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Module 2: Resistance
2.2.2 E.m.f and p.d.
(a) Define potential difference (p.d.);
Potential difference is the electrical energy transferred per unit
charge when electrical energy is converted into another form
of energy
(b) Select and use the equation W = VQ;
(e) Solve circuit problems involving series and parallel circuits with one
or more sources of e.m.f.;
(f) Explain that all sources of e.m.f. have an internal resistance;
Internal resistance is the resistance of the material in which
the e.m.f. source is made of and this resistance increase
over the life of the source.
(g) Explain the meaning of the term terminal p.d.;
Terminal p.d. is the potential difference measured when a
voltmeter is connect to each terminal of an e.m.f. source
such as a battery.
v=f
(a) State typical values for the wavelengths of the different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to -rays;
Wavelength
Radio Waves: 10-1 104 m
Microwaves: 10-4 10-1 m
Infrared: 7.4x10-7 10-3 m
Visible light: 3.7x10-7 7.4x10-7m
Ultraviolet: 10-9 3.7x10-7m
X-rays: 10-12 10-7m
Gamma rays: 10-16 10-9m
(b) State that all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a
vacuum;
2.4.3 Interference
(c) Explain the terms interference, coherence, path difference and phase
difference;
Coherence: two sources are coherent if they have the same wavelength and
frequency and a constant phase difference
Path difference: the amount by which the path travelled by one wave is
longer than
Interference: The resultant displacement of waves
(d) State what is meant by constructive interference and destructive
interference;
Constructive: the resultant the crests of 2 waves at a single point in
time
a laser light is shone through a double slit of known spacing, after the light
passes through the double slit the 2 waves show an interference pattern Dm
away from the slits on a screen
using a ruler measure the distance x between the 2 nearest similar fringes.
and use the equation = ax/D to find the wavelength
(k) describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of
light (the structure and use of a spectrometer are not required); repeat
young's double slit experiment with more slits and use equation (dsin)/n =
to find wavelength
(l) select and use the equation dsin = n;
d= spaces between slits theta = angle between 0 and 1st order n = order of
spectrum
(m) explain the advantages of using multiple slits in an experiment to find the
wavelength of light.
The fringe pattern is shaper with more slits so it is easier to measure the
distances between fringes.
(g) define and use the terms fundamental mode of vibration and harmonics;
Harmonics: Whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency of
a stationary wave
Fundamental frequency: lowest frequency of in harmonic series
where a stationary wave is
formed
(h) determine the speed of sound in air from measurements on stationary
waves in a pipe closed at one end.
1)place a hollow tube in a measuring cylinder full of water
2) use a tuning fork of known frequency to tap the hollow tube.
3)hold tuning fork above tube. the sound wave go down the tube and
are reflected at the surface of the water to create a node
4)move the tube up and down and repeat step 1-3 until you find the
shortest distance at which the fork resonates at.
E = Energy of a photon
h= Planck constant - 6.63 * 10-34
c= speed of light = 3 x108
= wavelength
(d) define and use the electronvolt (eV) as a unit of energy
Electronvolts (eV) are used to measure very small amount of energy.
One Electronvolt is the energy of charge in an electron when it
moves through a potential difference of 1 volt.
W=VQ
1eV = 1JC-1 1.60 10-19C = 1.60 10-19 J
(e) use the transfer equation for electrons and other charged particles;
(f) describe an experiment using LEDs to estimate the Planck constant h using
the equation
(no knowledge of semiconductor theory is expected).
LEDs come in different colours so can be used to determine Planck
constant.
Each Electron that passes through the LED loses a fixed amount of
energy. Energy lost by electron = charge on electron p.d. across
LED = eV so
Or eV = hf.
1. A variable p.d. is connected to the LED
2. The p.d. is increased from 0 until it begins to glow (this p.d. is
recorded).
3. The experiment is repeated using different coloured LEDs (which
emit light with different frequencies).
graph is plotted
5. The gradient is the Planck constant (h)
The clean metal surface emits electrons when Ultraviolet light is shone on
it.
The electrons are called photoelectrons.
The gold leaf electroscope measures the charge/change in charge.
(b) explain that the photoelectric effect provides evidence for a particulate
nature of electromagnetic radiation while phenomena such as interference and
diffraction provide evidence for a wave nature;
In the photoelectric effect:
The intensity had no effect on the maximum energy (but the number of
photoelectrons increase), which contradicts light is a wave as in waves
intensity if proportional to kinetic energy.
Below a certain frequency the photoelectric effect doesn't occur, in waves
it should occur regardless of light
(d) state that energy is conserved when a photon interacts with an electron;
(e) select, explain and use Einsteins photoelectric equation
Einstein's equation is derived from the principle of conservation of energy. He
believed that the energy in the UV (hf) hitting the metal plate release electrons
from its atoms and any remaining energy is converted to kinetic energy.
So:
photon energy = energy to release electron (work function) + kinetic energy of
electron
Some kinetic energy gained by the electrons are lost through collisions with
other electrons, some electrons don't collide and end up with maximum kinetic
energy.
(1/2 mv2)
max
= hf - graph
(f) explain why the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons is independent of
intensity and why the photoelectric current in a photocell circuit is proportional to
intensity of the incident radiation.
The intensity doesnt effect the kinetic energy as it only increases the number of
photoelectrons however the photoelectrons still have the same amount of kinetic
energy in lower intensities.
(d) explain that the diffraction of electrons by matter can be used to determine
the arrangement of atoms and size of nuclei.
De Brogile diffraction shows atomic spacing, it can be also used to
determine the structure of matter. The speed of the electrons could be
increased which decreases the wavelength so smaller values of d could
be taken. High speed electrons can determine the arrangement of
atoms in crystalline structures and measure the diameter from the
nucleus.
2.5.4 Energy levels in atoms
(a) explain how spectral lines are evidence for the existence of discrete energy
levels in isolated atoms, ie in a gas discharge lamp.
There are dark lines in the Sun's spectrum called spectra lines, they are
missing frequencies. Discharge lamps contain hot gases like hydrogen
and also have spectra lines. Spectra lines show absorption and
emission of photons. Each element has its unique line spectra.
and
E1= Energy level electron has left.
E2= Energy level electron moves to
Emission spectra from hot solids
Solid's don't have spectra lines and there is less emission than
the sun at the violet end of the spectrum (as the violet end
correlates to energy and the sun is quite hotter and has more
energy).
Sun Intensity - Wavelength graph
Sunlight has maximum intensity in the green part of the spectrum and
radiates UV.
Solids maximum intensity occurs towards the red end of the spectrum and
does not radiate UV.
Hot solids produce continuous spectra while gases produce line spectra.
As atoms are close together in solids and they interfere changing the
energy levels. This creates energy bands so there's a variety of energy
which means many different wavelengths and a continuous range of
colour.
Absorption spectra
In the sun there are many elements. Some elements absorb some
wavelengths of light which makes the electrons move from a lower
energy level to a higher one. The opposite of emission.
Absorption spectra from stars
The absorption spectrum of a star contains information about the
elements in the star (including the sun). For stars which produce
wavelengths longer than wavelengths observed on earth are redshifted. Edwin Hubble recognised some stars had spectra slightly out of
balance and concluded stars are moving away. So the universe is
expanding this supports the 'Big Bang Theory' matter and energy were
once concentrated in a dense state and expanded for billions of years.