noor Al Quddus, Assistant professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
for providing me the opportunity to accomplish the thesis. I state my respect to Dr. Noor Al
Quddus for his continuous observation and help during the thesis work.
I am also grateful to BUET authority for allowing me to take all the necessary technical help
from all the laboratories and using the micro bus for data recording.
Abstract
In the recent days, the huge environmental changes all over the world have lead people to think about
some of the major reasons causing the environmental pollutions. As a result, emissions from the
automobiles have drawn the attention most significantly. So, to resolve emission problem, we
must first determine the amount of emission that is emitted from the automobiles that move around us.
Then we can get a very clear idea about how much emission is occurring around us and by comparing
the emission with the worlds standard we can identify the exact position of a particular place in respect
of emitting pollutant by its vehicles. But for this we first need to determine suitable criteria by which we
can make an easy and significant comparison. Constructing a driving cycle is the easiest way to make the
whole picture very vivid in front of us. But these criteria are seen to vary from country to country
around the world. So the driving cycle developed for the European and American cities are standard
for those cities, but for the cities like Dhaka criterias are different. In this process we have recorded
data for long period of time and have covered a long distance as well. Then we, further, have analyzed
the data to have a better realization of the pattern and behavior of the data recorded in the gradual
process of vehicular emission estimation.
Table of Content
1. Introduction
2. Emission Test Cycle/ Real Life Driving Cycle
2.1 Background
2.2 Driving cycle
2.2.1 European Driving Cycle
2.2.2 US Driving Cycle
2.2.3 Japanese Driving Cycle
2.3 Driving Cycles at Dhaka City
2.3.1 Standard Test Methods
2.3.2 Selection of Vehicles
2.3.3 Route Selection
2.3.4 Selecting Data Collection Time and Duration
3. Emission Estimation Methods:
3.1 Modeling Hot Emission
3.2 Estimating Emission in Various Models:
3.2.1 Estimating Emission with Average Speed Models
3.2.2 Estimating Emission with Emission Factor Models
3.2.3 Estimating Emission with Modal models
4. Discussion context
4.1. Standard Comparison
4.2. Conclusion
References
LIST OF THE TABLE

No of the Table
1
2
3
4
10
Speed d
Content of the Table

Specifications of the vehicles
Data collection time and
duration
Classification of vehicles
according to UN-ECE
Classification of vehicle
category
Page no
7
8
Speed dependency of CO
emission factors for gasoline
passenger cars
Speed dependency of VOC
passenger cars
Speed dependency of NOX
passenger cars
Speed dependency of carbon
dioxide emission factors for
gasoline passenger cars
17
Speed dependency of factors

for uncontrolled diesel
vehicles <2.5 t
19
Speed dependency of
emission factors for
diesel vehicles <2.5
t, complying with
the EURO I
Directive
11
13
17
18
18
19
11
Speed dependency of
emission factors for
conventional LPG vehicles
<2.5 t
19
12
Speed dependency of
emission factors for LPG
vehicles <2.5 t, complying
with EURO I Directive
20
13
Speed dependency of
light duty vehicles <3.5 t
20
14
Speed dependency of
emission factors for diesel
light duty vehicles <3.5 t
Classification of all vehicle
classes covered by emission
factor model methodology
Emission factors for CO and
NMVOCs
20
Emission factors for NOx

and PM
Emission factors for NO and
NH3
Emission factors for ID
(1,2,3-cd)P and B(k)F
Emission factors for B(b)F
and B(a)P
Emission factors for lead (Pb)
25
CO2 emission factors for

different road transport fossil
fuels
CO2 emission factors from
combustion of lubricant oil
Typical fuel consumption
figures, per km, by category
of vehicle
The various emissions for
Toyota Corolla LX Limited
27
26
The various emissions for

Mitsubishi Microbus
29
27
results for the two separate

vehicles
The calculated data for
modal model
Various emissions with
different three emission
models
Standard emission from
motor vehicles in Bangladesh
30
Standards for emission from

mechanized vessels in
31
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
28
29
30
31
22
25
25
26
26
26
27
28
29
30
31
31
32
33
34
35
Bangladesh
Comparing Toyota Corolla
LX with EURO 1 Standard
Comparing Mitsubishi
Microbus with EURO 3
standards
The whole picture can be
represented by a chart
showing the standards
comparing it with the
European standard for 2014
Data analysis with various
percentage of acceleration,
cursing and idle time
31
32
32
32
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, like the other small cities of the world, has adopted lots of
changes to keep pace with the development processes of the modern world. These changes not
only make life comfortable, but also often cause various new problems. For the last few decades,
Dhaka has been providing the dwelling for more than 15 million people. And for proper
transportation and communication of this huge number of people it contains thousands of
vehicles, which continuously emit tones of exhaust gases every day. The number of the vehicles
in the city has drastically been increased in the last half decade. As a result various problems
have been appearing day by day. So far not much research work has been done on the
transportation system and driving cycle of Dhaka city. But for avoiding the unwanted problems,
to enjoy better performances of the vehicles with longer life time of the vehicles and better
environmental conditions, studying the driving cycle of Dhaka city is very crucial.
2. REAL LIFE DRIVING CYCLE

2.1 BACKGROUND:
In the seventies and the eighties the term driving cycle was introduced in America. During that
time the state California gave an impulse to the automobile industry to develop engines with
higher efficiency and lower emissions, by the establishment of emission laws. As a result there
arose the need for test procedures to compare several engines with each other. These test
procedures are called driving cycles.
2.2 Driving Cycle:

A driving cycle is a standardized driving pattern. This pattern is described by means of a
velocity-time table. The track that is to be covered is divided in time-steps, mostly seconds. The
acceleration during a time step is assumed to be constant. As a result the velocity during a time
step is a linear function of time. Because velocity and acceleration are known for each point of
time, the required mechanical power as a function of time can be determined with formulas. This
function integrated over the duration of the driving cycle produces the mechanical energy needed
for that driving cycle.
The world-wide used driving cycles can be divided into three groups:
- European driving cycles
- US driving cycles
- Japanese driving cycles
2.2.1 European driving cycles:

European driving cycles belong to the modal cycles. This means there are parts in these cycles where
the speed is constant. Because modal cycles dont represent real driving patterns an additional
group of driving cycles has been developed: the HYZEM cycles.For the European driving cycles there
are subdivisions. ECE 15 (represents urban driving. It is characterized by low vehicle speed (max. 50
km/h), low engine load and low exhaust gas temperature), EUDC (describes a suburban route. At
the end of the cycle the vehicle accelerates to highway-speed), EUDCL (a cycle for low-powered
2
vehicles. It is similar to the EUDC but the maximum speed is 90 km/h), NEDC (a combined
cycle consisting of four ECE 15 cycles followed by an EUDC or EUDCL cycle. The NEDC is
also called the ECE cycle) and HYZEM are the prime subdivisions. Except HYZEM all the
cycles mentioned above are stylistic cycles. These cycles cannot represent real driving patterns.
The HYZEM cycles are transient cycles. The parts at which the speed is constant are much
smaller than in modal cycles. The HYZEM cycles are derived from real driving patterns
throughout Europe. Therefore, they are a better representation for driving conditions than the
standard European cycles. The HYZEM cycles are often used but they are not official. The
HYZEM cycles consist of an urban cycle, an extra-urban cycle and a highway cycle.
2.2.2 US driving cycles:

US driving cycles belong to the transient cycles. Like the HYZEM cycles they give a better
representation of real driving patterns than the modal cycles. In the early seventies FTP 72 cycle
has been developed to describe an urban route. The cycle consists of a cold start phase. This
phase is followed by a transient phase with many speed peaks which start from rest. The
emissions are measured. In the United States weight factors are used for both phases to norm the
emissions. The FTP 72 is often called FUDS, UDDS or LA-4. The SFUDS has been developed
to simulate battery discharge and charge during a trip with an EV. The SFUDS was derived for a
specific vehicle, the improved dual shaft electric propulsion. The velocity profile is adapted to
this vehicle, to obtain a battery discharge- and charge profile that consists of constant power
phases. The FTP 75 is the FTP 72 with an extra third phase. This phase is identical to the first
phase of the FTP 72 but is executed with a hot engine. HFEDS represents extra urban an
highway driving. IM 240 is a cycle is used for inspection purposes. With this cycle, the
emissions are determined during the periodic maintenance test. The LA-92 represents like the
FTP 72 an urban route. The LA-92 has been developed in 1992, because the existing FTP 72
turned out to be a non-realistic representation of urban driving patterns. For example the LA-92
has a higher average speed. NYCC cycle represents an urban route through New York. A
characteristic of this cycle is the low average speed. US 06 is the so called aggressive driving
cycle. It is developed to describe a driving pattern with high engine loads.
2.2.3 Japanese driving cycles:

The Japanese driving cycles belong to the modal cycles. 10 Mode cycle represents an urban
route. 15 Mode is a combination of an urban and an extra-urban route. The maximum speed is 70
km/h. 10-15 Mode is a combination of five cycles. First the 15-Mode, then three times 10-Mode
and at last again the 15 Mode.
2.3 Driving cycle in Dhaka city:

Driving cycles mentioned above are developed for particular cities, where the driving conditions
are much more different than Dhaka city. Assumption of driving particles and vehicle conditions
prevailing in USA, Europe or Japan while deriving emission factors for Dhaka city would result
in inaccurate prediction of vehicular emissions. Standard driving cycles used in developed
countries embodied the characters of their driving patterns probably are not ideal for cities of
developing countries to evaluate emission factors. So it is very much important to develop a
realistic and practical driving cycle for Dhaka city. In this case different probable conditions
should be considered which can significantly leave some impacts on the driving cycle.
In our study, at first we have selected the proper methodology for the task. According to the
methodology, we have recorded the data of speed, time and distance. By further calculation we
have calculated the acceleration. Next we have analyzed the data recorded. From our analysis we
have got an idea of the pattern of speed and acceleration of the vehicles running in Dhaka city.
2.3.1 Standard test methods:

Basically, developing driving cycles involves:
- Recording driving conditions using one or several instrumented vehicles, whether privately
owned or not and usually driven for their normal purposes. Data thus recorded give an expected
image of the traffic conditions.
- analyzing the above data in order to subsequently describe or characterize these conditions.
These analyses often involve defining an analysis level (i.e. a scale on which driving patterns are
analyzed) and variables describing these driving patterns.
- developing one or more representative cycles for the recorded conditions, first in terms of
4
experienced speeds, sometimes accelerations, start conditions, gear changes, temperature,

loading.
Driving cycle construction methods typically include the following steps:
(1) Collecting real world driving data,
(2) Segmenting the driving data,
(3) Constructing cycles, and
(4) Evaluating and selecting the final cycle (Andre 2004).
For developing a practical and realistic driving cycle it is of vital importance to collect data of
speed in such a way that all the parameters influencing the data are considered carefully and
there must be some changes in these parameters for different observations to cover all the
possible driving conditions. To date, two data collection methods have most often been
employed:
1) The use of a chase car to mimic driving behavior while recording speed and acceleration data
from target vehicles sampled from the population and
2) The use of onboard instrumentation in vehicles to record speed and acceleration data.
Chase car data have primarily been used for developing driving cycles, while data from
instrumented vehicles have been used only minimally. The use of other technologies, such as
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is also a very useful way for recording data, but the accuracy
mostly depends on the capability of the device of receiving signals.
After collecting data, analyzing the data and determining the percentage of operational modes
would lead the way to develop a realistic driving cycle. So defining the standard driving modes
is also of great importance.
Defining the four standard driving modes :
(a) Idling mode:
When, velocity = 0
Or
time elapsed = idling time
When, (velocity) 2 km/hr and (acceleration) 0.3 m/s 2

(b) Acceleration mode:
When, (acceleration) > 0.3 m/s2, time elapsed = accelerating time

(c) Cruising mode:
When, (velocity) > 2 km/hr
And
time elapsed = cruising time
When, -0.3 m/s2 < (acceleration) 0.3 m/s 2

(d) Deceleration mode:
When, (acceleration) < -0.3 m/s2, time elapsed = decelerating time
In short we can summarize as follow:
Modes
Idling
Condition
velocity = 0
Elapsed time
idling time
or
(velocity) 2 km/hr and
(acceleration) 0.3 m/s 2
Acceleration
(acceleration) > 0.3 m/s2
accelerating time
Cruising
(velocity) > 2 km/hr
cruising time
And
-0.3 m/s2 < (acceleration)
0.3 m/s2
Deceleration
(acceleration) < -0.3 m/s2
decelerating time
In our study, we have used a GPS device (Garmin: etrex- Legend H) for data recording. The GPS
device is kept inside the vehicle in such a position that it may easily receive the signal from
satellite, as the data measurement is done on the basis of the signal received from the satellite.
The measured data is stored in the built in memory of the device temporarily. These data can be
transferred to a computer with the help of the device software and a data cable.
2.3.2 Selection of vehicles:

For our study, we have used two medium weighted vehicles:
(a) A car
(b) A micro bus
The specifications of the vehicle are given below:
Table 1: Specifications of the vehicles

Maker
Toyota
Model Year
Displacement
Fuel supply
Emission
Odometer
(c.c.)
system
control
reading
system
(kilometers)
1993
1331
EFI
TWC
65.45
2002
1997
EFI
TWC
58.69
Corolla LX
Limited
Micro Bus
Mitsubishi
Collected from the thesis on driving cycle of Akhter Zia from 2013
2.3.3 Route selection:

For our study, we have selected several important routes and driven through the routes
continuously for a very long time i.e. more than five hours. We have covered almost all of the
important routes of Dhaka city. In case of route selection, the overall traffic situation of Dhaka city is
different from the European or American cities.Because in Dhaka city, other than the heavy and
medium weighted vehicles, there are human driven three wheelers, known as rickshaw, running
on different routes. Due to the presence of the rickshaws, the motor driven car cannot be run at high
speed and cannot be accelerated very quickly. Not only that all the routes are not open for the
7
rickshaws. For these reasons we have selected our routes in such way that both types of routes may be
covered
2.3.4 Selecting data collection time and duration:

The traffic situations keep changing at different hours of the day. For Dhaka city, the maximum
traffic congestion is seen from 8 am to 11 am, from 1 pm to 3pm and from 4.30 pm to 7.30 pm.
So data should be collected in such a way that both the congestion and non-congestion period
may be covered. In our case, we take the data for continuously more than five hours, starting
from 9 am and finishing after 2 pm. The traffic condition differs in holidays and weekends. So
for getting the real phenomenon of the traffic situation we have take all the data on the working
days. Sampling information for two different vehicles is given below.
Table 2: Data collection time and duration

Vehicle
Time of
Duration
data
(hour :
collection
minute :
second)
Length or routes (kilometers)
Rickshaw
Rickshaw
allowed
not
route
allowed
Total
Maximum
Average
speed
speed
(km/hr)
(km/hr)
route
Toyota
9.00 am to
Corolla LX
2.19 pm
05:18:59
36.17
29.28
65.45
84
12.31
31.49
27.2
58.69
79
11.27
Limited
Micro Bus
9.00 am to
Mitsubishi
2.12 pm
05:12:28
Collected from the thesis on driving cycle of Akhter Zia from 2013
3. Emission Estimation Methods

Pollutant emissions generated by road traffic can be calculated following the general principle of the
summation of the product of an emission factor and the amount of traffic, for each type of vehicle
and each type of vehicle operation. This expression covers the main parameters used in emissions
modeling. However, each of these categories is dependent upon many other variables, rendering
emissions modeling an area of extensive research and development. The following sections will
define several modeling approaches used when calculating hot, cold start and evaporative emissions.
3.1 Modeling Hot Emission:

A recent survey, conducted as part of the DRIVE II KITE project, identified models used
throughout Europe and estimated a variety of spatial and temporal scales. These emission models
can be divided into three main groups of increasing level of complexity:
(a) Emission factor models
(b) Average speed models
(c) Modal models.
Emission Factor Models:

The emission factor models function with a simple calculation method. The estimation of the
emissions is expressed by the use of an emissions factor related to one type of vehicle and a
specific driving mode (i.e. urban, rural or motorway). Furthermore, the emission factors are derived
from the mean values of repeated measurements over a particular driving cycle and are often
expressed in mass of pollutant per unit distance (e.g. g/vehicle km). This type of model is
particularly useful on a macro scale, when the information on traffic flows and operational modes is
insufficient. They are commonly used in the development of national and regional emission
inventories. However, this approach has major disadvantages when used on a micro scale level
since the emission factors are based on average driving characteristics and, usually,
unrepresentative drive cycles, compromising their accuracy.
Average Speed Models:

Average speed models are based on speed-related emission functions, generated by the
measurement of the emission rates over a variety of trips at different speed levels. Examples of this
type of model are COPERT and DMRB. These models are often used in emission inventories on a
road network scale. Usually they do not include changes in operational modes, which makes their
use at a micro scale level inappropriate
Modal Models:
Modal emission models operate at a higher level of complexity. Modal models based on speed and
acceleration present the emission rates as a function of different levels of speed as well as of the
various operational modes, such as acceleration, deceleration, steady-speed cruise and idle. This type
of model can complement the ones discussed in the previous sections since they provide more
9
accurate emissions estimation at a micro scale level. Modal models based on speed and acceleration
can be specific enough to provide emission levels or fuel consumption, second-by-second, for a
particular type of vehicle from a given driving cycle. According to the authors in reference [8], these
models represent state-of-the-art in emissions modeling, but at the moment they do not include other
important variables such as the road gradient.
The engine load is one of the most significant variables regarding vehicle emissions. Emissions
model-ling based on engine power and speed may prove to be more effective than using emission
functions based on speed and acceleration, as previously mentioned, because effects such as road
gradient can be taken directly into account [9]. In modal models based on engine power, the
emissions are expressed as a function of engine demand and other physical parameters related to
vehicle operation. This type of model is often highly complex due to the large amount of data
required.
3.2 Estimating Emission in various models:

Here we attempt to produce a calculation procedure to estimate the total emission that has
been emitted from the test vehicles we used to produce the driving cycle. We consider all
the three types of emission estimation methods : the average speed model, the emission
factor model and the modal model
3.2.1 Estimating emission with Average Speed Model:

Basic Principle:
The main sources of emission from road vehicles are the exhaust gases and hydrocarbons
produced by evaporation of the fuel. When an engine is started below its normal operating
temperature, it uses fuel inefficiently, and the amount of pollution produced is higher than when
it is hot .Here in Dhaka city the temperature is very moderate and has not been recorded below the
freezing point of water in the last 120 years. So we mostly focus on the hot emission while calculating
the emission for the Dhaka city .
So for Dhaka city; E E hot\r
Where,
(1)
E is the total emission

Ehot is the emission produced when the engine is hot
The total emission depends on an emission factor and one or more parameters relating to the
operation of the vehicle, so that in general:
E x ex a
(2)
Where :
Ex
is one of the contributions to total emissions
ex
is an activity related emission factor
a
is the amount of traffic activity relevant to this type of emission
10
The parameters ex and a are themselves functions of other variables.

For hot emissions, the activity related emission factor, ehot, is expressed primarily as a function
of the average speed of the vehicle. Modification factors (which may themselves be functions
of other variables) allow corrections to be made for features such as the road gradient or the
load carried by a vehicle. The activity, a, is then the amount of operation carried at a
particular average speed, on roads with a certain gradient, for vehicles with a certain load.
To calculate the emission we used some basic set of formulas. But at first we need to determine
the vehicle category. Because the formula we used here is based on the the category of the
vehicle. The information necessary for classifying the vehicle category is listed below:
Table:3 Classification of vehicles according to UN-ECE
Category
Description
L
Motor vehicles with less than four wheels
L1
Two-wheeled vehicles with an engine cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cc and a
maximum design speed not exceeding 40 km/h
L2
Three-wheeled vehicles with an engine cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cc and a
maximum design speed not exceeding 40 km/h
L3
Two-wheeled vehicles with an engine cylinder capacity exceeding 50 cc or a maximum
design speed exceeding 40 km/h
L4
Vehicles with three wheels asymmetrically arranged in relation to the longitudinal median
axis, with an engine cylinder capacity exceeding 50 cc or a design speed exceeding 40
km/h (motorcycles with sidecar)
L5
Vehicles with three wheels symmetrically arranged in relation to the longitudinal median
axis with a maximum weight not exceeding 1000 kg and either an engine cylinder capacity
exceeding 50 cc or a design speed exceeding 40 km/h (motorcycles with sidecar)
M
Power driven vehicles having at least four wheels or having three wheels when the
maximum weight exceeds 1 tonne, and used for the carriage of passengers.
M1
Vehicles used for the carriage of passengers and comprising not more than eight seats in
addition to the driver's seat
M2
Vehicles used for the carriage of passengers and comprising more than eight seats in
addition to the driver's seat, and having a maximum weight not exceeding 5 tonnes
M3
Vehicles used for the carriage of passengers and comprising more than eight seats in
addition to the driver's seat, and having a maximum weight exceeding 5 tonnes
N
Power driven vehicles having at least four wheels or having three wheels when the
maximum weight exceeds 1 tonne, and used for the carriage of goods
N1
Vehicles used for the carriage of goods and having a maximum weight not exceeding 3.5
tonnes
N2
Vehicles used for the carriage of goods and having a maximum weight exceeding 3.5
tonnes but not exceeding 12 tonnes
N3
Vehicles used for the carriage of goods and having a maximum weight exceeding 12
tonnes
Reference: PROJECT REPORT SE/491/98(METHODOLOGY FOR CALCULATING TRANSPORT EMISSIONS AND ENERGY
11
CONSUMPTION) Edited by A J Hickman
In this project, a somewhat different categorization is proposed, in order to match more closely
with traffic statistics that are routinely compiled. Four main categories will be used,
corresponding with those of UN-ECE as follows:
1. Passenger Cars (PC) M1
2. Light Duty Vehicles (LDV) N1
3. Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV) M2, M3, N2, N3 N4
4. Two Wheel Vehicles (2-W) L1, L2, L3, L4, L5
Categories for emission calculations:

Within each of these four main categories there is still a diversity of vehicle types, as regards both
their emissions and operational characteristics. Cars, for example, use both petrol and diesel fuel,
have different types of emission control system and their size range is large enough for the distinction
of emissions by engine capacity. Similarly, although heavy duty vehicles are almost exclusively
driven by diesel engines, they include Lorries, buses and coaches, whose operations are quite
different, and cover a large range of sizes from 3.5 to 60 tonnes in maximum weight.
Therefore, for the calculation of emissions, it is necessary to define a further sub-classification of the
vehicles so that each group displays a reasonably uniform emissions performance. The following
table is showing these sub-classifications:
12
Table: 4 Classification of vehicle category

Category
Passenger
car
Engine/fuel
Petrol
Size
<1.4 l
1.4-2.0 l
>2.0
Passenger
car
Diesel
< 2.0 l
> 2.0 l
Model year
until 1971
1972 - 1977
1978 - 1980
1981 - 1984
1985 - 1992
1986 - 1991
1986 - 1991
1991 - 1996
1996 - today
2001-2005
2005 until 1971
1972 - 1977
1978 - 1980
1981 - 1984
1985 - 1992
1986 - 1991
1986 - 1991
1991 - 1996
1996 - today
2001-2005
2005 until 1971
1972 - 1977
1978 - 1980
1981 - 1984
1985 - 1992
1986 - 1991
1986 - 1991
1991 - 1996
1996 - today
2001-2005
2005 until 1986
1986 - 1996
1996 - today
2001-2005
2005 until 1986
1986 - 1996
1996 - today
2001-2005
2005 -
Control level
Pre-regulation
70/220 & 74/290/EEC
77/102/EEC
78/665/EEC
83/351/EEC
Improved Conventional
Open loop catalyst
91/441/EEC (EURO I)
94/12/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
Pre-regulation
70/220 & 74/290/EEC
77/102/EEC
78/665/EEC
83/351/EEC
Open loop catalyst
91/441/EEC (EURO I)
94/12/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
Pre-regulation
70/220 & 74/290/EEC
77/102/EEC
78/665/EEC
83/351/EEC
Open loop catalyst
91/441/EEC (EURO I)
94/12/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
Uncontrolled
88/436 & 91/441/EEC (EURO I)
94/12/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
Uncontrolled
88/436 & 91/441/EEC (EURO I)
94/12/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
13
Table (continued). Vehicle categories

Category
Passenger
car
Light duty
vehicles
Engine/fuel
LPG
Size
All
CNG
Alcohols
Bio diesel
Electric
Hybrid
2 stroke
All
All
All
All
All
All
Petrol
<3.5 t
Heavy duty
vehicles
until 1995
1995 - 1998
1998 -
until 1995
1995 - 1998
1998 -
Diesel
LPG
CNG
Alcohols
Bio diesel
Electric
Hybrid
Diesel
Model year
until 1986
1986 - 1996
1996 - today
2001-2005
2005 -
HGV
3.5 - 7.5 t
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
HGV
7.5 - 16 t
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
Control level
Conventional
88/436 & 91/441/EEC (EURO I)
94/12/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
Uncontrolled
Future categories
Uncontrolled
93/59/EEC (EURO I)
96/69/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
Uncontrolled
93/59/EEC (EURO I)
96/69/EEC (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC

91/542/EEC stage I (EURO I)
91/542/EEC stage II (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC
91/542/EEC stage I
91/542/EEC stage II
EURO III
EURO IV
14
Table (continued). Vehicle categories

Category
Heavy duty
vehicles
2-wheeled
vehicles
Engine/fuel
Size
HGV
16 - 32 t
Model year
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
HGV
32 - 40 t
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
HGV
> 40 t
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
Urban
buses
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
Diesel
Coaches
until 1993
1993 - 1997
1997 - today
LPG
CNG
Bio diesel
Electric
Hybrid
Petrol
All
All
All
All
All
< 50 cm3
> 50 cm3
4 stroke
> 50 cm3
2 stroke
until 1996
1997-1998
after 1999
until 1996
after 1997
until 1996
after 1997
Control level
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC
91/542/EEC stage I
91/542/EEC stage II
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC
91/542/EEC stage I
91/542/EEC stage II
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC
91/542/EEC stage I
91/542/EEC stage II
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC
91/542/EEC stage I
91/542/EEC stage II
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC
91/542/EEC stage I (EURO I)
91/542/EEC stage II (EURO II)
EURO III
EURO IV
ECE R 47
COM(93)449 Stage 1
COM(93)449 Stage 2
ECE R 40.01
COM(93)449
ECE R 40.01
COM(93)449
Hot emissions are the emissions produced when the engine and the pollution control
systems of the vehicle (e.g. catalyst) have reached their normal operating temperature.
They can be calculated if the emission per unit of activity and the total activity over the
time scale of the calculation are known, using the formula:
E hot e m
Ehot is the emission, in units of mass per unit of time (usually in t/a)
e
is the hot emission factor in g/km
m
is the activity, in distance travelled per time unit (usually in km/a)
15
The activity m required for the emission calculation according to Equation (A7) is defined as:
m n l
where:
n is the number of vehicles in each of the categories defined in Table A5.
l is the average distance travelled by the average vehicle of the category over the
time unit, in km/a
It is obvious that Equation stated above has to be applied for each vehicle category, since
the emission factors and the activity are different. It is also stressed that the vehicle average
annual distance is different from one country to another, and in any case, this distance
is distributed over different types of roads. A part of the distance is travelled in urban
areas, a part in rural areas and the rest on highways, each type of road having a different
average speed and affecting the emission factors.
Combining above equations taking into account the different vehicle categories, the final
equation for hot emission estimation can be derived:
E k = i=1 n i l i j=1 p i,j e i ,j, k
(3)
where:
k
identifies the pollutant
i
is the number of the vehicle categories
j
is the number of the types of road
ni
is the number of vehicles in category i
li
is the average annual distance travelled by the vehicles of category i
pi,j is the percentage of the annual distance travelled on road type j by vehicle type i
ei,j,k is the emission factor of pollutant k corresponding to the average speed on road type j, for
vehicle category i
On the basis of the data made available by all partners, the following categories were treated:
Gasoline cars complying with EURO I (91/441/EEC) emission standards
Diesel cars complying with EURO I (91/441/EEC, 88/436/EEC and US83) emission standards
Conventional Gasoline LDVs
Conventional Diesel LDVs
Gasoline LDVs complying with EURO I (93/59/EEC) emission standards
Diesel LDVs complying with EURO I (93/59/EEC) emission standards
In the following portion the dependency of various pollutants on the speed of the vehicles are
shown:
16
Table 5:Speed dependency of CO emission factors for gasoline passenger cars
Vehicle
class
PRE ECE
ECE 15-00/01
ECE 15-02
ECE 15-03
ECE 15-04
Improved
conventional
Open loop
EURO I
R2
Cylinder
capacity
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
Speed
range
10-100
100-130
10-50
50-130
10-60
CO emission factor
(g/km)
281V-0.630
0.112V + 4.32
313V-0.760
27.22 - 0.406V + 0.0032V2
300V-0.797
0.924
0.898
0.158
0.747
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
60-130
10-20
20-130
10-60
60-130
26.260 - 0.440V + 0.0026V2

161.36 - 45.62 ln(V)
37.92 - 0.680V + 0.00377V2
260.788V-0.910
14.653 - 0.220V + 0.001163V2
0.102
0.790
0.247
0.825
0.613
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
14.577 - 0.294V + 0.002478V2

8.273 - 0.151V + 0.000957V2
17.882 - 0.377V + 0.002825V2
9.446 - 0.230V + 0.002029V2
9.846 - 0.2867V + 0.0022V2
9.617 - 0.245V + 0.001729V2
12.826 - 0.2955V + 0.00177V2
0.781
0.767
0.656
0.719
0.133
0.145
0.109
Table: 6 Speed dependency of VOC emission factors for gasoline passenger cars
Vehicle
class
PRE ECE
ECE 15-00/01
ECE 15-02/03
ECE 15-04
Improved
conventional
Open Loop
EURO I
Cylinder
capacity
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
Speed
range
10-100
100-130
10-50
50-130
10-60
60-130
10-60
60-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
VOC emission factor

(g/km)
30.34V-0.693
1.247
24.99V-0.704
4.85V-0.318
25.75V-0.714
1.95 - 0.019V + 0.00009V2
19.079V-0.693
2.608 - 0.037V + 0.000179V2
2.189 - 0.034V + 0.000201V2
1.999 - 0.034V + 0.000214V2
2.185 - 0.0423V + 0.000256V2
0.808 - 0.016V + 0.000099V2
0.628 - 0.01377V + 8.52E-05V2
0.4494 - 0.00888V + 5.21E-05V2
0.5086 - 0.00723V + 3.3E-05V2
R2
0.980
0.901
0.095
0.895
0.198
0.838
0.341
0.766
0.447
0.636
0.49
0.207
0.197
0.043
17
Table 7: Speed dependency of NOX emission factors for gasoline passenger cars
Vehicle
class
PRE ECE
ECE 15-00/01
ECE 15-02
ECE 15-03
ECE 15-04
Improved
conventional
Open Loop
EURO I
Cylinder
capacity
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
Speed
range
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
NOX emission factor

(g/km)
1.173 + 0.0225V - 0.00014V2
1.360 + 0.0217V - 0.00004V2
1.5 + 0.03V + 0.0001V2
1.479 - 0.0037V + 0.00018V2
1.663 - 0.0038V + 0.00020V2
1.87 - 0.0039V + 0.00022V2
1.616 - 0.0084V + 0.00025V2
1.29 e 0.0099V
2.784 - 0.0112V + 0.000294V2
1.432 + 0.003V + 0.000097V2
1.484 + 0.013V + 0.000074V2
2.427 - 0.014V + 0.000266V2
-0.926 + 0.719 ln(V)
1.387 + 0.0014V + 0.000247V2
-0.921 + 0.616 ln(V)
-0.761 + 0.515 ln(V)
0.5595 - 0.01047V + 1.08E-04V2
0.526 - 0.0085V + 8.54E-05V2
0.666 - 0.009V + 7.55E-05V2
R2
0.916
0.960
0.972
0.711
0.839
0.844
0.798
0.577
0.669
0.722
0.803
0.883
0.876
0.791
0.495
0.122
0.077
0.014
Table: 8 Speed dependency of carbon dioxide emission factors for gasoline passenger cars
Vehicle
class
PRE ECE
ECE 15-00/01
ECE 15-02
ECE 15-03
ECE 15-04
Improved
conventional
Open Loop
EURO I
Cylinder
capacity
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC < 1.4 l
1.4 l < CC < 2.0 l
CC > 2.0 l
Speed
range
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
5-130
5-130
5-130
CO2 emission factor

(g/km)
768 + 3.13V - 199ln(V)
1005 + 4.15V - 263ln(V)
1498 + 8.21V - 0.0133V2 - 421ln(V)
173 - 2.52V + 0.0182V2 + 1930/V
1065 + 4.00V - 284 ln(V)
835 + 3.71V + 2297/V - 229ln(V)
345 + 0.0106V2 + 1275/V - 68.6ln(V)
835 + 3.93V + 986/V - 231ln(V)
879 + 4.32V + 2298/V - 244ln(V)
664 + 2.09V + 0.00449V2 - 167ln(V)
1074 + 5.49V - 0.00461V2 - 305ln(V)
957 + 4.51V + 1832/V - 264ln(V)
614 + 2.56V - 157ln(V)
264 + 0.0103V2 + 2049/V - 49.8ln(V)
1173 + 4.83V - 315ln(V)
226 - 3.91V + 0.0368V2
333 - 6.11V + 0.0518V2
238 - 3.67V + 0.0319V2
331 - 5.88V + 0.0499V2
157 - 2.07V + 0.0172V2 + 1835/V
231 - 3.62V + 0.0263V2 + 2526/V
294 - 5.50V + 0.0393V2 + 3513/V
R2
-
18
Table: 9 Speed dependency of factors for uncontrolled diesel vehicles <2.5 t

Pollutant
CO
NOX
VOC
PM
CO2
Cylinder
capacity
All categories
CC < 2.0l
CC > 2.0l
All categories
All categories
All categories
Speed
range
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
Emission factor
(g/km)
5.413V-0.574
0.918 - 0.014V + 0.000101V2
1.331 - 0.018V + 0.000133V2
4.61V-0.937
0.45 - 0.0086V + 0.000058V2
374 - 6.58V + 0.0442V2 - 30.3/V
R2
0.745
0.949
0.927
0.794
0.439
-
Table: 10 Speed dependency of emission factors for diesel vehicles <2.5 t, complying
with the EURO I Directive
Pollutant
CO
NOX
VOC
PM
CO2
Cylinder
capacity
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
Speed
range
10-120
10-120
10-130
10-130
10-130
Emission factor
(g/km)
1.4497 - 0.03385V + 2.1E-04V2
1.4335 - 0.026V + 1.785E-04V2
0.1978 - 0.003925V + 2.24E-05V2
0.1804 - 0.004415V + 3.33E-05V2
286 - 4.07V + 0.0271V2
R2
0.550
0.262
0.342
0.294
-
Table: 11 Speed dependency of emission factors for conventional LPG vehicles <2.5 t
Pollutant
CO
NOX
VOC
CO2
Cylinder
capacity
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
Speed
range
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
Emission factor
(g/km)
12.523 - 0.418V + 0.0039V2
0.77V0.285
26.3V-0.865
283 - 4.15V + 0.0291V2
R2
0.893
0.598
0.967
-
19
Table: 12 Speed dependency of emission factors for LPG vehicles <2.5 t, complying
with EURO I Directive
Pollutant
CO
NOX
VOC
CO2
Cylinder
capacity
All categories
All categories
All categories
All categories
Speed
range
10-130
10-130
10-130
10-130
Emission factor
(g/km)
2
0.00110V - 0.1165V + 4.2098
0.00004V2 - 0.0063V + 0.5278
0.00010V2 - 0.0166V + 0.7431
0.0208V2 - 2.70V + 228
R2
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Table: 13 Speed dependency of emission factors for gasoline light duty vehicles <3.5 t
Pollutant
CO
NOX
VOC
CO2
Vehicle
class
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Speed
range
5-110
5-120
5-110
5-120
5-110
5-120
5-110
5-120
Emission factor
(g/km)
2
0.01104V - 1.5132V + 57.789
0.0037V2 - 0.5215V + 19.127
0.0179V + 1.9547
7.55E-05V2 - 0.009V + 0.666
0.000677V2 - 0.1170V + 5.4734
5.77E-05V2 - 0.01047V + 0.5462
0.0541V2 - 8.4326V + 514.5
0.0621V2 - 9.8381V + 601.2
R2
0.732
0.394
0.159
0.014
0.771
0.358
0.787
0.723
Notes: Due to limited available data, the functions for the following cases are a mere copy of those
applied in passenger cars. In any case, they seem to be in good compliance with both the
measured data and the emission standards.NOX EURO I Gasoline, the emission factor function for
Gasoline PC<1,4l EURO I has been adopted
Table: 14 Speed dependency of emission factors for diesel light duty vehicles <3.5 t
Pollutant
CO
NOX
VOC
PM
CO2
Vehicle
class
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Uncontrolled
EURO I
Speed
range
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
10-110
Emission factor
(g/km)
2
0.00020V - 0.0256V + 1.8281
0.000223V2 - 0.026V + 1.076
0.000816V2 - 0.1189V + 5.1234
0.000241V2 - 0.03181V + 2.0247
0.000066V2 - 0.0113V + 0.6024
0.0000175V2 - 0.00284V + 0.2162
0.0000125V2 - 0.000577V + 0.2880
0.000045V2 - 0.004885V + 0.1932
0.066V2 - 8.2756V + 464.4
0.0617V2 - 7.8227V + 429.51
R2
0.136
0.301
0.402
0.072
0.141
0.037
0.023
0.224
0.486
0.422
We used above equations and vehicle categories to calculate the emissions of various pollutants.
We applied it to both the vehicles we used (Toyota Corolla LX Limited and Mitsubishi
Microbus). The calculations are shown below:
20
For Toyota Corolla LX Limited:

We determined that Toyota Corolla LX in the category of
91/441/EEC (EURO I)
(from Table 4)
So the emission factors related to it are calculated by the following equations:

CO(carbon mono oxide): Emission factor = 9.845-0.02867 *V +0.0022V*V = 7.8811 g/km
(from Table 5)
VOC(volatile compound): Emission factor = 0.628-0.01377 *V+8.52E-5V*V =0.471402 g/km
(from Table 6)
NOx(Oxides of nitrogen): Emission factor = 0.5595 -0.01047 *V+1.08E-4V*V=0.44698 g/km
(from Table 7)
CO2 (Carbon di oxide ): Emission factor = 157-2.07*V+0.0172*V*V+1835/V =283.19 g/km
(from Table 8)
Now, we can determine the activity by using the equation (2):
m = n*l = 1 * (12.31/24)= 0.523
where,
n= no of vehicles in the category = 1
l= average distance travelled per unit time = (12.31/24)
Now by using the equation (1) we get,
Ehot = e * m
So,
(Ehot)co= Emission factor (co) * m=7.8811(gm/km)*0.523(km/hr)=4.1218 gm/hr
(Ehot)voc= Emission factor (voc) * m=0.4714(gm/km)**0.523( km/hr)=0.2465 gm/hr
(Ehot)nox= Emission factor (nox) * m=0.44698(gm/km)**0.523 (km/hr)=0.233 gm/hr
(Ehot)co2= Emission factor (co2) * m=283.19(gm/km)**0.523( km/hr)=148.10 gm/hr
For Mitsubishi Microbus:

We determined that Mitsubishi Microbus in the category of
EURO III
(from Table 4)
So the emission factors related to it are calculated by the following equations:

CO(carbon mono oxide): Emission factor = 8.273-0.151*V+0.000957*V*V = 6.6928 gm/km
(from Table 5)
VOC(volatile compound): Emission factor = 1.999-0.034*V+0.000214*V*V =1.643 gm/km
(from Table 6)
NOx(Oxides of nitrogen): Emission factor= 01.387+0.0014*V+0.000247*V*V=1.43415gm/km
(from Table 7)
CO2 (Carbon di oxide ): Emission factor = 333-6.11*V+0.0518*V*V =270.71957 gm/km
(from Table 8)
Now, we can determine the activity by using the equation (2):
m = n*l = 1 * (11.27/24)= 0.4696
where,
21
n= no of vehicles in the category = 1

l= average distance travelled per unit time = (11.27/24)
Now by using the equation (1) we get,

Ehot = e * m
So,
(Ehot)co= Emission factor (co) * m=6.6928(gm/km)*0.4696(km/hr)=3.1428 gm/hr
(Ehot)voc= Emission factor (voc) * m=1.643(gm/km)**0.4696( km/hr)=0.7715 gm/hr
(Ehot)nox= Emission factor (nox) * m=1.43415(gm/km)**0.4696(km/hr)=0.6734 gm/hr
(Ehot)co2= Emission factor (co2) * m=270.7196(gm/km)**0.4696( km/hr)=127.15 gm/hr
3.2.2 Estimating emission with Emission Factor model:

For calculating the emission with emission factor model we first have to determine the vehicle
category. Then we must use the necessary equations related to the specific vehicle category to
calculate the whole emission.
Table: 15 Classification of all vehicle classes covered by the methodology
Vehicle category
Type
Gasoline
<0.8 l
Legislation/technology
Euro 4 98/69/EC Stage 2005
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
PRE ECE
ECE 15/00-01
ECE 15/02
Passenger cars
Gasoline
0.8-1.4 l
1.42.0 l
> 2.0 l
ECE 15/03
ECE 15/04
Improved conventional
Open loop
Euro 1 91/441/EEC
Euro 2 94/12/EC
Vehicle category
Type
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
Diesel
< 1.4 l
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
Conventional
Euro 1 91/441/EEC
Diesel
Euro 2 94/12/EC
22
1.42.0 l
> 2.0 l

Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro Conventional
6 EC 715/2007
Passenger cars
Euro 1 91/441/EEC
Euro 2 94/12/EC
LPG

Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
2-stroke
Conventional
Hybrids
< 1.4 l
1.42.0 l
> 2.0 l
E85
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
CNG
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
Conventional
Euro 1 93/59/EEC
Gasoline
Light commercial
< 3.5 t
vehicles
Euro 2 96/69/EC
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
Vehicle category
Diesel
Conventional
< 3.5 t
Euro 1 93/59/EEC
Type
Euro 2 96/69/EC
Euro 5 EC 715/2007
Euro 6 EC 715/2007
Gasoline > 3.5 t
Conventional
Rigid <= 7.5 t

Rigid 7.512 t
Rigid 1214 t
Rigid 1420 t
Heavy-duty vehicles
Rigid 2026 t
Conventional
Rigid 2628 t
Euro I 91/542/EEC Stage I
Rigid 2832 t
Euro II 91/542/EEC Stage II
Rigid > 32 t
Euro III 1999/96/EC Stage I
Articulated 1420 t
Euro IV 1999/96/EC Stage II
Articulated 2028 t
23
Articulated 2834 t
Euro V 1999/96/EC Stage III
Articulated 3440 t
Euro VI Regulation EC 595/2009
Articulated 4050 t
Articulated 5060 t
Urban <=15 t
Urban 1518 t
Urban > 18 t
Buses
Conventional
Coaches, standard
Euro IV 1999/96/EC Stage II
<=18 t
Euro V 1999/96/EC Stage III
Coaches, articulated
Euro VI Regulation EC 595/2009
> 18 t
CNG

EEV 1999/96/EC
2-stroke, < 50 cm
Conventional
Euro 1 97/24/EC Stage I
Euro 2 97/24/EC Stage II
Mopeds
4-stroke, < 50 cm
Euro 3 proposal (still draft in 2013)

Euro 4 Regulation EC 168/2013
2-stroke, > 50 cm
Motorcycles
Conventional
4-stroke, 50250 cm
97/24/EC Euro 1
4-stroke, 250750 cm
2002/51/EC Stage I Euro 2
Type
Vehicle category
2002/51/EC Stage II Euro 3

4-stroke, > 750 cm

Reference: Battye, W., Boyer, K., Thompson, G.P.: Methods for Improving Global Inventories of Black Carbon and Organic Carbon Particulates, EC/R Incorporated
and US EPA, 15 pp.May, J., Bosteels, D., Favre, C. 2010: Emissions Control Systems and Climate Change Emissions, AECC, 6 pp
Approach for exhaust emissions uses the following general equation:

Ei = j (m (FCj,m EFi,j,m))
(3)
Where:
Ei
emission of pollutant i [g],
FCj,m
fuel consumption of vehicle category j using fuel m [kg],
EFi,j,m
fuel consumption-specific emission factor of pollutant i for

vehicle category j and fuel m [g/kg].
The vehicle categories to be considered are passenger cars, light commercial vehicles, heavy24
duty vehicles, and motorcycles and mopeds. The fuels to be considered include gasoline, diesel,
LPG and natural gas.
Now the next step is to determine the necessary emission factor for the required class vehicle.
This is collectively shown in the following series of tables
Table: 16 Emission factors for CO and NMVOCs
Category
Fuel
PC
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
84.7
LCV
Gasoline
Diesel
HDV
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
84.7
152.3
7.40
7.58
5.70
Two-wheel
Gasoline
497.7
Mean
CO
(g/kg fuel)
Min
49.0
269.5
2.05
38.7
68.7
6.37
5.73
2.20
331.2
Max
Mean
10.05
NMVOC
(g/kg fuel)
Min
3.33
8.19
117.0
238.3
11.71
10.57
15.00
13.64
14.59
1.54
1.92
0.26
5.55
34.42
0.41
6.10
3.91
1.29
1.33
0.10
664.5
131.4
30.0
Max
0.70
1.88
25.66
26.08
1.96
3.77
0.67
364.8
Table: 17 Emission factors for NOX and PM

Category
PC
LCV
HDV
Two-wheel
Fuel
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
Gasoline
Diesel
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
Gasoline
NOx
(g/kg fuel)
Mean
Min
8.73
4.48
29.89
11.20
13.88
4.18
13.22
3.24
34.30
25.46
13.36
33.37
5.50
6.64
18.43
28.34
38.29
30.00
1.99
Max
Mean
0.03
PM
(g/kg fuel)
Min
13.00
0.02
0.00
1.52
0.94
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.80
2.64
0.02
0.00
1.10
0.61
0.01
10.73
2.20
0.55
12.96
15.20
14.91
Max
1.10
0.03
0.00
2.99
1.57
0.04
6.02
Table: 18 Emission factors for N2O and NH3

Category
Fuel
Mean
PC
LCV
HDV
Two-wheel
N2 O
(g/kg fuel)
Min
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
0.206
Gasoline
Diesel
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
0.186
0.089
0.056
0.051
n.a.
0.133
0.320
0.044
0.107
0.103
0.024
0.025
0.030
0.000
Gasoline
0.059
0.048
Max
Mean
1.106
NH3
(g/kg fuel)
Min
0.316
0.202
0.072
0.089
0.000
0.667
0.080
0.038
0.013
n.a.
0.330
1.444
0.024
0.082
0.324
0.022
0.018
0.010
0.000
0.067
0.059
0.048
0.087
Max
0.065
1.114
0.108
0.056
0.018
0.000
0.067
25
Table: 19 Emission factors for ID (1,2,3-cd)P and B(k)F

Category
Fuel
PC
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
Gasoline
Diesel
LCVs
HDV
Two-wheel
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
Gasoline
ID(1,2,3-cd)P
(g/kg fuel)
Mean
Min
Max
Mean
B(k)F
(g/kg fuel)
Min
Max
8.90e-06
2.12e-05
2.00e-07
6.90e-06
1.58e-05
7.90e-06
n.a
1.33e-05
4.05e-05
2.00e-07
1.21e-05
2.84e-05
8.60e-06
5.90e-06
1.11e-05
2.00e-07
3.90e-06
8.70e-06
7.30e-06
3.90e-06
1.18e-05
2.00e-07
3.00e-06
8.70e-06
3.44e-05
n.a
3.90e-06
4.58e-05
2.00e-07
3.50e-06
3.21e-05
3.72e-05
3.90e-06
3.00e-06
2.00e-07
2.60e-06
2.40e-06
3.18e-05
1.02e-05
1.04e-05
1.00e-05
6.80e-06
7.00e-06
6.70e-06
Table: 20 Emission factors for B(b)F and B(a)P

B(b)F
(g/kg fuel)
Min
Max
Mean
Gasoline
Diesel
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
7.90e-06
2.24e-05
0.00e-00
6.10e-06
1.66e-05
3.08e-05
n.a
1.14e-05
5.26e-05
0.00e-00
1.03e-05
3.69e-05
3.33e-05
5.40e-06
9.60e-06
0.00e-00
3.60e-06
7.50e-06
2.84e-05
Gasoline
9.40e-06
9.60e-06
9.20e-06
Category
Fuel
PC
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
LCVs
Mean
HDV
Two-wheel
B(a)P
(g/kg fuel)
Min
Max
5.50e-06
2.14e-05
2.00e-07
4.20e-06
1.58e-05
5.10e-06
n.a
6.20e-06
4.55e-05
2.00e-07
5.60e-06
3.19e-05
5.50e-06
4.80e-06
1.00e-05
2.00e-07
3.20e-06
7.90e-06
4.70e-06
8.40e-06
8.60e-06
8.20e-06
Table: 21 Emission factors for lead (Pb)

Category
Fuel
Mean
PC
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
LCVs
Gasoline
Diesel
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
3.30e-05
5.20e-05
n.a
3.30e-05
5.20e-05
5.20e-05
n.a
Gasoline
3.30e-05
HDV
Two-wheel
Pb
(g/kg fuel)
Min
Max
1.70e-05
1.60e-05
2.00e-04
1.94e-04
1.70e-05
1.60e-05
1.60e-05
2.00e-04
1.94e-04
1.94e-04
1.70e-05
2.00e-04
26
Table: 22 CO2 emission factors for different road transport fossil fuels
Fuel
kgCO2 per kg of fuel1
All vehicle types
Gasoline
3.180
All vehicle types
Diesel
LPG2
3.140
Subsector units
All vehicle types
3.017
All vehicle types
CNG (or LNG)
2.750
All vehicle types
E5 4
3.125
All vehicle types
E10
3.061
All vehicle types
E85 4
2.104
Notes:
1
CO2 emission factors are based on an assumed 100% oxidation of the fuel carbon (ultimate CO2).
LPG assumed to be 50% propane + 50% butane.

CNG and LNG assumed to be 100% methane.
3
4
E5, E10 and E85 blends assumed to consist of 5, 10 and 85% vol. respectively ethanol (bio-ethanol or synthetic
ethanol) and 95, 90 and 15% respectively gasoline.
Table: 23 CO2 emission factors from combustion of lubricant oil1

CO2 from lubricant
(g/kg fuel)
Mean
Min
Max
Category
Fuel
PC
Gasoline
Diesel
LPG
8.84
LCV
Gasoline
Diesel
6.07
8.84
6.41
7.83
9.89
8.01
11.3
4.76
7.83
5.41
HDV
Diesel
CNG (Buses)
2.54
3.31
1.99
3.09
3.32
3.50
Two-wheel
Gasoline
53.8
33.3
110
8.74
7.28
9.89
7.72
Note:
1
These emission factors assume typical consumption and composition values for lubricant oil used in automotive
applications.
The emissions of SO2 per fuel-type m are estimated by assuming that all sulphur in the fuel is
transformed completely into SO2, using the formula:
E SO2 ,m = 2 k S,m FC m
(5)
27
ESO2,m= emissions of SO2 per fuel m [g],

k S,m= weight related sulphur content in fuel of type m [g/g fuel],
FCm= fuel consumption of fuel m [g].
We shall also be needing the activity data to calculate the emission. The mentioned approach
requires relevant fuel statistics, i.e. the volumes (or weights) of fuel sold for road transport use,
and for each type of fuel used. For the majority of fuels (gasoline, diesel, LPG) these statistics are
usually available at a national level. However, for slow-fill CNG vehicles (often filled from the
natural gas grid), data could be more challenging to obtain and estimations may need to be made.
Table: 24 Typical fuel consumption figures, per km, by category of vehicle
Typical fuel consumption
(g/km)
Vehicle category (j)
Fuel
Passenger cars
Gasoline
70
Diesel
60
LCVs
HDVs
Two-wheel vehicles
LPG
57.5
E85
86.5
CNG
62.6
Gasoline
100
Diesel
80
Diesel
240
CNG (buses)
500
Gasoline
35
We used above vehicle categories, emission factors and activity data to calculate the emissions of
various pollutants. We applied it to both the vehicles we used (Toyota Corolla LX Limited and
Mitsubishi Microbus). The calculations are shown below:
For Toyota Corolla LX Limited:

We determined the vehicle category to be:
SNAP like code 07 01 01
EURO I-91/441/EEC
For typical passenger car typical fuel consumption of gasoline = 70gm/km
So, Activity=total fuel consumption = 65.45(km)* 70 (gm/km)= 4.58kg
(Table 15)
(Table 24)
28
Table: 25 The various emissions are shown in the following table:

Pollutants
Emission factors(gm/kg)
CO(carbon mono oxide)

VOC(volatile compound)
NOx (oxides of nitrogen)
PM(particulate matters)
N2O (nitrogen di-oxide)
NH3 (ammonia )
Pb(Lead)
CO2 (carbon-di-oxide)
CO2 (carbon-di-oxide)(for lub
burning )
84.7(table 16)
10.05(table 16)
8.73(table 17)
0.03(table 17)
0.206(table 18)
1.106(table 18)
3.3E-05(table 21)
3.18E03(table 22)
8.84(table 23)
Total emissions(gm)=
Emission factor(gm/kg)*activity
(kg)
387.92
46.03
39.98
0.1374
0.943
5.065
1.5E-04
14.56E03
40.48
SO2 calculation:
Ks,m =165E-06 gm/gm
FCm=4.58E3 gm
So, emission of SO2= 2* Ks,m* FCm
=2*165E-06 gm/gm * 4.58E3 gm
=1.51gm
Now, total pollution =(387.92+46.03+39.98+0.137+0.94+5.065+14.56E03+40.48+1.51)gm
=15.05kg
For Mitsubishi Microbus:

We determined the vehicle category to be:
EURO III
(Table-15)
For typical passenger car typical fuel consumption of gasoline = 70gm/km

So, activity=total fuel consumption = 70(km)* 70 (gm/km)= 4.58kg
(Table-24)
Table: 26 The various emissions are shown in the following table:

Pollutants
Emission factors(gm/kg)
CO(carbon mono oxide)

VOC(volatile compound)
NOx (oxides of nitrogen)
PM(particulate matters)
N2O (nitrogen di-oxide)
NH3 (ammonia )
Pb(Lead)
CO2 (carbon-di-oxide)
CO2 (carbon-di-oxide)(for lub
burning )
84.7(table 16)
10.05(table 16)
8.73(table 17)
0.03(table 17)
0.206(table 18)
1.106(table 18)
3.3E-05(table 21)
3.18E03(table 22)
8.84(table 23)
Total emissions(gm)=
Emission factor(gm/kg)*activity
(kg)
384.58
41.355
54.77
0.123
9.078
4.55
0.135
13.08 E03
36.38
29
SO2 calculation:
Ks,m =165E-06 gm/gm
FCm=4.115E3 gm
So, emission of SO2= 2* Ks,m* FCm
=2*165E-06 gm/gm * 4.115E3 gm
=1.358gm
Now, total pollution =(384.54+41.355+54.77+0.123+9.078+4.55+13.087E03+0.135+36.38+1.358)gm
=13.617 kg
We know, total distance/average velocity= total time travelled
So, Toyota Corolla LX Limited travelled a total of 5.3168 hour
And Mitsubishi Microbus travelled a total of 5.207 hour
Table: 27 results for the two separate vehicles:
Toyota Corolloa
LX Limited
Mitsubishi
Microbus
Average
CO2(kg/hr)
2.7384
NOx(gm/hr)
7.52
VOC(gm/hr)
`8.6574
CO(gm/hr)
72.96
2.512
10.51
7.9421
73.85
2.6252
9.015
8.2997
73.405
3.2.3 Estimating emission with Modal model:

The emission estimation for with modal model analysis involves calculating data with XL
programming and MATLAB programming. Firstly, we put all the data in an XL sheet. These are
the data we obtained from the GPS which gives us the speed of the vehicle for every second for
a long period of time. Then the speed is multiplied by the time to obtain the distance travelled in
every second and we also calculate if the vehicle is in acceleration, deceleration, cruise or idle
mode. Now with MATLAB coding we used the same equations we used in average velocity
model to determine the emissions of various pollutants(carbon mono oxides, carbon di oxides
,volatile compounds and oxides of nitrogen) in every second. As the velocity reduces to less
than or equal to 2 km/hr we assumed the emissions of CO2 to be 500 gm/hr. Then finally with an
average estimation we calculate the whole emission for the modal model emission analysis.
Table: 28 The calculated data for modal model are listed below
Pollutants
CO2 emisson
NOx emission
VOC emission
CO emissio
Emissions (gm/hr)
242.6143
0.2456
0.2883
4.3099
30
4. DISCUSSION CONTEXT
4.1 Standard comparison:
We calculated the emissions of Dhaka city of various pollutants in three different emission
estimation models. Now we are going to compare it with the standard emission limit that is
determined for the rest of the world.
Table: 29 Various emissions with different three emission models are represented below
Pollutants
CO2
NOx
VOC
CO
Average velocity
model(gm/hr)
148.1
0.233
0.2465
4.1218
Modal model
(gm/hr)
242.6143
0.2456
0.2883
4.3099
Emission factor model(gm/hr)

2625.2
9.015
8.29975
73.405
The following table shows the Standard emission rules for Bangladesh. The amounts are shown
in a table:
Table: 30 Standard emission from motor vehicles in Bangladesh
Parameter
Standard limit
Black smoke
Carbon Monoxide
65 Haritridge Smoke Unit (HSU)

24 gm/km
04 percent area
0.2 gm/km
180 ppm
0.2 gm/km
600 ppm
Hydrocarbon
Oxides of Nitrogen
Table: 31 Standards for emission from mechanized vessels in Bangladesh

Parameter
Standard Limit
Black smoke
65 Haritridge Smoke Unit (HSU)
Here black smoke is measured at two thirds of maximum rotating speed

Table: 32 Comparing Toyota Corolla LX with EURO 1 Standard
Pollutants
Toyota Corolla LX (gm/hr)
EURO 1 standard(gm/hr)
CO
VOC
NOx
CO2
4.12
0.2465
0.233
148.1
2.72
0.5
0.5
170
31
Table: 33 Comparing Mitsubishi Microbus with EURO 3 standards

Pollutants
Mitsubishi Microbus (gm/hr)
EURO 3 standard(gm/hr)
CO
VOC
NOx
CO2
3.14
0.77
0.67
127.15
2.30
0.20
0.15
147
The standard we used here is followed mostly by European standard. Various standards are
used at various places all over the world. There is no constant rule. Also even the standard
varies in the similar region with the passage of time quite significantly.
Table: 34 The whole picture can be represented by a chart showing the standards
comparing it with the European standard for 2014
Pollutants
Toyota
Corolla LX
(gm/hr)
EURO 1
standard(gm/hr)
Mitsubishi
Microbus
(gm/hr)
EURO 3
standard(gm/hr)
Europian
standard for
2014(gm/km)
CO
VOC
NOx
CO2
4.12
0.25
0.23
148.10
2.72
0.5
0.5
170
3.14
0.77
0.67
127.15
2.3
0.2
0.15
147
1
0.1
0.06
130
We can also calculate the emission by another analytical method. As we have seen that in a
typical journey within Dhaka city the idle time for the vehicle is almost 50% and acceleration,
deceleration, crusing time is between 16 to 17%. The data we collected can be used for the
following calculation where we consider various combination of different speed that can
ultimately yield the velocity similar to average velocity. The findings are shown below:
Table: 35 Data analysis with various percentage of acceleration, cursing and idle time
Pollutants Emission 50% idle
in
+50% 25
average km/hr
velocity
model
50% idle
+25% 12.5
km/hr
+25% 37.5
60km/hr
33% idle
+33% 12.5
km/hr +33%
25.5 km/hr
CO
VOC
NOx
CO2
4.5713
0.3002
0.2545
374.89
4.5094
0.2965
0.2512
345.365
4.12
0.25
0.23
148.10
4.5655
0.3
0.2542
354.5566
50 %
idle+40%
12.5
km/hr +
10% 60
km/hr
4.6276
0.3028
0.2567
397.7553
25 %
idle+50%
12.5
km/hr +
25% 25
km/hr
4.5497
0.2993
0.2536
346
Emission
in Modal
Model
4.3099
0.2883
0.2456
242.6143
32
4.2 Conclusion:
Here we calculated the emissions of various pollutants that has been produced during vehicle
movement within Dhaka city. We determined the various vehicle categories according to the
classifications. Also we used different emission factors and various equations to calculate the
emissions of various pollutants. The equations we used are collected from various sources over
the internet and they are not specifically created for Dhaka city. In many cases there is a
possibility of deviation from ideal conditions as they were assumed while producing the various
equations and emission factors for the specific city. This might caused deviated values in our
calculation.
As we can see from our discussion context, emission estimation with emission factor model is
not a good method to determine emission as it uses broadly macroscopic analysis of driving
cycle. Average velocity model also uses a macroscopic analysis as it uses only the average
speed rather than the speed in every second during the vehicle movement. But the result
obtained from average velocity model is a decent method for raugh estimation of emission. The
modal analysis for emission estimation is the best way to determine the pollution estimation. But
various combination of the percentage of idle, cursing and acceleration time used to determine
the emission also proved to be very close to modal analysis.From the calculation we could see
that if we take the combination of 25 % idle time 50% 12.5 km/hr and 25% 25 km/hr the result is
close to the amount we find in modal analysis.
We have to estimate the emissions chemically in real life case while we would vary the loads
with the help of a chassis dynamometer in order to compare it with our theoretical value to
determine the percentage of error in our calculations. But as we have not done it in this thesis it
may be considered for the future development for this specific topic.
33
REFERENCE
1. Real-world driving cycles for measuring cars pollutant emissions Part A: The
ARTEMIS, European driving cycles - Michel ANDR (June 2004)
2. A Driving Cycle for Vehicle Emissions Estimation in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico
City - I. Schifter; L. Daz; R. Rodrguez; E. Lpez-Salinas, Online Publication Date: 01
February 2005.
3. Driving cycles: a new cycle-building method that better represents real-world
emissions- by Zhen Dai*Deb Niemeier, PhD, PE, Douglas Eisinger, PhD
4. Validity of Chase Car Data Used in Developing Emissions Cycles - JENNIFER E.
MOREY, THIRAYOOT LIMANOND & DEBBIE A. NIEMEIER
5. Esteves-Booth, T Muneer, J Kubie 1School of Engineering, Napier University,
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK and H Kirby Transport Research Institute, Napier University,
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
6. Battye, W., Boyer, K., Thompson, G.P.: Methods for Improving Global Inventories of
Black Carbon and Organic Carbon Particulates, EC/R Incorporated and US EPA, 15 pp.
7. May, J., Bosteels, D., Favre, C. 2010: Emissions Control Systems and Climate Change
Emissions, AECC, 6 pp.
8. Ntziachristos, L., Mellios, G., Fontaras, G., Gkeivanidis, S., Kousoulidou, M.,
Gkatzoflias, D, Papageorgiou, Th., Kouridis, C. (2007), Updates of the Guidebook
Chapter on Road Transport. LAT Report No 0706, p. 63.
9. Winther, M. 2012: Danish emission inventories for road transport and other mobile
sources.Inventories until the year 2010.National Environmental Research Institute,
University of Aarhus.283 pp. DCE Scientific Report No. 24.
http://www.dmu.dk/Pub/SR24.pdf
10. Project report SE/491/98 Methodology for Calculating Transport Emissions and
Energy Consumptions.
34

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EMISSION ESTIMATION FROM DRIVING CYCLE FOR

Ishtiaque Karim Robin

Dr. Noor Al Quddus

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

EMISSION ESTIMATION FROM THE DRIVING CYCLE FOR DHAKA CITY

A thesis submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering

Dr. Noor Al Quddus

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

LIST OF THE TABLE

Content of the Table

Speed dependency of factors

Emission factors for NOx

CO2 emission factors for

The various emissions for

results for the two separate

Standards for emission from

2. REAL LIFE DRIVING CYCLE

2.2 Driving Cycle:

2.2.1 European driving cycles:

2.2.2 US driving cycles:

2.2.3 Japanese driving cycles:

2.3 Driving cycle in Dhaka city:

2.3.1 Standard test methods:

experienced speeds, sometimes accelerations, start conditions, gear changes, temperature,

time elapsed = idling time

When, (velocity) 2 km/hr and (acceleration) 0.3 m/s 2

When, (acceleration) > 0.3 m/s2, time elapsed = accelerating time

time elapsed = cruising time

When, -0.3 m/s2 < (acceleration) 0.3 m/s 2

(acceleration) > 0.3 m/s2

(velocity) > 2 km/hr

(acceleration) < -0.3 m/s2

2.3.2 Selection of vehicles:

Table 1: Specifications of the vehicles

2.3.3 Route selection:

2.3.4 Selecting data collection time and duration:

Table 2: Data collection time and duration

Length or routes (kilometers)

3. Emission Estimation Methods

3.1 Modeling Hot Emission:

Emission Factor Models:

Average Speed Models:

3.2 Estimating Emission in various models:

3.2.1 Estimating emission with Average Speed Model:

E is the total emission

The parameters ex and a are themselves functions of other variables.

Table:3 Classification of vehicles according to UN-ECE

CONSUMPTION) Edited by A J Hickman

Categories for emission calculations:

Table: 4 Classification of vehicle category

Table (continued). Vehicle categories

ECE R49 & 88/77/EEC

Table (continued). Vehicle categories

Table 5:Speed dependency of CO emission factors for gasoline passenger cars

26.260 - 0.440V + 0.0026V2

14.577 - 0.294V + 0.002478V2

VOC emission factor

NOX emission factor

CO2 emission factor

Table: 9 Speed dependency of factors for uncontrolled diesel vehicles <2.5 t

For Toyota Corolla LX Limited:

So the emission factors related to it are calculated by the following equations: