Chap 2.

Wave optics
2.1 POSTULATES OF WAVE OPTICS
2.2 MONOCHROMATIC WAVES
A
A. C
Complex
l R
Representation
t ti and
d th
the H
Helmholtz
l h lt E
Equation
ti
B. Elementary Waves
C. Paraxial Waves

*2.3 RELATION BETWEEN WAVE OPTICS AND RAY OPTICS

2.4 SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
A
A. R
Reflection
fl ti and
dR
Refraction
f ti
Transmission Through Optical Components
C. Graded-Index Optical Components

2.5 INTERFERENCE
A. Interference of Two Waves
B.
B M
Multiple-Wave
ltiple Wa e Interference

2.6 POLYCHROMATIC LIGHT

A. Fourier Decomposition
B. Light Beating

What is the wave?

Wave is the type that energy transformation

visible ()=>between 390 nm and 760 nm

Ultraviole () =>10
10 to 390nm.
Infrared () => 760 nm to 300 m.
NIR: near infrared
MIR: mid infrared
FIR: far infrared
NUV: near ultraviolet
VUV: vacuum ultraviolet
MUV: mid ultraviolet
FUV: far ultraviolet
EUV or XUV: extreme
ultraviolet (soft X-rays)

 Wave theory of light encompasses the ray

theory
Ray optics is the limit of wave optics when the
wavelength
l
th is
i infinitesimally
i fi it i ll short
h t

The light waves propagate through and

around objects whose dimensions are
much greater than the wavelength,

the ray theory suffices for describing most

phenomena

In wave optics, light

is described by a scalar function (called

wavefunction)

obeys the wave equation.

The wave equation, constitute the postulates of

the scalar wave model known as wave optics.
optics

The one-dimensional wave equation

Well derive the wave equation from Maxwells equations. Here it is in
its one-dimensional form for scalar (i.e., non-vector) functions, f:
The wave equation has the simple solution:

2f
x2

1 2f
v2 t 2

Light waves (actually the electric fields of light waves) will be a solution to
this equation. And v will be the velocity of light.

The solution to the one-dimensional wave

equation

f ( x, t ) f ( x vt )

where f (u) can be any twice-differentiable function.

How to describe the wave-function ?

f ( x, t ) f ( x vt )
To displace any function f(x) to the
right, just change its argument from x
to x-a, where a is a positive number.
If we let a = v t, where v is positive and
t is
i time,
i
then
h the
h displacement
di l
will
ill
increase with time.

x: position,
t: time
f(x)
f(x-2)
f(x-1)
f(x-3)

f(
f(x-vt)
t) represents
t a rightward,
i ht
d or
forward, propagating wave.
f (x+vt) represents a leftward,
leftward or
backward, propagating wave.
v will be the velocity of the wave.

Proof that f (x vt) solves the wave equation

2 f
x 2

1 2 f
v 2 t 2

u
u
v
Write f (x vt) as f (u), where u = x vt. So 1 and
x
t
f
f
Now use the chain rule: f f u =>
Now,
>

x u
x u x
f u => f
And f
f

v
t u t
t
u

2 f 2 f
So
S
2
2
x
u

and
d

2
2 f
2 f
v
2
t
u 2

Substitutingg into the wave equation:

q
1 2 f
2 f
2 2
2
x
v t

1 2 2 f
2 f
2 v
0
2
2
u
v u

The 1D wave equation for light waves

2E
2E

0
2
2
x
t

where E is the light

electric field

Well use cosine- and sine-wave solutions:

E ( x, t ) B cos[[k ( x vt )] C sin[
i [k ( x vt )]

kx (kv)t

or

E ( x, t ) B cos(kx t ) C sin(kx t )

: electric permittivity,
0: magnetic permeability ()

The speed of light in vacuum,

usually
ll called
ll d c
0,
is
i 3 x 1010
cm/s.

A simpler equation for a harmonic wave:

E(x,t) = A cos[(kx t) ]
Use the trigonometric identity ():
cos(zy)
( ) = cos(z)
( ) cos(y)
( ) + sin(z)
i ( ) sin(y)
i ( )
where z = k x t and y = to obtain:
E(x,t) = A cos(kx t) cos() + A sin(kx t) sin()
which is the same result as before,
before as long as:
A cos() = B and

A sin() = C

E ( x, t ) B cos(kx t ) C sin(kx t )

For simplicity, well

just use the forwardpropagating wave.

Definitions

Spatial quantities:

c = = /

Temporal quantities:

The Phase Velocity

How fast is the wave traveling?
Velocity is a reference distance
divided by a reference time.
The phase velocity (c) is the wavelength / period:
c =
In terms of the k-vector, k = 2, and
the angular frequency, = 2, this is:

c = /k

2.1 POSTULATES OF WAVE OPTICS

Light propagates in the form of waves. It is described by the
wave equation

u ( r, t): wave function

r = (x, y, z): position function,
t: time
2
2
2
2
2 + 2 + 2 : Laplacian operator
x

In free space , light waves travel with speed c0.

In a medium of refractive index n, light waves travel with a
reduced speed

The principle of superposition applies because the wave

equation is linear.
if ul((r,, t)) and u2((r,, t)) represent
p
optical
p
waves
u(r, t) = z+u1(r, t) + u2(r, t) also represents a possible optical wave.

At the boundary between two media,

media the wave-function
wave function
changes in a way that depend on their refractive indexes.
The wave equation
Th
ti is
i also
l approximately
i t l applicable
li bl to
t media
di
with position-dependent refractive indices ( n = n(r)).
Provided the variation of refractive index is slow within
distances of a wavelength (n ( r < ) <<0 )
The medium is said to be locally homogeneous.

Intensity, Power, and Energy

The
Th optical
i l intensity
i
i I(r,
I( t),
)
Defined as the optical power per unit area (units: watts/cm2),

proportional
i l to the
h average off the
h squared wavefunction
f
i ,

u( x, t ) E sin(kx wt )
The time interval T is

I 2

E
T

s in ( k x w t ) 2 d t

much longer than the time of an optical cycle

but much shorter than any other time of interest (such as duration of
pulse)

The duration of optical cycle

For example
t=2x10-15 (s) = 2 fs for =600 nm

 The
Th optical
i l power P (t)
( ) (units:
( i watts)) is
i the
h integrated
i
d intensity
i
i

A : area normal to the direction of propagation of light

Th
The optical
ti l energy (units:
( i joules)
j l ) is
i the
h time
i integral
i
l off the
h
optical power over the time interval

E ( t) =

P (r, t) d T

collected in a given time interval.

2.2 MONOCHROMATIC WAVES

A monochromatic wave is represented by a wavefunction with
harmonic time dependence

u ( r , t) = ( r ) c o s [ 2 t + ( r ) ]
r: amplitude

wavelength

=1/T: frequency (s-1)

angular
g
frequency
q
y ((radius p
per second or s-1)
k=2wave number
rphase (initial phase)

wave-function u(t)

complex amplitude

Complex
wavefunction

A. Complex Representation and the Helmholtz

Equation
Complex Wavefucntion

So that

The symbol * signifies complex conjugate

The complex Wavefunction satisfy the wavefucntion

Complex Amplitude
The complex wave function can be written in the form

Time independent factor

U(r)=(r)exp[j(r)]:
complex amplitude at a given position r
|U(r)|=(r): amplitude of the wave
arg{U(r)}=(r) :phase

The relation between wavefunction u(r, t) and complex

amplitude is given by

The Helmholtz Equation

Substituting U(r, t) = U(r)exp(j2t) into the wave equation
(2.2-4) =>Helmholtz equation

Wave number

Optical intensity

Optical Intensity
F
From
E
Eq.2.2-1
22 1

=>

U(r)=(r)exp[j(r)]: complex amplitude

Averaged over a time longer than an optical period, l/ causes
secondd term vanish
ih
=>
Th
The optical
i l intensity
i
i off a monochromatic
h
i wave is
i the
h absolute
b l
square off its
i
complex amplitude.
The intensity of monchromatic wave does not vary with time.

The wavefronts
The wavefronts are the surfaces of equal phase,
It is often defined by
(r) = constant =2q,
q: an integer.
The wavefront normal ((at pposition r)) is pparallel to the ggradient
vector (r)
The direction at which the rate of change of the phase is
maximum
Spherical
Plane wave
wave

B. Elementary Waves
Th
The simplest
i l solutions
l i
off the
h Helmholtz
H l h l equation
i in
i a plane
l
wave () and the spherical wave ().
Th Pl
The
Plane Wave
W
The complex amplitude of plane wave

A(r):
A(
) Complex
C
l envelope
l
k=(kx, ky, kz): wavevector ( k x2 k y2 k z2 k 2 )
The
h wavefront obey
b

k r k x x k y y k z z 2 q arg{ A}
where q is integer
The parallel plane perpendicular the wavevector k (plane wave)

These consecutive planes are separated by a distance

k
(wavelength )

The wavefuction can be expressed as (z axis: the direction of

the wavevector k)

Space period :
Time period :/

 c : phase velocity (c = c0/n, c0 :velocity in vacuum )

c / c0 / n 0 / n
As a monochromatic wave ppropagates
p g
through
g media of
different refractive indices
Its frequency remains the same,
Its velocity, wavelength, and wavenumber are altered:

The Spherical Wave

The complex amplitude of spherical wave

r: distance from the origin

g
A: constant
Intensityy ((I(r)=|A
( ) | 0|2/r2 )):
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
The wavefronts fit the condition:
kr = 2q or r = q q: integer
.
These are concentric spheres separated by
a radial distance =2/k that advance
radially
di ll att the
th phase
h
velocity
l it c

Fresnel Approximation of the Spherical Wave

A spherical wave at points r = (x, y, z) (from origin at r = 0)
sufficiently close to the z axis but far from the origin
( x 2 y2 )
1
x y z,
2
z

(
)
Using the Taylor-series expansion:
2

The Fresnel approximation of a spherical wave (r @ z can be

substituted for the magnitude):

The complex amplitude in (2.2-17)

may be viewed as
a plane wave (A0 exp(-jkz)) modulated by the factor
((l/z)) exp[
p[ -jk
j ((x2 + y2))/2z]]
Paraboloidal wave : The phase factor ( k (x2 + y2)/2z ) serves to
bend the planar wavefronts of the plane wave into paraboloidal
surfaces
Plane
Pl
wave: when
h z becomes
b
very large.
l

 The second condition of Fresnel approximation

kz4/8 <<or (x2+y2)2 <<4z3
( x 2 y 2 ) / z 2 1
For points (x, y) lying within a circle of radius a (a2=x2+y2)
center about the z axis, the validity condition is a4 << 4z3or

m=a/z : the maximum angle

Fresnel number

a
N

z
a

Diffraction loss

C. Paraxial Waves
A wave is said to be paraxial if its wavefront normals are
paraxial rays.
The complex amplitude of the a paraxial wave

The complex envelope A is slowly varying function of

position (A = A(r))
The variation of the following function with the position z
must be slowly within the distance
a)
b)

complex envelope A(r)

derivative of A(r)

the wave approximately maintain its underlying planewave nature.

The wave function of a paraxial wave:

The amplitude |A(0,0, z)| and phase (arg{A(x, y, z)}) vary slowly with z.
Since the change of the phase is small within the distance of a
wavelength=>
The planar wavefronts (kz = 2q) of the carrier plane wave bend
only slightly
Normals are paraxial rays.

( ) The magnitude
(a)
g
of a paraxial
p
wave as a function of the axial distance z.
(b) The wavefronts and wavefront normals of a paraxial wave

The Paraxial Helmholtz Equation

S b i i (2.2-20)
Substitution
(2 2 20)
into (2.2-7)

In paraxial approximation (A << A within a distance z = )

=>
=>

A A
A kA
=
<< =
z

Helmholtz equation
(Eq.1)

Let
The followingg derivatives are necessary:
y
(Eq.2)

(Eq 3)
(Eq.3)

Substitution (Eq
(Eq.2
2 and Eq
Eq.33 into Eq.1)
Eq 1)
(Eq.4)

Paraxial Helmholtz equation: Slowly varying envelope

approximation of the Helmholtz equation

T
Transverse
L l i operator
Laplacian
t

T2 2 / x 2 2 / y 2
The solution of the paraxial Helmholtz equation
Paraboloidal
i
wave (paraxial
(
i l approximation
i i off the
h spherical
h i l wave))
The complex envelope A(r)= (A/z) exp[ -jk (x2 + y2)/2z]
(Excise 2.2-2)
2 2 2)
Gaussian beam (will be discussed in Chap.3)

2.4 SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS

A. Reflection and Refraction
A
Reflection from a Planar Mirror
A plane wave of wavevector k1 is in incident onto planar mirror located in
free space in the z = 0.
Certain boundary conditions must be satisfied at the surface of the mirror (all
points (x,y)).
It is necessary that the wavefronts of two waves match
z=0

r = (x,
( y, 0),
0)
k1 = (k0 sin 1, 0, k0 cos ),
k2 = (k0 sin
i , 0,
0 - k0 cos 2),
)

k0 x sin
i k
k0 x sin
i

Reflection and Refraction at a Planar Dielectric

Boundary
A plane wave of wavevector k, incident on a planar boundary
between two homogeneous media of refractive indices n1 and n2.

The boundary lies in the z=0 plane

The refracted plane waves of wavevectors k2 emerge

k1 r k2 r

since (at z=0 in the x-z plane)

r = (x,
(x y,
y 0),
0)
k1 = (n1k0 sin 1, 0, n1k0 cos 1),
k2 = (n2k0 sin , 0,
0 n2k0 cos 2),
)

n1sin1 n2 sin2

B. Transmission Through Optical Components

The surfaces of the plate are the planes z = 0 and z = d and the
incident wave travels in the z direction.
Complex amplitude transmittance
t(x,
( , y) = U(x,
( , y, d)/U(x,
) ( , y, 0)) :

The plane introduce a phase shift

nk0d =2(d/)
z=0

z=d

Inclined Incident
The incident plane wave makes an angle with respect to the z axis and
has wavevector k.
The refracted and transmitted plane wave with wavevectors k1 and k and
angle and
The complex amplitude inside the plane is

Complex amplitude transmittance (U(x, y, d)/U(x, y, 0))

If the angle of incident is small
=>
>
=>

1
cos 1 1 12
2

1 / n

t ( x, y ) exp( jnk0 d ) exp( jk0 2 d / 2n)

Thin Transparent Plate of Varying Thickness

The amplitude transmittance of a thin transparent plate
whose thickness d(x, y) varies smoothly as a function of x and y.
A thin
hi layer
l
off the
h air
i off the
h thickness:
thi k
d0-dd (x,
( y))
The plate lies between the planes z = 0 and z = d, the incident wave
is an arbitrary paraxial wave.
wave
In paraxial approximation and d0 is sufficient small

Complex amplitude transmittance

t ( x , y ) exp[ jnk 0 d ( x , y )] exp[ jk 0 ( d 0 d ( x , y ))]

h0 = expp ((-jk
j 0d0) :constant p
phase factor

Thin Lens
The thickness at point (x, y) of planoconvex thin lens
or
By considering the points x and y are sufficient small in
comparison with R (x2+y2 << R2)

 From eqs. 2.4-5=>

x 2 + y2
)]
t (x, y) exp[-jk 0 d 0 ]exp[-j(n -1)k 0 (d 0 2R
x 2 + y2
exp[-jk 0 d 0 ]exp[jk 0 (-(n -1)d 0 +
)]
2(R/(n -1))
x 2 + y2
exp[-jnk 0 d 0 ]exp[jk 0
]
2(R/(n -1))

Where
constant pphase factor

EXERCISE 2.4-2
Double-Convex
D
bl C
L
Lens. Show
Sh that
h the
h complex
l amplitude
li d
transmittance of the double convex lens shown in Fig. 2.4-8 is
given by
You can prove this by cascaded of two planconvex lense.

EXERCISE 2.4-4
Imaging Property of a Lens. Show that a paraboloidal wave
centered at the point P1 (Fig. 2.4-10) is converted by a lens of
focal length f into a paraboloidal wave centered about P2 ,
where 1/z1+1/z2=1/f . (imaging equation)

Diffraction Gratings
A diffraction grating is used to periodically modulate the
phase or the amplitude of the incident wave.
It can be classified into

Transparent diffraction grating:

Transparent plate:
periodically varying thickness
periodically graded refractive index
Repetitive arrays of diffracting elements such as apertures,
obstacles, or absorbing element are used.

R
Reflection
fl ti
diffraction
diff ti gratings:
ti
Fabricated by use of periodically ruled thin films of aluminum that
have been evaporated onto glass substrate
substrate.

First-order
Zero-order

Incident
light wave

Incident
light wave

m = 1 First-order
m = 0 Zero-order

First-order

(a) Transmission grating

m = -1 First-orde

(b) Reflection grating

(a) Ruled periodic parallel scratches on a glass serve as a transmission grating. (b) A
reflection grating. An incident light beam results in various "diffracted" beams. The
zero-order diffracted beam is the normal reflected beam with an angle of reflection equal
to the angle of incidence.
incidence
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Diffraction grating made of a thin transparent

plate

A diffraction grating made of a thin transparent plate placed

in the z = 0 plane
The thickness varies periodically in the x direction with
period
In the paraxial approximation (>>)

i: angle of incident wave

q: angle of diffraction wave
q = 0, 1, 2, 3, :
diffraction order

Thin diffraction gratings without paraxial

approximation

Without use of the paraxial approximation,

Diffraction gratings are used as filters and spectrum analyzers,

and numerous applications in spectroscopy.
The diffraction angle are dependent on the wavelength
polychromatic wave is separated by the grating into its spectral
components

Principle of superposition
Principle of superposition =>
u1(r, t) and u2(r, t) represent optical wave
=>
> u(r,
( t) = u1(r,
( t) + u2(r,
( t) represents
t a optical
ti l wave.
The resultant electric field at given place and time due to simultaneous action
of two or more sinusoidal waves is algebraic
g
sum of the electric fields of the
individual waves
(a)
(b)
(c)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Two waves with the same frequency,

frequency
amplitude and phase

Two waves with the same frequency,

q
y,
amplitude and but or 180 phase
difference

Phasors diagrams
Shows the electric field components and can be
used to find the resultant magnitude of the
electric field
The sinusoidal wave can be represented
graphically by a phasor of magnitude Eo rotating
about the origin counterclockwise with an angular
frequency
q
y
E1 = Eo sin t
It makes an angle of t with the horizontal
axis
i
E1 is the projection on the vertical axis
The second sinusoidal wave is
- E2 = Eo sin (t + )
It has the same amplitude and frequency as E1
but having phase with respect to E1

Phasor Addition of Waves

The resultant is the sum of E1
and E2
ER rotates with the same
angular frequency
Thee projection
p oject o of
o ER aalong
o g the
t e
vertical axis equals the sum of
the projections of the other two
vectors

E p = E1 + E 2
= E sin(t) + E sin(t + )
= E R sin(t + )

If the two waves have the same wavelength and

different initial phase 1 and 2

y A1sin (

y Im[ A1e

i ( 1 )

ft 1 ) A2 sin (

A2 e

i ( 2 )

Im[e i ( A1e i1 A2 e i2 )]

ft 2 )
x
if 2 ( ft )

Im[e i ( ) ( A1e i1 A2 e i2 ) / e i ]

Im[( A1e i1 A2 e i2 ) / e i ]Im[e i ( ) ]

Bsin( )
B Im [( A1e i1 A 2 e i 2 ) / e i ]

A1 sin 1 A 2 sin 2
sin

x
y Bsin2 ( ft ) ]

Conditions for Interference

To observe interference in light
waves, the following two conditions
mustt be
b met:
t
1) The sources must be coherent
()
They must maintain a constant
phase with respect to each
other
Two light bulbs in a lamp do
not demonstrate a
superposition
2) The sources should be
monochromatic ()
Monochromatic means they
h
have
a single
i l wavelength
l
h

Youngs Double-Slit Experiment: Schematic

Thomas Young (1801) first
demonstrated interference in light
waves from
f
ttwo sources in
i
The source pass through a
pinhole=> limit the number of
emitters in the source (establish
spatial coherence)
Th
The narrow slits
li S1 andd S2 act as
sources of waves
The waves emerging from the slits
g
from the same wave
originate
front and therefore are always in
phase

Diffraction and inteference

From Huygens
Huygensss principle we know the wavelet spread out from the slits
This divergence of light from its initial line of travel is called diffraction

Constructive interference =>

> the amplitude of the resultant wave is
the sum of individual wave

Destructive interference =>the amplitude

p
of the resultant wave is less
than that of either individual wave

Measurement of the wavelength of light

Youngs experiment => measurement the wavelength of light.

The path difference, , is found

from the tan triangle

y
dy

d
L
L

This assumes the paths are

parallel
Not
N t exactly
tl true,
t
but
b t a very
good approximation if L is
much greater than d

= r2 - r1 = d sin

Interference from three Slits

Maximum

Secondary maxima

I1=|E1+E2+E3|2=

I2=|E1+E2+E3|2

=|E+E+E|=9E2

=|E-E+E|=E2

Phasor Diagrams
Assume three equally spaced slits, the fields are:
E1 = Eo sin t
E2 = Eo sin (t + )
E3 = Eo sin (t + 2)

Primary
y maxima
the maximum value of field 3E0
at = 0, 2, 4 ...
Secondary maxima
the value of filed E0, occur when the wave
from one slit exactly cancels the wave from
another slit,.

I1=|E1+E2+E3|2=
=|E+E+E|=9E2

at = 0, , 3 ...

Total destructive interference

occurs when the wave from all the slits form a
closed triangle, the field at P has a value of 0.
at = 0, 2/3, 4/3 ...

I2=|E1+E2+E3|2
=|E-E+E|=E
|
| 2

Three Slits, Phasor Diagrams

Primaryy maxima

Secondaryy maxima

destructive interference
M i
Maxima
=> k=m
k
2
2
=> =m = d sinm=0,1,2,3
Minima => k=m 2/N

Multiple-Wave interference
Equal amplitude and phase

E () = I 0 eit (1+ eik + ei2k + L + ei(M-1)k )

= I0 e
M

M =

it

M-1

ink

n =0

(r e ik )

n
2
M
r
=
(1
+
r
+
r
+
L
+
r
)

n=0

= M -1 + r M
= 1 + r M -1
M 1
1 r M
M 1 (
) rn
1 r
n 0
iM k
iN k /2
-iM k /2
iM k /2
1
e
e
(e
(
e
)
i t
E () = I 0 e i t (
)
=
I
e
0
1 - e ik
e ik /2 (e -ik /2 - e ik /2 )
i[ t + (M -1 )k /2 ] sin (M k /2 )
= 0 e
sin (k /2 )

Maxima => k=m 2

sin(Mk / 2) 2
I ( ) I0 (
)
sin(k / 2)

=m = d sin
Minima => k=m 2/M

As the number of slits increases

increases, the primary
maxima increase in intensity and become
narrower

As the number of slits increases, the secondary

maxima decrease in intensity with respect to the
primary maxima
There are M-1 minima between adjacent
principle maxima. There are M-2 minor
1
maxima
0.75

0.5

0.25

3 2

Interference of M wave with Equal amplitude

and Equal phase Differences
At maxima (=2)
Imax=M
M2I0
Mean intensity

sin(M / 2) 2
I ( ) I0 (
)
sin( / 2)
2

I (1/ 2 ) Id
Id MI0
The peak intensity is
T