Professional Documents
Culture Documents
prepared by g.bancale
What is a transducer ?
(a fairly good definition)
prepared by g.bancale
more
Geiger counter: detects radiation levels by using a transducer called a
Geiger-Muller tube
electrical signal
prepared by g.bancale
Input
I/F
prepared by g.bancale
sensor
Output
I/F
Transducer
Conditioning +
filtering
Sampling
A/D
Control logic
prepared by g.bancale
10
11
Precision
Accuracy
Precise
Not precise
Precise
Not precise
not accurate
accurate
+ accurate
not accurate
prepared by g.bancale
12
TRANSDUCERS
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance - Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
13
TRANSDUCERS
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance - Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
14
What is a Thermocouple
Its a temperature sensitive device which works
thanks to the Seebeck effect:
a voltage is generated in a circuit containing
two different metals by keeping the junctions
between them at different temperatures
Estonian physician Thomas Seebeck (17701831)
prepared by g.bancale
15
Cons
prepared by g.bancale
16
please note the two wires (of two different metals) joined in the
junction.
prepared by g.bancale
17
18
prepared by g.bancale
19
Type K
Type J
Type E
Type N
Type T
: Chromel - Alumel
-270 / 1370
: Iron-Constantan
-210 / 1050
: Chromel -Constantan -270 / 790
: Nicros -Nisil
-260 / 1300
: Copper-Constantan -270 / 400
20
More features:
Type K
Type J
Type E
Type N
Type T
21
Alloys used:
Constantan:
Cromel:
90% Ni + 10% Cr
25
2
1
2
2
E c(T1 T2 ) k (T T )
where
c and k = constants of the thermocouple materials
T1 = the temperature of the hot junction
T2 = the temperature of the cold or reference junction
prepared by g.bancale
26
27
prepared by g.bancale
28
prepared by g.bancale
29
The circuit will provide accurate readings, but it is desirable to eliminate the ice bath
prepared by g.bancale
30
One way to do this is to replace the ice bath with another isothermal block
Cu
Fe
Cu
31
32
Thermocouple - applications
Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring
over a large temperature range, up to 1800 K.
They are less suitable for applications where
smaller temperature differences need to be
measured with high accuracy, for example the
range 0100 C with 0.1 C accuracy. For such
applications, Thermistors and RTDs are more
suitable.
prepared by g.bancale
33
TRANSDUCERS
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance - Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
34
Metal Resistance
Principle of operation
RTDs are manufactured from metals whose
resistance increases with temperature.
Within a limited temperature range, this
resistivity increases linearly with temperature:
where:
Rt = resistance at temperature t
R0= resistance at a standard temperature t0
= temperature coefficient of resistance (C-1)
Why Platinum
Chemical stability
Availability in a pure form
Highly reproducible electrical properties
Platinum probes will read 100 at 0C and at 100C the
DIN grade (i.e. pure platinum intentionally contaminated with other platinum group
metals)
more
price $ 65.00
Temperature Range: -200 to 260C
High-Accuracy
Platinum Elements
3-Wire Construction Standard, 2 and
4-Wire Constructions Available
Wall mount transducer
Temperature, Temperature/Humidity and
Barometric Pressure Transmitter Models
Low-Cost Miniature Design
Stylish Design Blends in well with Your
Office, Computer Room or Laboratory Dcor
$46.00 Wall mount RTD sensor
more
Cons (compared to thermocouples)
Smaller overall temperature range
Higher initial cost
Less rugged in high vibration environments
Active devices requiring an electrical current to
produce a voltage drop across the sensor that
can be then measured by a calibrated read-out
device
42
Nickel
Tungsten
Copper
Platinum
prepared by g.bancale
43
Construction of a PRTs
The coiled element sensor, made by inserting the helical sensing wires into a
packed powder-filled insulating mandrel, provides a strain-free sensing element.
All work is done manually under a microscope.
Strain-free elements required for industrial measurements below 200C.
They also insure superior interchangeability and stability to the highest temp.
prepared by g.bancale
more
The thin film sensing element is made by depositing a thin layer of platinum
in a resistance pattern on a ceramic substrate.
A glassy layer is applied for seal and protection.
Specifications
A. Wiring Configuration
Serious lead-wire resistance errors for
2/wire RTD especially in a 100 sensor.
B. Wiring Configuration
(L1+L2+Rt)xR2=R1x(L2+L3+R3)
In a 3-wire RTD, there are 3 leads coming from But: L1=L3 therefore:
the RTD instead of 2. L1 and L3 carry the
(L3+L2+Rt)xR2=R1x(L3+L2+R3)
measuring current, while L2 acts only as a
potential lead. Ideally, the resistances of L1 and L3
are equal and therefore canceled. The resistance in
R3 is equal to the resistance of the sensor Rt at a
given temperatureusually the beginning of the
temperature range. At this point, V out = zero. As
the temperature of the sensor increases, the
resistance of the sensor increases, causing the
resistance to be out of balance and indicated at V
out. Resistances L1 and L3 in leads up to tens of
feet long usually match well enough for 100 ohm
three-wire RTDs.
Self-Heating
To measure resistance, it is necessary to pass a current
through the RTD
The resultant voltage drop across the resistor heats the
device ( Joule heating )
The sensor's indicated temperature is therefore slightly
higher than the actual temperature
The amount of self-heating also depends heavily on the
medium in which the RTD is immersed. An RTD can
self-heat up to 100x higher in still air than in moving
water, so self-heating specifications are just a
conservative guide.
Stability
Sensors ability to maintain a consistent output when a
constant input is applied.
Unintended physical or thermal shocks can cause small,
one-time shifts. The material that the platinum is
adhered to, when wound on a mandrel or deposited on a
substrate, can expand and contract differentially to cause
strain incorporated in normal performance but not cause
shifts.
The stability of platinum RTDs is exceptional, with most
experiencing drift rates < 0.05C over five years.
Repeatability
Sensors ability to give the same output or
reading under repeated identical conditions
Absolute accuracy is not necessary in most
applications. The focus should be on the stability
and repeatability of the sensor (i.e. if an RTD in a
100.00C bath consistently reads 100.06C, the
electronics can easily compensate for this error)
Response Time
Sensor's ability to react to a change in temperature, and
depends on the sensor's thermal mass and heat transfer
from the material being tested
Surface RTDs respond quickly to surface temperature
change
RTD specifications will list the sensor's time constant,
which is the time it takes for an RTD to respond to a step
change in temperature and come to 63% of its final
equilibrium value.
52
TRANSDUCERS
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance - Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
53
Milestones of Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS
1833: negative temperature coefficient of silver
sulphide was first observed by M. Faraday
Before 2003 only ceramic materials (a mix of
different metal oxides) were used for production
of Thermistors
After 2003 AdSem started manufacturing of Si
and Ge high temperature NTC Thermistors with
better performance than any ceramic NTC
Thermistors
prepared by g.bancale
Types
NTC - Negative Temperature Coefficient, used
mostly in temperature sensing
Temperature
semiconductor resistance
Key features
the change in electrical resistance when subjected to a
corresponding change in body temperature is
Predictable
Precise
Stable
extremely high temperature coefficient of resistance
typical temperature range of -100 to over +600 F
Thermistors are generally accepted to be the most advantageous
sensor for many applications including temperature measurement
and control.
THERMISTOR APPLICATIONS
And
And
And
And
63
Thermistor
prepared by g.bancale
more
If two identical transistors are operated at different but
constant collector current densities, then the difference
in their base-emitter voltages is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the transistors
The transistor sensor is used in diode mode by
connecting the base and collector together.
VBE changes by approx. -2.2 mV/C
The result is a sensor
IC temperature sensors
The AD590 and the LM35 have traditionally
been the most popular devices, but over the last
few years better alternatives have become
available.
They provide a current or voltage output signal
with relatively low output impedance
Require an excitation power source and are
essentially linear
AD590:Product Description
The AD590 is a two-terminal integrated circuit temperature transducer
produces an output current proportional to absolute temperature(1A/K
which means 298.2 A 298.2K (25C)
The AD590 should be used in any temperature sensing application below
150C
low cost
Linearization circuitry, precision voltage amplifiers, resistance measuring
circuitry and cold junction compensation are not needed in applying the
AD590
The AD590 is particularly useful in remote sensing applications. The
device is insensitive to voltage drops over long lines due to its high
impedance current output.
LM 35:Product Description
Calibrated directly in Celsius +10.0 mV/C
Rated for full -55 to +150C range
Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
Operates from 4 to 30 volts
Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air
Nonlinearity only C typical
Low impedance output, 0.1 Ohm for 1 mA load
$0.73
71
TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
72
Electrical signal
prepared by g.bancale
74
prepared by g.bancale
Eout
R2
E
R1 R2
more
The output voltage depends on the wiper
position and therefore is a function of the shaft
position.
The output voltage Eout is a fraction of E,
depending on the position of the wiper.
The element is considered perfectly linear if
the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of wiper.
77
TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
78
Displacement transducers
Capacitive transducer
Inductive transducer
Variable inductance transducer
prepared by g.bancale
79
Capacitive transducers
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is
given by
o A
C
d
= dielectric constant
o = 8.854 x 1o-12, in farad per meter
A = the area of the plate, in square meter
d = the plate spacing in meters
Since C is inversely proportional to d, any
change in d will cause a change in C.
prepared by g.bancale
80
prepared by g.bancale
81
prepared by g.bancale
Self-Generating IT
Self-Generating IT utilises the basic electrical
generator principle that: when there is relative
motion between conductor and magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in the conductor.
An example of this is Tachometer that directly
converts speeds or velocity into an electrical
signal.
Tachometers
Examples of a Common Tachometer
84
prepared by g.bancale
85
prepared by g.bancale
91
prepared by g.bancale
92
prepared by g.bancale
93
prepared by g.bancale
94
prepared by g.bancale
95
Advantages of LVDT
It produces a high output voltages for small
changes in core position.
Low cost
Solid and robust - capable of working in a wide
variety of environments.
No permanent damage to the LVDT if
measurements exceed the designed range.
97
TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
Strain gauge
The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive
transducer that uses electrical resistance
variation in wires to sense the strain produced
by a force on the wire.
It is a very versatile detector and transducer for
measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force
or displacement.
100
Strain gauge
From the equation of resistance,
L
R
A
R = resistance
= specific resistance of the conductor material
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters
When a strain produced by a force is applied on
the wires, L increase and A decrease.
prepared by g.bancale
101
Strain gauge
L
increase
decrease
L
From the equation of resistance, R
A
R
prepared by g.bancale
increase
102
R / R
K
L / L
K = the gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R = the change of initial resistance in ohms
L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
L = the change of initial length in meters
prepared by g.bancale
103
R / R
K
L / L
prepared by g.bancale
104
R / R
K
G
prepared by g.bancale
105
Stress equation
For many common materials, there is a constant
ratio between stress and strain. Stress is defined
as the internal force per unit area.
F
S
A
S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
F = the force in kilograms
A = the area in square meters
prepared by g.bancale
106
Youngs modulus
The constant of proportionality between stress
and strain for the curve is known as the modulus
of elasticity of the materials
S
E
G
E = Youngs modulus in kilograms per square
meter
S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
G = the strain (no unit)
prepared by g.bancale
Measuring Circuits
Measuring Circuits
K=
R / R
L / L