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400 Small Buildings

Abstract
Section 400 gives civil engineers, and other engineers working outside their discipline, design and construction guidelines for typical, pre-engineered, steel,
masonry, and blast-resistant buildings. It includes both Company-designed buildings and contractor-designed structures. The primary emphasis is on the civil and
structural aspects of buildings. Building material (other than structural), architectural treatments, and electrical, lighting, and mechanical systems are not covered.
Applicable codes and industry standards are referenced, as well as standard drawings of blast-resistant building details.

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Contents

Page

410

Background and Basic Data

400-2

411

Industry Codes, Practices, and Guidelines

412

Design Considerations

413

Layout and Design Considerations

420

Building Shells

421

Metal Building Systems

422

Bearing Wall Construction Systems

423

Curtain Wall Construction Systems

424

Concrete Block Construction

425

Roof Designs

430

Blast-Resistant Design

400-21

440

Safety Storage Buildings

400-28

450

Model Specifications and Standard Drawings

400-29

451

Model Specification

452

Standard Drawing

460

References

400-12

400-29

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410 Background and Basic Data


Industrial Buildings
For purposes of this section, industrial buildings include, but are not limited to, the
following:

Locker Rooms
Shops
Storehouses
Guard Houses
Equipment Shelters
Electrical/Electronic Equipment Enclosures
Small Operations Offices

Administration, control houses, and laboratory buildings are normally architecturally designed and are not addressed in detail in this section. Blast-resistant design,
such as that used for control houses, is discussed in Section 430.

411 Industry Codes, Practices, and Guidelines


Listed below are the primary codes and industry standards that govern the design
and construction of small industrial buildings. Most communities have minimum
building requirements, usually adapted from codes established by regional organizations. It is important to review local code requirements to ensure that designs are in
conformance.
The latest edition of the applicable codes should generally be followed. However,
designers should be aware that local communities commonly adopt regional codes
by dated edition. Changes that appear in subsequent code editions may or may not
be recognized.

Industry Codes
Building Codes

Primary Areas

UBC Uniform Building Code

Midwest, West, West Coast

BBC Basic Building Code

North, Northeast, Midwest

SBC Southern Building Code

South, Southeast

National Building Code of Canada

Canada

Other Codes and Standards


Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC)
National Electric Code (ANSI/NFPA 70)
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-93)
Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC)

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National Fire Code (NFPA)


American Institute of Steel Construction Specification for the Design, Fabrication,
and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings (AISC)
American Concrete Institute Building Code, Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
(ACI 318)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Handbook Series (ASHRAE)
Metal Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA)

Building Permits
It is common practice for city or other local governmental units to require a
building permit prior to start of construction. It is good practice to determine early
in a building project the following information:

Building permits required

Documentation required with a request for permit

Applicable code requirements and special local requirements, if any

Applicable code classification for building by use or occupancy. Request confirmation by local jurisdiction

Timing considerations

When submitted
How long for review and approval process

Local inspection required and at what construction hold points

412 Design Considerations


Design Methods
There are two basic methods by which the Company proceeds with building
designs:

Company completes in-house design

Company prepares preliminary design with final designs completed by an


outside consultant or with design/construct contract

The size and complexity of the building usually determines which method is
chosen. Company designs are generally limited to structures that are constructed of
basic building materials and usually do not require mechanical systems such as
HVAC or special interior or exterior architectural treatment. Examples of possible
Company-designed buildings include:

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Pre-engineered building structures used for storage, small shops, small labs,
equipment shelters, or temporary construction offices or facilities

Small masonry structures with limited functions, such as remote area operators office, toilet facilities, or equipment shelters

Most other building designs would generally be contracted for design outside the
Company. To increase the designers efficiency, it is recommended that in-house
preliminary layouts be developed first. This is not intended to restrict the architect
to a particular arrangement, since creative thinking by the architect should be
encouraged to achieve a design that is functional, visually pleasing, and economical. The purpose of the preliminary layout is to:

Define the scope for the job and required facilities


Give the architect an understanding of how the building is to function
Show how the occupants of the building need to interact

Site Considerations
Regardless of the method chosen to execute the building design, the following basic
information on the proposed site must be developed in the preliminary planning
phase:

Size and configuration of site


Site topography
Access by vehicles and pedestrians
Proximity to other buildings/facilities
Building orientation considerations
Special site restrictions, minimum clearances
Access to utility services
Soils, groundwater, drainage, possible subsurface contamination information
Other space requirements (parking, outside storage)
Requirements for matching architectural style and treatment of existing nearby
buildings.

413 Layout and Design Considerations


Figure 400-1 provides guidelines for the layout and design of some typical industrial buildings. Facilities listed include:

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Small offices
Lockers/toilets
Storehouses
Shops
Electrical equipment
Control houses

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Sometimes these structures are designed as separate buildings; frequently, however,


they are combined with other facilities within a single building. The following size,
layout, and design considerations will be applicable for both cases.
Fig. 400-1

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (1 of 6)


Building Function: Small Offices

Size Considerations

Design Considerations

Possible facilities:

Combine various functions where possible. For


example, training/conference room. Or, by using
accordion-type wall divider, a training room and
lunchroom could be combined.

Fully understand the intended building functions.

Office(s)

Training/conference room

Toilets/locker room

Safety locker

Importance of building appearance

Kitchen/lunchroom

Advantages/disadvantages of multi-storied
construction

Switchgear room

Mechanical room (HVAC)

Handicap access and facilities

Medical treatment

Waiting area for visitors

Provide adequate HVAC and insulation.

Building support services

Select building structural framing system and


dimensions to suit proposed layout.

Interior partitions can usually be arranged to


accommodate columns without obstructing
access.

Building evacuation requirements.

Janitor

Importance for occupants being able to


observe specific areas or activities
Consider difficulty of maintaining building condition because of heavy traffic or work-related
environment

Copy
Storage
Computer room
File room

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Fig. 400-1

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Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (2 of 6)


Building Function: Change Houses (Lockers, Showers, Etc.)

Size Considerations

Design Considerations

Dual facilities for men and women employees.

Size of lockers based on type of clothing stored.

Size determined by number of employees using the


facilities:
Locker number based on total employee
requirements

Overalls and special clothing requires full


length locker.

Toilets, showers, etc., based on maximum at


shift changes

For other clothing half-size lockers may be


appropriate to reduce space requirements.

Number of facilities provided generally based


on code requirements (Reference 1) specifies
minimum fixture requirements

Provide means for positive ventilation through the


individual lockers.
Provide adequate water heating capacity with
quick recovery.

May require substantial mechanical room for


housing air handling and water heating equipment

Access for personnel in and out and security


considerations will influence layout.

Allow for future growth.

Employee parking facilities will influence building


location.

Consolidate arrangement of toilet/shower facilities


to reduce cost of water supply and waste water
plumbing systems.

Pay careful attention to the materials specified for


ceilings, walls, and floor. They should be selected
for ease of cleanup, maintenance, and durability.

Provide adequate HVAC for environmental conditions.

Extra space

Provision for building expansion

Special change rooms sometimes required to


separate work clothes from street clothes.

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Fig. 400-1

400 Small Buildings

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (3 of 6)


Building Function: Storehouse

Size Considerations

Design Considerations

Possible facilities:

Location considerations:
Convenient for outside truck deliveries without
entering plant areas.

Toilet/locker room(s)

Offices

Conference room

Space for files

Kitchen/lunchroom

Special Storage

Building security

Waiting area for outside visitors

Floor slab designed for heavy industrial loading.

Truck unloading/receiving area. Issue area for


storehouse materials

Convenient for in-plant material pickup.


Rail siding and unloading if service is available.

Truck/rail loading docks

Fork lift truck use


High unit loading from material storage

Special storage areas with controlled environment

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Material receiving and distribution:

Adequate outside space available for outside


storage and reclamation.

Heating, ventilation, and A/C as required for


offices and special materials storage.

Doors with adequate width and height for material


handling.

If exterior walls are metal, consider ways to


protect from physical damage. For example use
masonry or concrete for lower 5 feet to 6 feet.

Select building structural framing system and


dimensions consistent with proposed layout. For
example, match column layout with forklift traffic
patterns.

Fire protection requirements for chemical and


other combustible material storage areas.

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Fig. 400-1

Civil and Structural Manual

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (4 of 6)


Building Function: Shops

Size Considerations

Design Considerations

Possible facilities included:

Material/equipment handling.

Specific shop facilities required

Overhead bridge crane(s)

Lockers/showers/toilets

Jib cranes

Offices

Understand progression of equipment through


shops to minimize handling time.

Tool room(s)

Floor slab designed for heavy industrial loadings.

Shops storehouse

Adequate ventilation.

Lunchroom/kitchen

Heat and A/C as required for offices.

Environmental control for electronic/instrument


shops.

Doors adequate in width and height for material


and equipment handling.

Provision for protection of building exterior wall


panels from physical damage.

Adequate outside space for work areas or equipment/materials storage.

Location of building columns must suit proposed


layout of facilities.
Provide adequate lighting. Note fluorescent
lighting can be a problem around rotating equipment.

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Fig. 400-1

400 Small Buildings

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (5 of 6)


Building Function: Electrical or Electronic Equipment Enclosures

Size Considerations

Design Considerations

Equipment sizes

Located as required for area served.

Code clearances

Buildings are normally unoccupied.

Allowances for future equipment

Ventilation and humidity control may be critical


considerations.

Allowances for maintenance work on equipment.

May require pressurization to meet desired electrical area classification.

Air intakes must be located to provide clean air


source.

Careful planning is required for conduit entries.

Provision for moving equipment in and out.

Provide ample allowance to meet code safety


clearances and working clearances in preliminary
layouts. Actual size of equipment furnished may be
larger than planned.

Consider having MCC supplier furnish the building;


for example, a complete prefabricated unit
including installed MCC units.

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Fig. 400-1

Civil and Structural Manual

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (6 of 6)


Building Function: Control House

Size Considerations

Design Considerations

Underfloor space (basement) often serves as air


return and passage for routing of electrical/instrumentation cables. Use vapor barriers, seals, and
allow absolute minimum openings to assure
dryness. Conduit bank entrance is major source of
water entry. A block and bleed double entrance
may be required.

Underfloor drain lines must be adequately


supported. Welded steel pipe rather than cast iron
may be best material.

Access area to instruments

Provide adequate allowances for structural


member sizes, and for number (spacing) of
columns. Changes after other designs have started
become difficult to make.

Laboratory facilities, a common internal fire


hazard, should be isolated from the rest of the
building with a floor to ceiling solid wall and separate exterior entrance.

Construction materials should be reviewed with


Health, Environment & Loss Prevention.

Non-essential personnel should not be located in


the control house.

Electrical/instrumentation racks and panels should


be securely anchored to prevent overturning
during an earthquake or blast.

If structure is designed for blast resistance,


consider independent blast-resistant walls outside
exterior doors to attenuate blast pressures acting
on doors.

Positive internal pressure maintained to keep


hazardous vapors out.

For computers (see also ICM-MS-3651, Control


House Environment for Digital Instrumentation and
Process Computers):

Possible facilities:
Control room
Computer room
Kitchen area/lunch room
Toilets
Lockers
Offices

Air handling ducts tend to become very large.


Consider these early as they may influence
building dimensions.
Get a clear agreement about provision for future
expansion of the building. Can influence structural
framing and components.

Adequate HVAC
Air filter system
Humidity control
Uninterruptible power system
Raised (access) floor or trenches
Fire extinguishing method

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Preliminary Building Layout Studies


The following guidelines are suggested for proceeding with preliminary building
layouts.

Define offices and facilities to be provided. This requires input from the user
organization.

Define preliminary space requirements for the proposed facilities. Review of


similar building facilities provides helpful guidelines.

Include in the space studies adequate area for building support services:

Entrances
Mechanical equipment
Stairs (if required)
Toilet (locker) facilities
Copy room
Storage
Janitorial facilities

Determine user preferences for interrelationship between various offices and


facilities, i.e., offices that should be grouped together or facilities that may (or
should) be segregated.

Study the advantages/disadvantages and acceptability of the following basic


building concepts:

Single level
Two level
For structures with high vertical clearances (shops or storehouse), the use
of partial mezzanine area

If offices are required for the building, be aware there are Corporate guidelines
for space allocation based on job placement:

Approximate Range (in usable square feet)


Private Office

115-150

2-Person

180-225

Clerical Offices

90

(includes space for aisles, normal files, and equipment)


Information on current office space standards may be obtained from either the
Companys manual, entitled Office Standards, or from Chevron Real Estate
Management Company (CREMCO) in San Francisco.

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In starting preliminary building layouts, it is important to have a general


concept in mind for possible framing systems. This is particularly true if interior columns may be required.

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For preliminary layout, studies begin with single line arrangement sketches.
Consider a number of alternative arrangements, for this will help in the layout
review process.

Review of Preliminary Layouts


There are two fundamentals to be kept in mind when planning building layouts:
1.

It is human nature for every individual reviewing building layouts to offer


suggestions. Relative to other Company endeavors, there is more input contributed from all levels to the planning of building layouts. Sorting through this
information is important, as excellent suggestions and ideas come out of the
review process. The level of user acceptance and satisfaction relates directly to
consideration of their input.

2.

Individuals reviewing preliminary layouts frequently are unable to articulate


what they really want or like. They are, however, able to recognize, even in
very rough preliminary layouts, the things they dont like or arrangements that
dont appear to work. It is sometimes helpful, therefore, to have a number of
alternatives prepared when starting the review process.

420 Building Shells


Building shells by definition include framing systems, exterior walls, and roof
systems for buildings. All interior work, room dividers, and mechanical and electrical systems are not included. In this section the following examples of building
shells are discussed:

Metal building systems


Bearing wall construction
Curtain wall construction with independent framing system
Concrete block construction

421 Metal Building Systems


Metal building systems, also called pre-engineered or prefabricated, have wide
application for use as industrial buildings. They are available as a complete enclosure with a structural steel frame, with prefinished metal roof and wall panels, and
are generally site-assembled. See Specification CIV-MS-4796, Pre-Engineered
Metal Buildings, included in the specification section of this manual.

Building Framing
Manufacturers of the pre-engineered building systems generally offer four basic
types of framing systems or some combination of these types.
See Figure 400-2 through 400-5 for illustration of these framing systems:

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Rigid framefor column-free interior space


Single slope for economic designs

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Beam and columnfor wider span structures


Trussfor heavy suspended loads and high building heights

Fig. 400-2

Rigid Frame Metal Building

Fig. 400-3

Single Slope Metal Building

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Fig. 400-4

Beam and Column Metal Building

Fig. 400-5

Truss Metal Building

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Pre-engineered metal building systems generally use the manufacturers standard


wall and roofing system to achieve cost-effectiveness and the best performance.
The walls and roofs are generally assembled with large prefinished panels with or
without insulation. The panels are usually ribbed or corrugated for strength and to
provide interlocking of panel sections.
For advantages/disadvantages and typical applications for metal building systems
refer to Figure 400-6, Building Construction Comparison.

Division of Responsibility
In addition to furnishing the building components, the manufacturers of pre-engineered building systems normally furnish the following as part of the purchase
order:

Building drawings (building shell only)


Anchor bolt pattern and schedule
Foundation loadings
Required special foundation details to suit building
Erection drawings, details, and specifications

The purchaser of pre-engineered building systems normally provides:

Detailed foundation and floor slab design drawings


All interior design and construction (walls, partitions, ceilings, etc.)
All mechanical, electrical, and lighting systems
Special architectural treatment materials, such as masonry exterior walls
All field installation labor and equipment

To take advantage of prefabricated building construction, the purchaser should


allow flexibility in building dimensions of plus or minus several feet so that the
manufacturers can use their standard designs.

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Building Construction Comparison

Building Construction

Advantages

Disadvantages

Applications

Metal Building Systems


(pre-engineered/prefabricated)

Design costs can be reduced


because the structure is made up of
pre-engineered standard building
components, frames, purlins, wall
girts, bracing, siding, and roofing.

The appearance is generally not as


attractive as architect-designed
buildings where a wide choice of
materials is available and a more
pleasing architectural rendering can
be developed. this disadvantage can
be partially offset by supplementary
use of other more decorative materials to provide some architectural
rendering.

Storehouse facilities
Shop facilities
Temporary construction facilities
Unoccupied equipment shelters
Change houses

Time to complete an installation is


reduced because of short design
period, fast material delivery to the
site, and quick erection time using all
prefabricated components.

400-16

Available In many structural frame


configurations and a large range of
dimensions, and available for
different design loadings.
Buildings come complete with
gutters, exterior trim, standard doors
and windows, wall and roof ventilation, and insulation as specified by
purchaser.
Bearing Wall And Curtain
Wall Construction

Pre-engineered wall panels used in


shops or storehouse activities are
subject to damage from equipment or
material movement. this kind of
damage can be difficult to repair or
replace. the use of masonry for wall
sections subject to damage will
reduce this problem.
Building layouts and configuration
are limited to the standard sizes available from manufacturers.
Bearing wall construction generally
limited to single story buildings with
smaller dimensions

Provides greater flexibility In layout


options.

Requires more design time to select


and detail all structural components
and other architectural detail.
Cost is higher than prefabricated
metal building systems.

Occupied buildings:
Offices
Control houses
Laboratories
Fire protection buildings
Security buildings
Change houses

Civil and Structural Manual

Chevron Corporation

Provides a more permanent and


attractive appearance than metal
building structures.

Curtain wall construction can be


used for multi-story
structures.

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Fig. 400-6

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400 Small Buildings

422 Bearing Wall Construction Systems


In bearing wall construction systems, the roof assembly acts as a unit to transfer all
gravity and lateral loads to the bearing walls.
Walls transfer all vertical and lateral loads to the foundation with primary stresses
being compression and shear.

Basic Types
Framed. Usually site assembled. Wood or metal studs with structural sheathing or
diagonal bracing. Interior and exterior finishing compatible with stud construction.
Masonry. Site assembled with stacked masonry units (concrete block or brick);
vertical and horizontal reinforcing as required. See Section 424.
Cast-Concrete. Includes cast-in-place, tilt-up, and precast construction
Refer to Reference 3 for the following information on bearing walls:

Distribution of loads
Types and properties
Compatible floor and roof framing systems
Load-bearing capacity
Exterior and interior facings
Selection considerations
Wall insulation
Wall details

Roof deck systems for buildings with bearing wall construction are commonly
constructed with bar joists, precast tees, hollow core planks, or metal deck pans
with lightweight concrete, gypsum, or rigid insulation. Hot-applied built-up roofing
is commonly used to provide a watertight barrier.
Refer to References 3 and 9 for information on alternative systems and materials,
insulation, membranes, and construction details.

423 Curtain Wall Construction Systems


Curtain walls are perimeter wall panels which carry their own weight and transfer
lateral loads to a structural frame. Gravity and live loads on the structure are carried
to the foundation by an independent structural framing system of steel or concrete.
Examples of curtain wall systems include:

Sandwich-type insulated panels of steel or aluminum


Precast concrete
Single thickness panel (formed metal panels with corrugations or ribs)

Roof decks for curtain wall construction use systems similar to those described for
bearing wall construction.

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For additional information on curtain wall construction refer to References 3 and 9.

424 Concrete Block Construction


This section discusses the design and recommended details for reinforced and unreinforced hollow unit masonry bearing walls. Model Specification No. CIV-MS-943
covers concrete block construction.

Design
Designs are usually made in conformance with:

ACI 531Building Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures


UBCChapter 24
Other jurisdictional codes

Design Strength of Masonry


The compressive strength for concrete masonry includes both the mortar and the
masonry unit itself. If a significant amount of block masonry construction is
involved, it might be desirable to establish allowable stresses based on standard
compression tests using the same masonry and mortar materials to be used in the
structure. For most work, however, designs are based on assumed ultimate compressive strength given by code. This results in allowable stresses that are intentionally
conservative.
The codes recognize that the quality of workmanship is critical to the integrity of
the masonry structure. For example, ACI 531 states that without engineering or
architectural inspection to ensure quality control of materials, construction, and
workmanship, allowable compressive stresses are reduced by one-third and shear
and tension by one-half.
For loadings due to wind or earthquake, a one-third increase in allowable stresses is
permitted.

Hollow Block Masonry


Masonry units are usually furnished to ASTM C90. There are two grade designations used by C90 (and also in UBC Standards).

Grade N

For general use in exterior walls above and below grade

Grade S

Limited to use for interior walls or above grade in exterior


walls with weather-protective coating

For general use on Company construction, load bearing hollow block concrete units
are specified as Grade N-I (general-use blocks with moisture control) with a specified minimum compressive strength on the average net area of 2100 psi.
Moisture control of the masonry unit is important for attaining the desired strength
of masonry construction.

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If the masonry unit is too moist, it will not draw out sufficient moisture from
the mortar to achieve a good bond between mortar and unit

If the masonry unit is too dry, it will draw out moisture too rapidly from the
mortar which will reduce the strength and bond of the mortar

ASTM C90 establishes moisture-content requirements for masonry units.


Maximum moisture-content is specified for three different job site humidity conditions: humid, intermediate, or arid. Masonry with or without moisture control is
designated as Type I or II respectively.

Reinforcement
Figure 400-7 illustrates typical wall reinforcement for load bearing reinforced
concrete masonry.
In Seismic Zones, all walls shall be reinforced with both vertical and horizontal
reinforcement. The sum of the areas of horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall
be at least 0.002 times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, and the minimum
area of reinforcement in either direction shall not be less than 0.0007 times the
gross cross-sectional area of the wall. The spacing of reinforcement shall not
exceed 4 feet.
Horizontal wall reinforcement must be provided at top of foundations, top and
bottom of wall openings, and at roof levels.
Vertical reinforcement should be provided on each side of openings, at intersections, ends, and corners.

Example for Determining Reinforcement Spacing


8 in. thick wall
8 ft high
(8 in.) (8 ft) (12 in.) = 768 in2
AT = 0.002 (768) = 1.536 in2
0.0007 (768) = 0.538 in2
Use three No. 4 bars horizontally
AH = 0.60 in2 > 0.538 in2

OK

AT - AH = 1.536 - 0.6 = 0.936 in2


AV 0.936 in2. Use five No. 4 bars.
AV = 1.00 in2 >0.936 in2

OK

Spacing (8 ft.) (12 in.) 5 = 19.2 in.


Say 16 in. to match cells.
See References 1, 8 and 9 for more information in the design of reinforced masonry.

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Fig. 400-7

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Masonry Wall Construction

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Control Joints
Control joints are continuous vertical joints built into masonry walls to aid in
controlling wall movements. Control joints in walls should be located over any
control joints in the foundation. The maximum spacing for control joints is
discussed in ACI 531.

425 Roof Designs


The advantages for flat roof systems and sloped (pitched) roof systems are:
Flat

Sloped

Is not subject to wind forces (or in the


case of blast-resistant design, to
reflected overpressure forces).

Roof drainage is better and more easily


directed. Can be used for longer spans
without interior columns.

Is architecturally more pleasing than a


highly pitched sloping roof.

Snow and ice may be less of a problem.


Generally can be a more economical
structural design.

430 Blast-Resistant Design


Control houses or other buildings housing personnel and control equipment near
processing plants are sometimes designed with a level of blast resistance. The intent
is to protect personnel and critical control systems for facilities to permit an orderly
shutdown and prompt recovery after an accident.
The decision to design for blast resistance is made by the project design team after
consultation with the CRTC Process Risk Team. Generally, blast-resistant design
should be considered when the building or control house:
1.

serves two or more refinery process plants

2.

serves one major plant that processes large volumes of volatile and flammable
liquids and gasses

3.

must be located closer to the plant than the recommended minimum spacing

4.

is adjacent to LPG or Pentane above flash temperature and greater than 200
psig

Blast-resistant design may not be necessary if the building is far enough from the
potential source of a blast, even if it meets conditions 1 or 2 above. Consult the Fire
Prevention Manual or the Process Risk Team for guidelines on control house locations.

Design Blast Loads


In the rare event of a Vapor Cloud Explosion, (VCE), and fire in a process plant, a
control house can be damaged, not only by fire itself, but by:

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overpressure resulting from the ignition and explosion of flammable material


that has escaped into the atmosphere, or

overpressure or missiles from runaway reactions.

When a VCE occurs, there is a violent release of energy that causes a sudden pressure increase in the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure disturbance, termed a
blast or shock wave is characterized by an almost instantaneous rise from normal
pressure to an overpressure condition. This high pressure shock front, with a very
short duration (expressed in milliseconds), expands outward from the center of the
blast. The shock wave intensity decays with distance and as a function of time. The
measured pressure at a given point exhibits an instantaneous increase in overpressure from atmospheric to a peak overpressure value as the shock wave reaches that
point. The overpressure then decays rapidly, followed by a period of negative pressure.
If the shock wave impinges on a rigid surface, such as wall, the propagation of the
wave is obstructed. This results in a rapid increase in pressure against the wall by
an amount far greater than the overpressure, this is termed Reflected Overpressure. There are several ways to estimate the peak reflected overpressure. For the
range of peak overpressure used for blast resistant building design, reflected pressure will be higher by factor of from 2 to 2.5.
The shock wave will also generate drag pressure onto the building. Drag pressure
is due to air movement associated with the shock front moves at high velocity. For
convenience, and without much risk of error, this velocity is generally assumed to
be the same as the shock-front velocity. This wind produces drag forces on any
obstacle in its path which are combined algebraically with peak overpressure forces.
Figure 400-8 illustrates the sequence of events as the shock wave passes over a rectangular enclosed structure.
The magnitude of the blast overpressure at a building is a function of the following:

Size of the flammable vapor cloud.

Material of the cloud. Higher reactive materials include: hydrogen, acetylene,


ethylene oxide and propylene oxide. Lower reactive materials include:
methane and carbon monoxide.

Level of equipment and piping congestion in the vapor cloud.

Area of confinement for the vapor cloud.

Distance of the building from the Vapor Cloud Explosion.

Use Figure 400-9 as a guideline to determine the design overpressure load if you
are considering a blast-resistant building. Figure 400-9 shows the effects of overpressure and duration on a building as a function of distance from source unit and
size of the unit. The analysis assumes a typical facility and the blast may be conservative in many cases. However, a site specific hazard assessment can be done by
the CRTC Process Risk Team to provide a more accurate determination of the blast
loading.

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Reaction of Rectangular Structure to Explosion Shockwave

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Fig. 400-8

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Design Blast Loads for a Building (Side-On Overpressure)

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Fig. 400-9

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Structural Systems
Blast-resistant buildings should normally be clad with reinforced concrete or other
ductile material. Roofs should be of reinforced or prestressed concrete or of
composite construction utilizing steel decking and concrete. Framing systems
which may be required to support walls or roofs may be of reinforced concrete or
structural steel. Where reinforced masonry or prestressed concrete is used, the
energy absorption capacity of each structural element up to the point of collapse
should exceed twice that required to resist the design blast loading.
In view of the very large design loads for blast conditions, interior columns are
normally provided when roof spans exceed 30 feet. Equipment and interior partitions can usually be arranged to accommodate these columns without obstructing
access within the building.

Structural Design
The intent of the structural design is to accept moderate structural damage to the
building while still maintaining protection for personnel and control equipment.
Some distortion of the building structural elements and external doors may occur at
blast loadings even less than the specified design load. No special provisions need
be made to protect items such as exterior lights, gutters and roof drains, antennas
and landscaping. The number of these items should be minimized as they may
become dangerous projectiles in the event of a blast.
For design purposes, it is assumed the explosion occurs as a surface burst and no
reflected loads are imposed on the roof.
It is assumed the explosion can be omnidirectional with respect to building orientation. This means that all faces of the structure should be designed for the full
reflected overpressure. The assumed explosion locations are taken perpendicular to
the center of the building walls.
In addition to being subjected to an overpressure condition from a blast, there may
be impacts against the building from high velocity debris. The subject of missile
impact is not addressed here because typical control house building materials (such
as reinforced concrete) offer excellent properties for resisting missile penetration.

Static Load Equivalent of Blast Pressures


Required dynamic resistance in the direction of blast loads shall be calculated in
accordance with the procedure outlined in ASCE Manual 42 [11], which takes into
account dynamic response of the various structure elements.
The equation for this calculation relates the peak blast load (either incident or
reflected) to the actual required dynamic resistance, which is actually an equivalent
static load. The equation takes into account each elements ductility and fundamental period of vibration in the direction of load. The ratio of blast load duration
to period of vibration is also used in the relationship.
The required resistance may be as much as twice the peak blast force for a particularly brittle structure subjected to a long duration loading, or just a fraction of the
peak force for a ductile structure subjected to a short duration loading.

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This pseudo-dynamic procedure provides a uniform margin of reserve strength


throughout the structure and therefore gives a more uniform factor of safety against
collapse for all elements in the structure, a provision not satisfied by using a
uniform static load over all the structural elements.
The intent is to design a ductile building, with each element capable of carrying the
design loading in relation to that elements stiffness. The dynamic material strength
capacity of any structural element should be determined according to the plastic
design method for structural steel and the ultimate strength method for reinforced
concrete as provided by AISC Specification and ACI Standard, respectively.
Alternately, a dynamic analysis procedures for the petrochemical facilities is
described in ASCE Task Committee Report, Design of Blast Resistant Buildings
in Petrochemical Facilities. The overall objective of a dynamic blast analysis is
to assess the capability of a structure to resist a specified blast load. A resistance
function, or applied force versus displacement relationship, is developed based on
assumed failure mechanisms, the member configuration and estimated section
capacities. The analysis will provide maximum relative deflections of each structural elements, and relative rotation angles at plastic hinge locations. The design
can proceed to determine the adequacy of the member through the application of
the acceptance criteria.
Consult references [11], [13], and [14] for the detailed design procedure. The
CRTC Civil and Structural Team can provide guidance on blast resistance design
and analysis of the structural system.

Load Combinations
The required dynamic resistance to blast loads should be combined with other loads
as follows:
U = D+L+R
where:
U = total required structural resistance
D = dead loads, or their related internal moments and forces
L = applicable live loads, or their related internal moments and forces
R = required dynamic resistance to blast loads (or rebound)
Required rebound resistance, such as for roofs, should normally be considered in
combination with dead loads only.
Resistance to blast loads should not be considered in combination with wind or
earthquake.

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Rectangular box-shaped buildings should be designed for blast pressures given in


the guidelines below.

Vertical Exterior Walls

Each wall should be designed for the peak reflected


pressure

Roofs

Flat roof slabs and beams should be designed for


the incident overpressure

Structural Framing

The main structural framing should be designed for


the blast pressure on any one wall in accordance
with the loading criteria for vertical exterior walls,
together with roof loading

Foundations
It is generally not necessary to increase the size of the foundation in order to limit
the soil bearing pressure in the vertical or lateral direction for blast loading. The
very high bearing pressures which may be generated can be accepted because of the
high strength of soils under rapid loading and the high inertial effects when soils
are accelerated. In general, dynamic soil bearing pressures are between 1.5 and 3.0
times greater than the allowable soil bearing pressure for operating loads.
Pile-supported buildings should be designed structurally to transmit the vertical
loads to the underlying soils using the ultimate strength of the pile. For timber piles,
the ultimate strength may be computed by multiplying the cross section area of the
pile at the butt by the dynamic compressive strength, which is taken as twice the
normal static ultimate compressive strength. It is not necessary to increase the pile
penetration into the supporting soils in order to provide the required frictional resistance or end bearing pressure for blast loading.

Blast-Resistant Doors
At least two independent means of exit should be provided. The exterior doors
should be located remote from each other and at opposite walls of the building.
Doors should open outward and should be supported on all edges by the door
frames. Doors should preferably be flush with the outside of the building, or not
recessed more than 18 inches into the building.
Doors, latches, and hinge mechanisms should be designed to be tight and remain
operable after being subjected to the blast design loads.
Doors should be constructed of steel plates on both faces, internally reinforced, and
generally having the appearance of conventional flush metal doors.
Glass viewing ports, provided for routine entrance/exit doors, should not be larger
than 1 square foot. Glazing should be, as a minimum, double laminated clear safety
glass with energy absorption capacity, prior to collapse, of more than twice that
required to resist the design blast loading. See Standard Drawing GF-R 1077,
Details of Blast-Resistant Doors, included in the Standard Drawings section of this
manual.

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Windows and Other Openings


Blast-resistant buildings should be constructed without windows.
Openings such as vent intakes and fume hoods should be designed for blast effects.
Such openings should by location, by use of blast attenuators or by other means,
prevent entry of shock waves and debris into personnel and critical equipment
areas. Such openings should be kept to a minimum.
Equipment, such as air conditioners, cooling towers, etc., should not be placed on
the roof of control houses.
Internal fixtures, such as lights, ceilings, ventilating ducts, and interior walls,
should be designed and installed so that they will not fall if the building is subjected
to the design blast loading specified.

440 Safety Storage Buildings


There may be requirements for temporary storage of chemical and hazardous materials on a Company site. This raises concern about:

Spill containment
Fire protection
Security
Safeguards for personnel
Meeting regulatory standards

Such storage facilities are usually not very large in size and can be built on-site
with concrete or masonry construction.
An alternative is to purchase special prefabricated units for chemical and hazardous
material storage. These units are available with the following features:

Spill containment sub-floor

Forced air ventilation system

Controlled environment (heating/cooling)

Electrical system to meet specified classification

Single unit capacity up to 10 tons of material (drums, boxes and cans); units
are available in sizes up to 9 feet by 22 feet

Integral dry chemical or water fire protection system.

Information on these prefabricated units may be obtained from:


Safety Storage, Inc.
2301 Bert Drive
Hollister, CA 95023
(408) 252-2750

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450 Model Specifications and Standard Drawings


451 Model Specification
CIV-MS-4796, Pre-Engineered Metal Buildings, with Data Guide CIV-DG-4796
and Data Sheet CIV-DS-4796 are included in the specification section of this
manual. This model specification gives the requirements for the purchase of prefabricated, pre-engineered metal buildings, and includes structural design, vendors
responsibilities, structural steel fabrication, and such items as roof and wall panels,
fasteners, flashing and trim, accessories, and drawings and data requirements.
CIV-MS-943, Concrete Block Construction (Hollow Unit Masonry), is included in
the specification section of this manual. It covers the materials to be used and the
procedures followed in building concrete block masonry walls.

452 Standard Drawing


Standard Drawing GF-R 1077, Details of Blast-Resistant Doors, is included in the
Standard Drawings and Forms Section of this manual.

460 References
General
1.

Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials.


The purpose of this code is to provide minimum standards controlling the
design, construction, materials, use, and occupancy of buildings.

2.

Recommended Design Practices Manual, Metal Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA).


The purpose of this manual is to establish standard practices among the manufacturers of pre-engineered buildings to achieve maximum economy of design
within the limits of good engineering practice.

3.

Sweets Catalog File, McGraw-Hill.


Lists manufacturers data on products for general building construction.
Includes a separate volume on Selection Data which provides general technical information and checklists that relate to all building systems and components.

4.

Manual of Steel Construction. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.


Manual includes the dimensions and properties of standard structural members
for design and detailing. Includes sections on beam, column, and connection
designs. Includes AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection
of Structural Steel for Buildings.

5.

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ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. American Concrete Institute Publication.

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Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI Standard 318)


provides the minimum requirements for reinforced concrete design or construction that is regulated by a general building code; includes analysis and design,
development of reinforcement, and reinforcement details.
Building Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures (ACI 531)
provides minimum requirements for materials, analysis, and design of structures which are built using concrete masonry units. Specification for Concrete
Masonry Construction (ACI 531.1) provides a reference standard specification
which may be cited in specific project specifications.
6.

American Society of Civil Engineers 7-93, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 1994.
Provides requirements to govern assumptions for dead, live, and other loads in
the design of structures.

7.

ASTM Standards in Building Codes. American Society for Testing Materials.


Provides standard specifications, test methods, and definitions for structural
steel shapes and plates, cement, concrete, reinforcement, and other materials
used for buildings and structures.

8.

Structural Engineering Handbook. Gaylord, Edwin H., Jr. and Charles N.


Gaylord (Editors).
An all-inclusive handbook that includes information on structural analysis,
steel, and reinforced concrete design.

9.

Architectural Graphic Standards. The American Institute of Architects.


From general planning to detailed design. This is a valuable source of information on building construction and details.

Blast-Resistant Design
10. Introduction to Structural Dynamics, John M. Biggs.
Includes a chapter devoted to blast-resistant design. Includes design tables and
curves and examples for calculating the approximate effective fundamental
period for structural elements.
11. Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapons Effects, American Society of
Civil Engineers, Manual No. 42, 1961.
Includes chapters on choice of structural system, dynamic strength of materials, dynamic analysis, and design procedures all relating to blast-resistant
design.
12. Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities, ASCE Task
Committee on Blast Resistant Design, American Society of Civil Engineers,
(1997).

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Includes general guidelines in the structural design of blast resistant petrochemical facilities, types of construction, dynamic material strengths, allowable
response criteria, analysis methods, and design procedures. Three example
calculations are included.
13. An Engineering Approach to Blast-Resistant Design, Nathan M. Newmark,
Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 121, 1956.
Includes the fundamental work to develop the empirical equation used to determine the equivalent static load for blast pressure.
14. Nuclear Safety Structures Code, ACI 349, Appendix C, Special Provisions for
Impulsive and Impactive Effects.
Includes recommendations to assure ductility in the design of concrete structural elements under impulsive loads. Also recommends allowable dynamic
strength increases and permissible ductility ratios.

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