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In
this
experiment
we
investigated
the
following
properties
of
a
resonant
circuit
consisting
of
an
inductor,
a
capacitor
and
a
resistor
(LCR):
1. The
voltage
response
of
the
LCR
to
the
falling
edge
of
a
square
wave-
We
analyzed
transients
obtained
for
5
different
resistances,
paying
particular
attention
to
the
change
in
transient
behavior
with
resistance.
2. The
impedance
response
of
the
LCR
to
sinusoidal
signals
of
varying
frequency-
By
identifying
the
resonant
frequency
we
determined
the
unknown
inductance
to
be
0.124H.
This
value
was
used
to
calculate
the
capacitance
in
the
signal
filtering
circuit
we
constructed.
3. Using
the
resonance
of
the
LCR
to
separate
a
Morse
code
signal
from
electrical
noise
(signal
filtering).
2 Introduction
The
behavior
of
an
LCR
circuit
in
Figure
1
is
one
instance
of
a
system
present
in
numerous
contexts,
such
as
the
damped
motion
of
a
mass
hanging
from
a
spring.
The
same
form
of
differential
equation
characterizes
the
behavior
of
both
systems,
and
hence
their
behavior
is
essentially
the
same,
though
the
physical
quantities
involved
are
different.
!!!
!"
!"
2
In
order
to
characterize
the
given
system,
we
vary
the
voltage
input
using
certain
test
inputs.
First
we
determine
the
voltage
response
of
the
system
to
an
impulse
input;
next
we
study
the
impedance
response
of
the
system
using
various
sinusoidal
inputs.
Finally,
we
use
the
knowledge
gained
to
build
a
signal
filtering
system,
which
can
be
used
to
separate
messages
from
noise
picked
up
during
transmission.
3 Theoretical background
4 Experimental background
Our
primary
goal
is
to
observe
the
hysteretic
properties
of
three
materials
mild
steel,
transformer
iron
and
a
Cu/Ni
alloy.
Consequently,
we
require
a
way
of
plotting
the
behavior
of
flux
density
B
within
these
materials,
versus
magnetizing
force
H.
This
is
achieved
through
the
circuit
in
Figure
.
The
voltages
!
and
!
are
measured
by
the
oscilloscope
probes
and
displayed
as
!
versus
!
on
the
oscilloscope
output.
! !
! =
!
! !
! =
!
where
!
-
Number
of
turns
in
primary
coil
!
-
Number
of
turns
in
secondary
coil
!
-
Cross
sectional
area
of
secondary
coil
!
-
Length
of
primary
coil
Since
these
quantities
are
constants,
the
graphs
of
!
against
!
and
of
B
against
H
are
equivalent.
Accordingly,
with
the
use
of
appropriate
scale
factors
on
the
!
and
!
axes,
the
hysteretic
energy
loss
can
be
calculated
as
the
area
enclosed
in
the
loop
of
the
!
-!
graph.
The
flux
density
B
and
magnetizing
force
H
are
related
by
= ! !
,
where
!
generally
varies
with
H.
For
air
! =1,
and
therefore
for
an
air
cored
secondary
coil
! ! ! !
! =
= !
! ! ! !
!! !! !! !!
!! !! !!!
Our
measurements
of
these
quantities
are
tabulated
in
Table
1
Quantity
!
!
!
!
!
!
Value
241 2 10!! !
4.314 0.002 10!!
400
500
2.2
9.852 0.001
959.7 0.1
Accordingly,
we
obtain
= (6.75 0.06)10!!
Sample
Radius/m
Cross sectional
Area/
Mild
steel
Transformer
iron
Cu/Ni
alloy
(0.164 0.001)10!!
(84.5 0.1)10!!
(30.2 0.4)10!!
(204 16)10!!
(0.255 0.001)10!!
Each
sample
is
inserted
into
the
secondary
coil,
and
the
hysteresis
loop
seen
on
the
oscilloscope
display
is
plotted
on
graph
paper
with
the
axes
scaled
as
follows
= ! !
= ! !
Where
!
! =
= 4160
! !
and
!
! =
!
A
is
the
cross
sectional
area
of
the
sample
inserted
into
the
secondary
coil.
The
values
of
!
are
tabulated
below
in
Table
3.
Table
3
values
for
the
three
samples
Sample
Mild steel
2.24
Transformer iron
6.26
Cu/Ni alloy
0.926
5 Discussion
5.1 Determination of
In
Section
4.2
we
found
that
our
two
measurements
of
did
not
agree
within
the
bounds
of
experimental
error.
We
identified
the
following
sources
of
error-
To
calculate
the
Area
of
the
secondary
coil
we
required
measuring
its
radius.
Accordingly
we
measured
the
radius
of
the
coil
cavity
using
a
pair
of
Vernier
calipers.
However,
we
note
that
the
cross
section
of
the
coil
probably
looks
like
Figure
,
and
so
in
measuring
the
cavity
radius
we
have
not
actually
measured
the
effective
radius
of
the
coil.
An
improved
procedure
would
have
been
to
measure
both
the
cavity
radius
and
the
radius
of
the
entire
coil,
and
include
the
effect
of
this
range
in
the
error
in
! .
In
our
calculation
of
we
used
! = 2.2 ,
as
this
was
its
recorded
value.
We
attempted
to
verify
this
in
the
following
ways-
First
we
measured
!
on
the
bridge
while
the
resistor
was
still
hot
and
found
! = 2.1992 .
Second
we
measured
!
in
the
active
circuit
with
a
pair
of
multimeters
to
measure
the
current
through
it
and
the
voltage
across
it.
This
process
yielded
! = 2.23 .
Thus
we
found
a
range
in
the
value
of
!
which
was
not
taken
into
account
in
our
calculations.
3. Uncertainty in
We
took
the
values
of
!
and
!
to
be
400
and
500
respectively.
We
note,
however,
that
these
are
nominal
values,
and
expect
the
true
values
to
be
slightly
different.
Due
to
the
casing
around
the
coils
we
are
unable
to
directly
measure
these
quantities,
and
so
are
unable
to
calculate
a
plausible
error
in
them.
Of these three errors we believe our uncertainty in determining the radius of the
10
secondary
coil
to
be
the
most
significant
error
in
our
calculation
of
.
Secondly, we are unable to precisely control the temperature of the water bath
well enough to observe hysteresis variations over the small range of a few
degrees.
11
12
6 Conclusions
We
set
up
the
LCR
circuit
in
Figure
1
and
observed
its
transient
response
for
5
resistances.
By
increasing
the
resistance
we
changed
the
transient
from
underdamped
to
overdamped,
demonstrating
that
resistance
is
indeed
the
damping
effect
in
this
system.
The
steady
state
impedance
response
of
this
LCR
network
was
investigated
for
a
range
of
sinusoidal
input
frequencies.
We
repeated
this
using
R=1.5k
and
R=4.0k,
and
determine
that
damping
reduces
the
strength
of
resonance.
From
the
results
of
the
impedance
response
experiment,
it
was
concluded
that
the
0.5k
resistor
produced
the
sharpest
resonance
peak.
This
was
deemed
a
desirable
property
for
the
signal
filtering
system
that
was
designed
Section
4.4
We
successfully
built
a
signal
filtering
circuit,
matching
the
resonant
frequency
to
the
message
frequency
at
5.0
kHz
and
selecting
the
resistance
corresponding
to
the
sharpest
resonance
peak.
This
setup
separated
the
Morse
code
from
the
noise
adequately,
such
that
the
message
could
be
detected
and
decoded.
7 References
1. NST Part IA Physics Practicals Class Manual, Lent term 2011, pp30-35.
13
.
Although
the
magnetization
vector
alignment
is
slight
for
a
general
weak
field,
much
stronger
fields
induce
a
magnetization
parallel
to
the
field.
When
a
small
magnetic
field
is
applied
to
a
piece
of
polycrystalline
material,
the
domain
walls
shift
slightly
and
so
domains
with
more
favorable
magnetizations
grow
larger.
This
growth
is
reversible
as
removing
the
magnetic
field
would
restore
the
initial
magnetization
state.
However,
for
stronger
fields,
the
shifting
of
the
domain
walls
involves
interaction
energy
with
the
crystals
impurities.
For
particular
field
strength,
the
domain
wall
may
get
stuck
at
such
an
impurity,
and
can
only
move
past
if
the
field
is
raised
further.
Thus
the
motion
of
the
domain
wall
is
not
smooth
as
for
a
pure
crystal,
being
rather
jerky
instead.
When
a
domain
wall
moves
past
one
impediment,
it
moves
quickly
into
the
next,
and
so
produces
rapidly
changing
magnetic
fields
inside
the
material.
These
changing
fields
produce
eddy
currents
in
the
crystal
that
lose
energy
by
heating
the
metal.
Secondly
a
domain
change
alters
the
dimensions
of
a
crystal,
setting
up
a
small
sound
wave
that
carries
further
energy
away.
As
a
consequence
of
these
energy
losses,
when
the
external
field
is
made
zero,
all
the
domains
do
not
return
to
their
initial
states,
and
so
the
iron
block
retains
some
magnetization.
This
magnetization
can
be
reduced
by
increasing
the
external
field
in
the
opposite
direction.
The
magnetization
follows
the
curve
in
Figure
.
It
can
be
seen
that
after
the
material
is
initially
magnetized,
it
retains
magnetization
whenever
the
external
field
goes
to
zero.
The
area
under
the
resulting
loop
is
proportional
to
the
energy
loss
per
unit
volume
per
cycle.
Energy
losses
during
the
process
of
magnetization
result
in
retention
of
magnetization
even
in
when
the
external
field
is
zero.
This
phenomenon
is
magnetic
hysteresis.
Crystals
of
magnetic
materials
such
as
iron
contain
domains
of
particular
magnetizations,
separated
by
domain
walls.
The
precise
arrangement
of
domains
within
a
crystal
depends
on
a
balance
of
a
number
of
energy
factors
involving
stresses
due
to
magnetostriction,
domain
wall
energy,
and
the
energy
in
the
materials
magnetic
field
itself.
The
crystals
goal
is
to
reach
an
energy
minimum,
and
consequently
a
stable
condition.
(is
explaining
the
nature
of
the
domain
walls
really
relevant
to
the
main
text?)
On
application
of
an
external
field
to
such
a
crystal,
its
domain
walls
shift
to
increase
the
size
of
domains
whose
magnetization
is
more
favorable
to
the
field.
This
alignment
is
slight
for
a
general
weak
field,
but
for
much
stronger
fields
the
magnetization
becomes
parallel
to
the
field.
14
Our
secondary
goal
is
to
evaluate
and
assess
the
errors
present
in
a
physical
measurement.
This
is
done
in
Section
by
testing
the
following
relationship
between
!
and
! .
! ! ! ! !
! =
!
! !
Explanations
and
derivations
of
these
quantities
are
given
in
Appendix
We
want
to
look
at
hysteresis
loops,
and
so
we
need
a
way
of
measuring
B
and
H.
The
circuit
in
Fig
is
used
throughout
the
experiment.
Part
A
and
B
of
the
circuit
are
connected
only
through
the
magnetic
flux
between
the
primary
and
secondary
coils.
The
alternating
voltage
supply
creates
a
time
varying
magnetic
field
through
the
primary
coil,
which
induces
an
emf
in
the
secondary
coil.
! ! !
This
voltage
passes
through
the
integrator
to
produce
! ,
such
that
! = !! !!
!! !
Similarly
the
voltage
in
part
A,
! = ! !! !!
,
! ! !
15
!! !! !! !! !!
!! !! !
The
oscilloscope
displays
!
against
! ,
which
is
essentially
a
graph
of
B
against
H,
where
H
is
the
magnetizing
field
and
B
is
the
magnetic
field
inside
the
core
of
the
primary
and
secondary
coils,
as
!
and
!
are
proportional
to
B
and
H
respectively.
! !
! =
! ! !
! =
! !
!
The
graphs
in
Figures
3
and
4
show
the
systems
transition
from
underdamped
to
overdamped
with
increasing
resistance.
Underdamped motion
For
resistances
of
65.1
and
502.1,
the
system
clearly
oscillates
more
than
once,
allowing
us
to
determine
their
oscillation
periods
to
be
532.0s
and
537.0s.
This
is
in
agreement
with
the
theoretical
prediction
that
the
period
of
oscillation
should
increase
with
resistance.
We
later
calculated
the
time
periods
!!"
using
the
formula
= !!
to
be
568.6
and
578.2
respectively.
The
time
!
!! !
period
was
calculated
using
the
picoscope
program
by
taking
the
difference
between
two
markers
placed
on
successive
crests.
The
placing
of
the
markers
could
be
the
source
of
error
which
resulted
in
the
~40s
difference
between
theoretical
predictions
and
experimental
readings.
A
better
method
would
possibly
have
been
to
place
the
markers
at
points
where
the
oscillation
was
zero.
For
R=1.5k,
only
a
single
oscillation
occurred.
The
period
of
this
oscillation
(467.9s)
was
much
lower
than
the
theoretical
prediction
of
679.1s.
However
it
is
possible
that
the
second
zero
on
the
graph
was
produced
by
the
exponential
term
going
to
zero
rather
than
the
cosine
term.
This
would
result
in
one
underestimating
the
period
as
we
have
done
in
the
experiment.
The
half-lives
decreased
with
increasing
resistance,
as
expected
from
the
!"#!
theoretical
prediction
! = ! .
However
it
is
hard
to
confirm
this
trend
as
!
Overdamped motion
16
The
system
is
clearly
overdamped
for
resistances
of
10k
and
100k,
with
half-
life
increasing
with
resistance.
As
the
system
was
underdamped
at
R=1.5k
and
overdamped
at
R=10k,
we
conclude
that
the
resistance
producing
critical
damping
is
in
the
region
1.5k < R < 10k.
We
expect
LCR
systems
with
low
resistances
to
produce
a
strong
and
narrow
resonance
peak.
As
the
resistance
is
increased
the
damping
in
the
LCR
becomes
more
significant,
and
subsequently
its
resonance
peak
becomes
shorter
and
flatter.
This
effect
is
clearly
illustrated
by
the
three
graphs
in
Figure
6.
The
LCR
network
is
only
lightly
damped
when
R=0.5k,
and
so
it
produces
a
tall
and
narrow
resonance
peak.
However
when
the
resistance
is
raised
to
1.5k,
only
a
small,
flat
resonance
peak
can
be
observed,
shifted
to
the
left
of
the
previous
peak.
For
R=4k,
the
circuit
is
so
heavily
damped
that
there
is
no
observable
peak;
in
fact
the
circuit
barely
resonates
and
Z /!
decreases
to
zero
with
increasing
frequency.
These
observations
played
an
important
role
when
we
built
our
signal
filtering
LCR
system,
as
explained
Section
5.3
17
Figure
1:
Signal
filtering
LCR
system
We
connected
the
filter
to
the
coaxial
cable
and
set
up
the
picoscope
as
instructed
on
pg34
of
the
lab
manual
[1].
We
decoded
the
Morse
code
using
the
key
on
pg35
of
the
lab
manual
[1].
The
message
was
MISSION
OVER.
18