Introduction to Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is defined as the study and use of structures between 1 nanometer and
100 nanometers in size. To better understand we can say, it would take eight hundred 100
nanometer particles side by side to match the width of a human hair.

Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach,

materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves
chemically by principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-
objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control. The impetus for
nanotechnology comes from a renewed interest in Interface and Colloid Science, coupled
with a new generation of analytical tools such as the atomic force microscope (AFM),
and the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Combined with refined processes such as
electron beam lithography and molecular beam epitaxy, these instruments allow the
deliberate manipulation of nanostructures, and led to the observation of novel
phenomena.

Examples of nanotechnology in modern use are the manufacture of polymers based on

molecular structure, and the design of computer chip layouts based on surface science.
Despite the great promise of numerous nanotechnologies such as quantum dots and
nanotubes, real commercial applications have mainly used the advantages of colloidal
nanoparticles in bulk form, such as suntan lotion, cosmetics, protective coatings, drug
delivery[1], and stain resistant clothing.

History of nanotechnology

Since the late 1950's and a key speech by the physicist and Nobel laureate Richard
Feynman in 1959, it has been hypothesized that we can manipulate individual atoms and
molecules. For a transcript of Richard Feynman's famous speech click here. This
hypothesis developed into a provocative vision with the publication of K. Eric Drexler's
Engines of Creation, the Coming Age of Nanotechnology in 1990.
In fact, some applications of nanotechnology date
from the early Roman ages. The Lycurgus Cup is one
example, whereby gold nanoparticles present in the
glass cause this ancient object to change colour when
subjected to different angles of light.

However, it is really only in the last two decades

equipment has become available to allow work to be
undertaken at the nanoscale. With the development of
highly powered microscopes (the scanning electron microscope and the transmission
electron microscope, later the atomic force microscope and the scanning tunneling
microscope) and an ever-growing knowledge of the physical interactions of molecules
and atoms, the concept of nanotechnology has become a material reality. Another
fundamental development has been in the area of virtual reality and high-powered
computer processing. The ability to simulate nanoscale transactions has helped
enormously in knowledge sharing and prioritisation of efforts in a new scientific field
where the possibilities are seemingly endless.

What's the current status of nanotechnology world-wide?

Nanotechnology applications are a reality today. American car

manufacturers have been using nanotubes to improve the safety of fuel-lines
in passenger vehicles for over a decade, and the electronics industry has
been relying on nanotubes in its packaging material to better protect goods
and to aid the removal of any electrical charges before they can build to
disruptive levels. Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and European countries including
Scotland and the Netherlands have also played influential roles in the
development of nanotechnology capabilities - and the technology continues
to be of world-wide interest.

The potential for more broad-based nanotechnology applications will come from a better
understanding of how particles operate on a nanoscale and how biological and non-
biological particles can be integrated - research and development continues in these fields
and many others. There is still a way to go before we fully understand the workings and
potential applications of the assembly of atoms and how to make these processes
scalable, profitable and standardised (and therefore able to produce predictable and
consistent outputs).

What are the potential benefits?

There are many examples of possible applications of nanotechnology developments.

These include new materials, new medical, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and
environmental processes and devices; new electronic devices; new sensors; and new
computing paradigms. The ability to exploit the atomic and molecular properties of
materials allows the development of a variety of new functions for current products.

Imagine a future where windows, chairs, computers, clothing and even our bodies make
use of technology based on nano-particles and nanoscience. An article on the BBC News
website shows some of the potential uses of nanotechnology. To read the article in full
and see more pictures of nanotechnology and its applications

It is not unfeasible to develop paints that repair themselves when chipped, or for
computers the size of blood cells with tiny wireless transmitters to report on the health of
a patient without requiring surgery, or for nano-scale cleaning particles to identify and
fight contaminants in our waterways… not unfeasible but also not in the near term. But it
is exactly this far-reaching potential of nanotechnology that is now making it one of the
most important areas of science, and one of the most commercially exciting.
How are nano-products made?

Nanotechnology is generally being approached from two perspectives; one that builds up
objects and particles by combining atomic elements; the other that uses tools and
equipment to create mechanical nanoscale objects. Manufacturing methods have
generally been quite basic when dealing with micro-particles - it's like we've been
building sandcastles by heaping up piles of sand with a bucket and spade.

Nanotechnology will allow manufacturing of the future to manoeuvre individual

components – atoms and molecules - to build precise, complex structures and to combine
those structures with other particles to create new mechanisms of extraordinary strength
or flexibility or durability or lightness. If we can specify the molecular structure of an
object or part of an object, nanotechnology and the laws of physics are the foundation
stones for allowing us to build it.

Building at a nano-level creates the potential for high resource efficiency - every element
of the end product would be utilized and there would be little redundancy or wasted
materials. The resulting size of the devices also allows movement into places (for
example the bloodstream) and be used in ways (for example cell repair) that have only
been imagined in the past.

How does nanotechnology fit with life sciences?

When working at the nano-scale the distinction between the various scientific disciplines
disappears. Biological reactions all involve combinations of atoms, molecules and
microscopic particles, governed by physical and chemical processes. Nanotechnology
therefore also provides a new basis for innovation in the life sciences, in particular the
emerging sciences of biotechnology, genomics, proteomics (defining how proteins work
in the human body), stem cell research; as well as the well-established fields of
agriculture, environmental management, clinical medicine and medical device
manufacturing. All of these are experiencing widespread research and investment
interest

What are the social implications of nanotechnology?

In addition to the required development of

supporting technology, there also needs to be the
acceptance of nanotechnology as a new idea. Like
many new concepts, nanotechnology is evolving
from the world of pure science-fiction to pure
science as myths are dispelled and ideas are tested
and proven feasible. In the absence of all answers,
it is human nature to supplant existing knowledge
into any information voids that exist around a new
technology. Whether these 'old' premises can be
appropriately applied to nanotechnology are yet to be tested, but until the required new
knowledge is gained, any new technology is open to speculation, misinformation and
wild imaginations.

As with all emerging technologies, a successful future for nanotechnology will only be
achieved through open sharing of ideas and research findings, a thorough testing of the
capability boundaries, and frank discussion of fears and failings. Over the last year there
has been increased public awareness of the opportunities in nanotechnology, and media
interest in its implications. Most major national nanotechnology organizations are now
including discussion of the social and ethical implications of nanotechnologies in their
mandate
Looking At Nanoparticles

Scientists have been studying and working with nanoparticles for centuries, but the
effectiveness of their work has been hampered by their inability to see the structure of
nanoparticles. In recent decades the development of microscopes capable of displaying
particles as small as atoms has allowed scientists to see what they are working with.

Now that you have an idea of how small a scale nanotechnologists work with, consider
the challenge they face. Think about how difficult it is for many of us to insert thread
through the eye of a needle. Such an image helps you imagine the problem scientists have
working with nanoparticles that can be as much as one millionth the size of the thread.
Only through the use of powerful microscopes can they hope to ‘see’ and manipulate
these nano-sized particles.

The Nanotechnology Debate

There are many different points of view about the nanotechnology. These differences
start with the definition of nanotechnology. Some define it as any activity that involves
manipulating materials between one nanometer and 100 nanometers. However the
original definition of nanotechnology involved building machines at the molecular scale
and involves the manipulation of materials on an atomic (about two-tenths of a
nanometer) scale.

The debate continues with varying opinions about exactly what nanotechnology can
achieve. Some researchers believe nanotechnology can be used to significantly extend the
human lifespan or produce replicator-like devices that can create almost anything from
simple raw materials. Others see nanotechnology only as a tool to help us do what we do
now, but faster or better.

The third major area of debate concerns the timeframe of nanotechnology-related

advances. Will nanotechnology have a significant impact on our day-to-day lives in a
decade or two, or will many of these promised advances take considerably longer to
become realities?

Finally, all the opinions about what nanotechnology can help us achieve echo with ethical
challenges. If nanotechnology helps us to increase our lifespans or produce manufactured
goods from inexpensive raw materials, what is the moral imperative about making such
technology available to all? Is there sufficient understanding or regulation of nanotech
based materials to minimize possible harm to us or our environment?

Introduction to Nanotechnology Applications

The ability to see nano-sized materials has opened up a world of possibilities in a variety
of industries and scientific endeavors. Because nanotechnology is essentially a set of
techniques that allow manipulation of properties at a very small scale, it can have many
applications, such as:

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE (NANOMEDICINE)

Nanomedicine is the medical use of molecular-sized particles to deliver drugs, heat, light
or other substances to specific cells in the human body. Engineering particles to be used
in this way allows detection and/or treatment of diseases or injuries within the targeted
cells, thereby minimizing the damage to healthy cells in the body.

Current Applications

While most applications of nanotechnology in medicine are still under development

nanocrystalline silver is already being used as a antimicrobial agent in the treatment of
wounds.

Nanotechnology in Medicine: Applications under Development

1. Qdots that identify the location of cancer cells in the body. Nanoparticles that can
attach to cells infected with various diseases and allow a lab to identify, in a blood
sample, the particular disease. Researchers demonstrate drug delivery to cancer
cells using quantum dots that emit light after delivering the drug, showing the
location of the cancer cells that have received the drug.
2. Nanoparticles that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells to
minimize damage to healthy cells. Scientists have been able to attach special
RNA strands, measuring about 10 nm in diameter, to nanoparticles and fill the
nanoparticles with a chemotherapy drug. These RNA strands are attracted to
cancer cells. When the nanoparticle encounters a cancer cell it adheres to it and
releases the drug into the cancer cell. This directed method of drug delivery has
 great potential for treating cancer patients while producing less side harmful
affects than those produced by conventional chemotherapy.
3. Nanoshells that concentrate the heat from infrared light to destroy cancer cells
with minimal damage to surrounding healthy cells.
4. Nanotubes used in broken bones to provide a structure for new bone material to
grow.
5. NanoBio is developing a nanoemulsion based lotion that can treat serious skin
infections without being absorbed into the bloodstream; minimizing side affects.

Nanotechnology Applications in Food

How is Nanotechnology Being Used in Food Science?

Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is
grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a
difference not only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits
that food delivers.

Food Science: Current Nanotechnology Applications

Clay nanocomposites are being used to provide an impermeable barrier to gasses such as
oxygen or carbon dioxide in lightweight bottles, cartons and packaging films

Food storage bins are being produced with silver nanoparticles embedded in the plastic.
The silver nanoparticles kill bacteria from any food that was previously stored in the bins,
minimizing health risks from harmful bacteria.

Food Science: Nanotechnology Applications under Development

1. Nanoparticles are being developed that will deliver vitamins or other nutrients in
food and beverages without affecting the taste or appearance. These nanoparticles
actually encapsulate the nutrients and carry them through the stomach into the
bloodstream.
 2. Researchers are using silicate nanoparticles to provide a barrier to gasses (for
example oxygen), or moisture in a plastic film used for packaging food. This
could reduce the possibly of food spoiling or drying out.
3. Zinc oxide nanoparticles can be incorporated into plastic packaging to block UV
rays and provide anti bacterial protection, while improving the strength and
stability of the plastic film.
4. It is possible to use nanosensors in plastic packaging to detect gases given off by
food when it spoils. The packaging itself changes color to alert you to food gone
bad. Nanosensors are being developed that can detect bacteria and other
contaminates, such as salmonella, on the surface of food at a packaging plant.
This will allow for frequent testing at a much lower cost than sending samples to
a lab for analysis. This point-of-packaging testing, if conducted properly, has the
potential to dramatically reduce the chance of contaminated food reaching grocery
store shelves.
5. Research is also being conducted to develop nanocapsules containing
nutrients that would be released when nanosensors detect a vitamin deficiency in
your body. Basically this research could result in a super vitamin storage system
in your body that delivers the nutrients you need, when you need them.
6. Researchers are also working on pesticides encapsulated in nanoparticles; that
only release pesticide within an insect's stomach, minimizing the contamination of
plants themselves.
7. Another development being persued is a network of nanosensors and dispensers
used throughout a food crop. The sensors recognize when a plant needs nutrients
or water, before there is any sign that the plant is deficient. The dispensers then
release fertilizer, nutrients, or water as needed, optimizing the growth of each
plant in the field one by one.

AIR POLLUTION AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

How can nanotechnology reduce air pollution?

Catalysts can be used to enable a chemical reaction (which changes one type of molecule
to another) at lower temperatures or make the reaction more effective. For example when
air pollution from your car engine lands on a platinum surface in the catalytic converter,
the platinum (a catalyst) makes it easier for atoms in noxious gases such as nitrous oxide
to break apart and reform into harmless molecules such as nitrogen and oxygen.

Nanotechnology can improve the performance of catalysts used to transform vapors

escaping from cars or industrial plants into harmless gasses. That's because catalysts
made from nanoparticles have a greater surface area to interact with the reacting
chemicals than catalysts made from larger particles. The larger surface area allows more
chemicals to interact with the catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more
effective.

Nanotechnology can also make the production of these catalysts more cost effective by
reducing the amount of precious metals used in making the catalyst.

WATER AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

How can nanotech be used to remove contaminates from water?

Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in

water quality.

One challenge is the removal of industrial wastes, such as a cleaning solvent called TCE,
from groundwater. Nanoparticles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical
through a chemical reaction to make it harmless. Studies have shown that this method can
be used successfully to reach contaminates dispersed in underground ponds and at much
lower cost than methods which require pumping the water out of the ground for
treatment.

The second water quality challenge is the removal of salt or metals from water. A
deionization method using electrodes composed of nano-sized fibers shows promise for
reducing the cost and energy requirements of turning salt water into drinking water.
The third water quality problem concerns the fact that standard filters do not work on
virus cells. A filter only a few nanometers in diameter is currently being developed that
should be capable of removing virus cells.

FABRIC & NANOTECHNOLOGY

How can nanotechnology improve fabric?

Making composite fabric with nano-sized particles or fibers allows improvement of

fabric properties without a significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness as might
have been the case with previously-used techniques. For example incorporating nano-
whiskers into fabric used to make pants produces a lightweight water and stain repellent
material.

Fabric: Current Nanotechnology Applications

1. Nanowhiskers that cause water to bead up, making the fabric water and stain
resistant.
2. Silver nanoparticles in fabric that kills bacteria making clothing odor- resistant.
3. Nanopores providing superior insulation for shoe inserts in cold weather.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN SPACE

Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space-flight more practical. Advancements
in nanomaterials make lightweight solar sails and a cable for the space elevator possible.
By significantly reducing the amount of rocket fuel required, these advances could lower
the cost of reaching orbit and traveling in space. In addition, new materials combined
with nanosensors and nanorobots could improve the performance of spaceships,
spacesuits, and the equipment used to explore planets and moons, making
nanotechnology an important part of the ‘final frontier.’
Space and Nanotechnology: Applications under Development

Researchers are looking into the following applications of nanotechnology in space:

• Using carbon nanotubes to make the cable needed for the space elevator, a system
which could significantly reduce the cost of sending material into orbit. Nova has
a nice video explaining the concepts.
• Employing materials made from carbon nanotubes to reduce the weight of
spaceships while retaining or even increasing the structural strength.
• Producing thrusters for spacecraft that use MEMS devices to accelerate
nanoparticles. This should reduce the weight and complexity of thruster systems
used for interplanetary missions. One cost-saving feature of these type of thrusters
is their ability to draw on more or less of the MEMS devices depending upon the
size and thrust requirement of the spacecraft, rather than designing and building
different engines for different size spacecraft.
• Using carbon nanotubes to build lightweight solar sails that use the pressure of
light from the sun reflecting on the mirror-like solar cell to propel a spacecraft.
This solves the problem of having to lift enough fuel into orbit to power
spacecraft during interplanetary missions.
• Working with nanosensors to monitor the levels of trace chemicals in spacecraft
to monitor the performance of life support systems.
• Deploying a network of nanosensors to search large areas of planets such as Mars
for traces of water or other chemicals. To read more about this, see page 27 of this
report on Bio-Nano-Machines for Space Applications.

Including layers of bio-nano robots in spacesuits. The outer layer of bio-nano robots
would respond to damages to the spacesuit, for example to seal up punctures. An inner
layer of bio-nano robots could respond if the astronaut was in trouble, for example by
providing drugs in a medical emergency. For more about this see page 30 of this report
on Bio-Nano-Machines for Space Applications.
Fuel and Nanotechnology

How can nanotechnology improve fuel availability?

Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by:

• Making the production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical
• Increasing the mileage of engines
• Making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient

Nanotechnology can do all this by increasing the effectiveness of catalysts. Catalysts can
reduce the temperature required to convert raw materials into fuel or increase the
percentage of fuel burned at a given temperature. Catalysts made from nanoparticles have
a greater surface area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts made from
larger particles. The larger surface area allows more chemicals to interact with the
catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more effective. This increased
effectiveness can make a process such as the production of diesel fuel from coal more
economical, and enable the production of fuel from currently unusable raw materials such
as low grade crude oil.

Nanotechnology, in the form of genetic engineering, can also improve the performance of
enzymes used in the conversion of cellulose into ethanol. Currently ethanol added to
gasoline in the United States is made from corn, which is driving up the price of corn.
The plan is to use engineered enzymes to break down cellulose into sugar, is fermented to
turn the sugar into ethanol. This will allow material that often goes to waste, such as
wood chips and grass to be turned into ethanol.

SPORTING GOODS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

How can nanotechnology improve sporting goods?

If you're a tennis or golf fan, you'll be glad to hear that even sporting goods has wandered
into the nano realm. Current nanotechnology applications in the sports arena include:

• Increasing the strength of tennis racquets by adding nanotubes to the frames

which increases control and power when you hit the ball.
• Filling any imperfections in club shaft materials with nanoparticles; this improves
the uniformity of the material that makes up the shaft and thereby improving your
swing.
• Reducing the rate at which air leaks from tennis balls so they keep their bounce
longer.

See the Nanotechnology Applications section below for more information.

Sporting Goods: Current Nanotechnology Applications

Using nano-sized material to fill any voids in golf shafts.

Using a nanocomposite film to keep the air in tennis balls longer.

Adding carbon nanotubes to tennis racquets to stiffen racquet and increase power.

Improving bicycle handlebars made with carbon fibers by filling the spaces around the
carbon fibers with nanotubes, providing lighter, yet stronger handlebars.

CLEANING & NANOTECHNOLOGY

How can nanotech make the products you clean with better?

Nanotechnology companies are finding ways to make the world a cleaner place by
exploring three methods for improving cleaning products. These methods are:
 • Producing films that can be applied to surfaces such as countertops or windows
that make it much easier to keep those surfaces clean.
• Using nanoparticles in soap that make it work better while producing less
environmentally harmful byproducts.
• Using materials in the cleaning process that are antibacterial, such as silver
nanoparticles. Note that there is interest in regulating the use of silver
nanoparticles because of concern that they may harm useful bacteria in
groundwater, such as lakes, when released (see Nanotechnology news story
below).

Cleaning Products: Nanotechnology Applications

• Titanium oxide nanoparticles as part of a long lasting film that uses the energy in
light to kill bacteria on surfaces. Titanium oxide nanoparticles are called
photocatalysts because of their ability to use energy in light to start the chemical
reaction that kills the bacteria.
• Customizing the properties of particles a few nanometers in diameter to make a
better soap.
• A washing machine that uses silver ions to clean clothes.
• Customizing the properties of thin polymer layers that you can wipe onto glass to
make a long lasting, water repellant film. This technology can make it easier to
keep your car's windshield clean and improve visibility when you're driving in the
rain.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CHEMICAL SENSORS

How can nanotechnology improve chemical vapor sensors?

Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of chemical vapors.
Various types of detecting elements, such as carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide nanowires or
palladium nanoparticles can be used in nanotechnology-based sensors. These detecting
elements change their electrical characteristics, such as resistance or capacitance, when
they absorb a gas molecule (for technical details see this article).

Because of the small size of nanotubes, nanowires, or nanoparticles, a few gas molecules
are sufficient to change the electrical properties of the sensing elements. This allows the
detection of a very low concentration of chemical vapors. The goal is to have small,
inexpensive sensors that can sniff out chemicals just as dogs are used in airports to smell
the vapors given off by explosives or drugs.

The capability of producing small, inexpensive sensors that can quickly identify a
chemical vapor provides a kind of nano-bloodhound that doesn't need sleep or exercise
which can be useful in a number of ways. An obvious application is to mount these
sensors throughout an airport, or any facility with security concerns, to check for vapors
given off by explosive devices.

These sensors can also be useful in industrial plants that use chemicals in manufacturing
to detect the release of chemical vapors. When hydrogen fuel cells come into use, in cars
or other applications, a sensor that detects escaped hydrogen could be very useful in
warning of a leak. This technology should also make possible inexpensive networks of air
quality monitoring stations to improve the tracking of air pollution sources

MEMS: MICRO-ELECTRO MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

What is MEMS?

MEMS stands for Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems. MEMS techniques allow both

electronic circuits and mechanical devices to be manufactured on a silicon chip, similar to
the process used for integrated circuits. This allows the construction of items such sensor
chips with built-in electronics that are a fraction of the size that was previously possible.
The photo below shows an optical displacement sensor built with MEMS that can be used
as an accelerometer.
Nanotechnology offers Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

With the uncertainty about supply of crude oil, as well as high prices, other sources of
fuel are now a hot topic. An interesting option is ethanol, currently made from plants
such as corn and sugar cane. Companies and universities are working to develop a
process for producing ethanol from many other types of plant material; which may
significantly increase the amount of ethanol available as fuel. Nanotechnology may be of
help in this effort.

Nano Aids Delivery of Drugs in Patients

For diabetics who have to inject insulin several times a day, or cancer patients
experiencing debilitating side effects from treatment, the benefits of improved drug
delivery through the application of nanotechnology may be life changing. Drug delivery
using nano techniques is helping researchers to target delivery of drugs to diseased cells
to avoid side effects, provide drugs such as insulin in pill form, deliver drugs through
skin lotions, and even help you avoid catching the common cold.
1 - Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) for displays
2 - Photovoltaic film that converts light into electricity
3 - Scratch-proof coated windows that clean themselves with UV
4 - Fabrics coated to resist stains and control temperature
5 - Intelligent clothing measures pulse and respiration
6 - Bucky-tubeframe is light but very strong
7 - Hip-joint made from biocompatible materials
8 - Nano-particle paint to prevent corrosion
9 - Thermo-chromic glass to regulate light
10 - Magnetic layers for compact data memory
11 - Carbon nanotube fuel cells to power electronics and vehicles
12 - Nano-engineered cochlear implant