Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract
Section 400 gives civil engineers, and other engineers working outside their discipline, design and construction guidelines for typical, pre-engineered, steel,
masonry, and blast-resistant buildings. It includes both Company-designed buildings and contractor-designed structures. The primary emphasis is on the civil and
structural aspects of buildings. Building material (other than structural), architectural treatments, and electrical, lighting, and mechanical systems are not covered.
Applicable codes and industry standards are referenced, as well as standard drawings of blast-resistant building details.
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Contents
Page
410
400-2
411
412
Design Considerations
413
420
Building Shells
421
422
423
424
425
Roof Designs
430
Blast-Resistant Design
400-21
440
400-28
450
400-29
451
Model Specification
452
Standard Drawing
460
References
400-12
400-29
400-1
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Locker Rooms
Shops
Storehouses
Guard Houses
Equipment Shelters
Electrical/Electronic Equipment Enclosures
Small Operations Offices
Administration, control houses, and laboratory buildings are normally architecturally designed and are not addressed in detail in this section. Blast-resistant design,
such as that used for control houses, is discussed in Section 430.
Industry Codes
Building Codes
Primary Areas
South, Southeast
Canada
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Building Permits
It is common practice for city or other local governmental units to require a
building permit prior to start of construction. It is good practice to determine early
in a building project the following information:
Applicable code classification for building by use or occupancy. Request confirmation by local jurisdiction
Timing considerations
When submitted
How long for review and approval process
The size and complexity of the building usually determines which method is
chosen. Company designs are generally limited to structures that are constructed of
basic building materials and usually do not require mechanical systems such as
HVAC or special interior or exterior architectural treatment. Examples of possible
Company-designed buildings include:
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Pre-engineered building structures used for storage, small shops, small labs,
equipment shelters, or temporary construction offices or facilities
Small masonry structures with limited functions, such as remote area operators office, toilet facilities, or equipment shelters
Most other building designs would generally be contracted for design outside the
Company. To increase the designers efficiency, it is recommended that in-house
preliminary layouts be developed first. This is not intended to restrict the architect
to a particular arrangement, since creative thinking by the architect should be
encouraged to achieve a design that is functional, visually pleasing, and economical. The purpose of the preliminary layout is to:
Site Considerations
Regardless of the method chosen to execute the building design, the following basic
information on the proposed site must be developed in the preliminary planning
phase:
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Small offices
Lockers/toilets
Storehouses
Shops
Electrical equipment
Control houses
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Size Considerations
Design Considerations
Possible facilities:
Office(s)
Training/conference room
Toilets/locker room
Safety locker
Kitchen/lunchroom
Advantages/disadvantages of multi-storied
construction
Switchgear room
Medical treatment
Janitor
Copy
Storage
Computer room
File room
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Fig. 400-1
Size Considerations
Design Considerations
Extra space
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Fig. 400-1
Size Considerations
Design Considerations
Possible facilities:
Location considerations:
Convenient for outside truck deliveries without
entering plant areas.
Toilet/locker room(s)
Offices
Conference room
Kitchen/lunchroom
Special Storage
Building security
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Fig. 400-1
Size Considerations
Design Considerations
Material/equipment handling.
Lockers/showers/toilets
Jib cranes
Offices
Tool room(s)
Shops storehouse
Adequate ventilation.
Lunchroom/kitchen
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Fig. 400-1
Size Considerations
Design Considerations
Equipment sizes
Code clearances
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Fig. 400-1
Size Considerations
Design Considerations
Possible facilities:
Control room
Computer room
Kitchen area/lunch room
Toilets
Lockers
Offices
Adequate HVAC
Air filter system
Humidity control
Uninterruptible power system
Raised (access) floor or trenches
Fire extinguishing method
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Define offices and facilities to be provided. This requires input from the user
organization.
Include in the space studies adequate area for building support services:
Entrances
Mechanical equipment
Stairs (if required)
Toilet (locker) facilities
Copy room
Storage
Janitorial facilities
Single level
Two level
For structures with high vertical clearances (shops or storehouse), the use
of partial mezzanine area
If offices are required for the building, be aware there are Corporate guidelines
for space allocation based on job placement:
115-150
2-Person
180-225
Clerical Offices
90
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For preliminary layout, studies begin with single line arrangement sketches.
Consider a number of alternative arrangements, for this will help in the layout
review process.
2.
Building Framing
Manufacturers of the pre-engineered building systems generally offer four basic
types of framing systems or some combination of these types.
See Figure 400-2 through 400-5 for illustration of these framing systems:
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Fig. 400-2
Fig. 400-3
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Fig. 400-4
Fig. 400-5
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Division of Responsibility
In addition to furnishing the building components, the manufacturers of pre-engineered building systems normally furnish the following as part of the purchase
order:
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Building Construction
Advantages
Disadvantages
Applications
Storehouse facilities
Shop facilities
Temporary construction facilities
Unoccupied equipment shelters
Change houses
400-16
Occupied buildings:
Offices
Control houses
Laboratories
Fire protection buildings
Security buildings
Change houses
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Fig. 400-6
Basic Types
Framed. Usually site assembled. Wood or metal studs with structural sheathing or
diagonal bracing. Interior and exterior finishing compatible with stud construction.
Masonry. Site assembled with stacked masonry units (concrete block or brick);
vertical and horizontal reinforcing as required. See Section 424.
Cast-Concrete. Includes cast-in-place, tilt-up, and precast construction
Refer to Reference 3 for the following information on bearing walls:
Distribution of loads
Types and properties
Compatible floor and roof framing systems
Load-bearing capacity
Exterior and interior facings
Selection considerations
Wall insulation
Wall details
Roof deck systems for buildings with bearing wall construction are commonly
constructed with bar joists, precast tees, hollow core planks, or metal deck pans
with lightweight concrete, gypsum, or rigid insulation. Hot-applied built-up roofing
is commonly used to provide a watertight barrier.
Refer to References 3 and 9 for information on alternative systems and materials,
insulation, membranes, and construction details.
Roof decks for curtain wall construction use systems similar to those described for
bearing wall construction.
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Design
Designs are usually made in conformance with:
Grade N
Grade S
For general use on Company construction, load bearing hollow block concrete units
are specified as Grade N-I (general-use blocks with moisture control) with a specified minimum compressive strength on the average net area of 2100 psi.
Moisture control of the masonry unit is important for attaining the desired strength
of masonry construction.
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If the masonry unit is too moist, it will not draw out sufficient moisture from
the mortar to achieve a good bond between mortar and unit
If the masonry unit is too dry, it will draw out moisture too rapidly from the
mortar which will reduce the strength and bond of the mortar
Reinforcement
Figure 400-7 illustrates typical wall reinforcement for load bearing reinforced
concrete masonry.
In Seismic Zones, all walls shall be reinforced with both vertical and horizontal
reinforcement. The sum of the areas of horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall
be at least 0.002 times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, and the minimum
area of reinforcement in either direction shall not be less than 0.0007 times the
gross cross-sectional area of the wall. The spacing of reinforcement shall not
exceed 4 feet.
Horizontal wall reinforcement must be provided at top of foundations, top and
bottom of wall openings, and at roof levels.
Vertical reinforcement should be provided on each side of openings, at intersections, ends, and corners.
OK
OK
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Fig. 400-7
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Control Joints
Control joints are continuous vertical joints built into masonry walls to aid in
controlling wall movements. Control joints in walls should be located over any
control joints in the foundation. The maximum spacing for control joints is
discussed in ACI 531.
Sloped
2.
serves one major plant that processes large volumes of volatile and flammable
liquids and gasses
3.
must be located closer to the plant than the recommended minimum spacing
4.
is adjacent to LPG or Pentane above flash temperature and greater than 200
psig
Blast-resistant design may not be necessary if the building is far enough from the
potential source of a blast, even if it meets conditions 1 or 2 above. Consult the Fire
Prevention Manual or the Process Risk Team for guidelines on control house locations.
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When a VCE occurs, there is a violent release of energy that causes a sudden pressure increase in the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure disturbance, termed a
blast or shock wave is characterized by an almost instantaneous rise from normal
pressure to an overpressure condition. This high pressure shock front, with a very
short duration (expressed in milliseconds), expands outward from the center of the
blast. The shock wave intensity decays with distance and as a function of time. The
measured pressure at a given point exhibits an instantaneous increase in overpressure from atmospheric to a peak overpressure value as the shock wave reaches that
point. The overpressure then decays rapidly, followed by a period of negative pressure.
If the shock wave impinges on a rigid surface, such as wall, the propagation of the
wave is obstructed. This results in a rapid increase in pressure against the wall by
an amount far greater than the overpressure, this is termed Reflected Overpressure. There are several ways to estimate the peak reflected overpressure. For the
range of peak overpressure used for blast resistant building design, reflected pressure will be higher by factor of from 2 to 2.5.
The shock wave will also generate drag pressure onto the building. Drag pressure
is due to air movement associated with the shock front moves at high velocity. For
convenience, and without much risk of error, this velocity is generally assumed to
be the same as the shock-front velocity. This wind produces drag forces on any
obstacle in its path which are combined algebraically with peak overpressure forces.
Figure 400-8 illustrates the sequence of events as the shock wave passes over a rectangular enclosed structure.
The magnitude of the blast overpressure at a building is a function of the following:
Use Figure 400-9 as a guideline to determine the design overpressure load if you
are considering a blast-resistant building. Figure 400-9 shows the effects of overpressure and duration on a building as a function of distance from source unit and
size of the unit. The analysis assumes a typical facility and the blast may be conservative in many cases. However, a site specific hazard assessment can be done by
the CRTC Process Risk Team to provide a more accurate determination of the blast
loading.
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Fig. 400-8
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Fig. 400-9
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Structural Systems
Blast-resistant buildings should normally be clad with reinforced concrete or other
ductile material. Roofs should be of reinforced or prestressed concrete or of
composite construction utilizing steel decking and concrete. Framing systems
which may be required to support walls or roofs may be of reinforced concrete or
structural steel. Where reinforced masonry or prestressed concrete is used, the
energy absorption capacity of each structural element up to the point of collapse
should exceed twice that required to resist the design blast loading.
In view of the very large design loads for blast conditions, interior columns are
normally provided when roof spans exceed 30 feet. Equipment and interior partitions can usually be arranged to accommodate these columns without obstructing
access within the building.
Structural Design
The intent of the structural design is to accept moderate structural damage to the
building while still maintaining protection for personnel and control equipment.
Some distortion of the building structural elements and external doors may occur at
blast loadings even less than the specified design load. No special provisions need
be made to protect items such as exterior lights, gutters and roof drains, antennas
and landscaping. The number of these items should be minimized as they may
become dangerous projectiles in the event of a blast.
For design purposes, it is assumed the explosion occurs as a surface burst and no
reflected loads are imposed on the roof.
It is assumed the explosion can be omnidirectional with respect to building orientation. This means that all faces of the structure should be designed for the full
reflected overpressure. The assumed explosion locations are taken perpendicular to
the center of the building walls.
In addition to being subjected to an overpressure condition from a blast, there may
be impacts against the building from high velocity debris. The subject of missile
impact is not addressed here because typical control house building materials (such
as reinforced concrete) offer excellent properties for resisting missile penetration.
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Load Combinations
The required dynamic resistance to blast loads should be combined with other loads
as follows:
U = D+L+R
where:
U = total required structural resistance
D = dead loads, or their related internal moments and forces
L = applicable live loads, or their related internal moments and forces
R = required dynamic resistance to blast loads (or rebound)
Required rebound resistance, such as for roofs, should normally be considered in
combination with dead loads only.
Resistance to blast loads should not be considered in combination with wind or
earthquake.
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Roofs
Structural Framing
Foundations
It is generally not necessary to increase the size of the foundation in order to limit
the soil bearing pressure in the vertical or lateral direction for blast loading. The
very high bearing pressures which may be generated can be accepted because of the
high strength of soils under rapid loading and the high inertial effects when soils
are accelerated. In general, dynamic soil bearing pressures are between 1.5 and 3.0
times greater than the allowable soil bearing pressure for operating loads.
Pile-supported buildings should be designed structurally to transmit the vertical
loads to the underlying soils using the ultimate strength of the pile. For timber piles,
the ultimate strength may be computed by multiplying the cross section area of the
pile at the butt by the dynamic compressive strength, which is taken as twice the
normal static ultimate compressive strength. It is not necessary to increase the pile
penetration into the supporting soils in order to provide the required frictional resistance or end bearing pressure for blast loading.
Blast-Resistant Doors
At least two independent means of exit should be provided. The exterior doors
should be located remote from each other and at opposite walls of the building.
Doors should open outward and should be supported on all edges by the door
frames. Doors should preferably be flush with the outside of the building, or not
recessed more than 18 inches into the building.
Doors, latches, and hinge mechanisms should be designed to be tight and remain
operable after being subjected to the blast design loads.
Doors should be constructed of steel plates on both faces, internally reinforced, and
generally having the appearance of conventional flush metal doors.
Glass viewing ports, provided for routine entrance/exit doors, should not be larger
than 1 square foot. Glazing should be, as a minimum, double laminated clear safety
glass with energy absorption capacity, prior to collapse, of more than twice that
required to resist the design blast loading. See Standard Drawing GF-R 1077,
Details of Blast-Resistant Doors, included in the Standard Drawings section of this
manual.
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Spill containment
Fire protection
Security
Safeguards for personnel
Meeting regulatory standards
Such storage facilities are usually not very large in size and can be built on-site
with concrete or masonry construction.
An alternative is to purchase special prefabricated units for chemical and hazardous
material storage. These units are available with the following features:
Single unit capacity up to 10 tons of material (drums, boxes and cans); units
are available in sizes up to 9 feet by 22 feet
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460 References
General
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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American Society of Civil Engineers 7-93, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 1994.
Provides requirements to govern assumptions for dead, live, and other loads in
the design of structures.
7.
8.
9.
Blast-Resistant Design
10. Introduction to Structural Dynamics, John M. Biggs.
Includes a chapter devoted to blast-resistant design. Includes design tables and
curves and examples for calculating the approximate effective fundamental
period for structural elements.
11. Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapons Effects, American Society of
Civil Engineers, Manual No. 42, 1961.
Includes chapters on choice of structural system, dynamic strength of materials, dynamic analysis, and design procedures all relating to blast-resistant
design.
12. Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities, ASCE Task
Committee on Blast Resistant Design, American Society of Civil Engineers,
(1997).
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Includes general guidelines in the structural design of blast resistant petrochemical facilities, types of construction, dynamic material strengths, allowable
response criteria, analysis methods, and design procedures. Three example
calculations are included.
13. An Engineering Approach to Blast-Resistant Design, Nathan M. Newmark,
Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 121, 1956.
Includes the fundamental work to develop the empirical equation used to determine the equivalent static load for blast pressure.
14. Nuclear Safety Structures Code, ACI 349, Appendix C, Special Provisions for
Impulsive and Impactive Effects.
Includes recommendations to assure ductility in the design of concrete structural elements under impulsive loads. Also recommends allowable dynamic
strength increases and permissible ductility ratios.
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