Inlet Swirl Distortion

CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
TURBOMACHINERY
INLET SWIRL DISTORTION:

THE GROUND VORTEX ON ROTOR 67
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
MSC THERMAL POWER (GAS TURBINE TECHNOLOGY OPTION)
MSC THESIS
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2010-11
Author:
Darshan Jitendra Mehta
Supervisors:
Dr. Vassilios Pachidis
Mr. R. Tunstall
Mr. B. Moore
Mr. G. Warnes
Cranfield
UNIVERSITY
UTC Gas Turbine Performance Group

Power and Propulsion Department
JANUARY 2010
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Science
Cranfield University 2005. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced without the written permission of the copyright owner
Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Vassilios Pachidis
INLET SWIRL DISTORTION:

THE GROUND VORTEX ON ROTOR 67
By
Mehta, Darshan
Submitted to the Department of Power and Propulsion
on January 2011, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Abstract
From
last five decades, with increasing adequacy of turbofan engine usage a

problem of inlet flow distortion has came up with a serious issue. The developing
technologies in propulsion systems of the military aircrafts and UAVs are providing an
unpredictable manoeuvrability which provoked an issue with flow angularity at the inlet.
Evermore, the increasing by-pass ratio in order to catch best performance from the engine in
terms of SFC and efficiency has identified saviour cases of ground vortex ingestion either in
terms of performance or FOD. In addition, intensive pressure fluctuations have also
dominated towards the risk of blade resonance.
The SAE-16 Turbine Engine Inlet Flow Distortion Committee has shown very
intense efforts in development of the methodologies to tackle such non-uniformities.
However, the aim of this project is to contribute in developing methodology for the inlet
swirl distortion. For this purpose it is necessary to expand the current knowledge on swirl
descriptors with the aid of adequate simulations. Herein, one geometry of a transonic fan
Rotor 67 which have been investigated since half a year was planned to be investigated with
different tightly-wound vortices.
The Rotor 67 was found to be operating with deficit in flow field near to the hub.
This was identified by investigating all the flow passages and blade span distribution of the
properties at design point operation which came up with resulted redistribution of the flow
and swirl as well. The hub position of the vortex was found to be the most sensitive location
on this fan rotor. However, the interaction of low energy region and swirl radial distribution
has created a complex flow field and has revealed out very interesting flow phenomena.
Definition of a newly introduced swirl descriptor seems to be adequate in terms of
accounting the radial engine swirl sensitivity. Though the resulted curves from the improved
ring distribution with the use of all four descriptor has lead to analyze the acceptability of the
developed methodology which promised to give agreement to the future work. Nonetheless,
the more in depth study is needed for proper development of the methodology which
correlates the CFD simulations with swirl descriptors in terms of pressure ratio surge margin
loss.
Keywords: Compression system, swirl distortion, swirl descriptors and loss in stability pressure ratio.
LIST OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
NOMENCLATURE
1 INTRODUCTION1
1.1 Project aim and objectives...3
1.2 Inlet Flow Distortion...3
1.2.1 Definition of the problem4
1.2.2 Inlet Swirl Distortion...5
1.3 Different types and sources of swirl...6
1.4 Effect on engine performance...11
1.5 Swirl descriptors14
1.6 Chapter summary...19
2 LITERATURE REVIEW..20
2.1 Historical case studies of inlet swirl distortion.20
2.1.1 Tornado aircraft experience...20
2.1.2 Tomahawk cruise missile sideslip experience...21
2.1.3 Lift fan experience.21
2.1.4 Thrust-reverser experience23
2.1.5 Auxiliary power unit (APU) experience24
2.2 Detailed study Ground vortex ingestion problem..25
2.2.1 Current knowledge about the formation27
2.2.2 Empirical model to predict vortex circulation...31
2.3 Previous CFD analysis of inlet flow distortion Rotor 67..36
2.3.1 Inlet swirl distortion as a boundary condition...40
2.3.2 Other numerical schemes to account for inlet flow distortion...42
2.4 Compression system instabilities: Rotating stall and surge inception...44
2.4.1 Definition of the problem..44
2.4.2 Modelling capability: Stall inception and prediction46
3 METHODOLOGY.48
3.1 Understanding of the previous CFD model Rotor 67.48
3.1.1 Geometry specification..49
ii
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.1.2 Mesh generation50

3.1.3 Turbulence model selection...51
Ground vortex model: The ground vortex problem..53
An approach to the CFD simulations54
3.3.1 General procedure explanation..54
3.3.2 Imposition of the boundary condition Ground vortex56
Study of clean case Rotor 67..58
Swirl descriptors calculation.61
Chapter summary...61
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.....63

4.1 Analysis of the CFD simulations..63
4.1.1 Contour plots.63
4.1.2 Compressor/fan maps...68
4.1.3 Orbit maps: Analysis of an operating point..74
4.1.4 Span-normalized charts A proposal for the new post-processing
CFD technique..76
4.2 Analysis of swirl descriptors.80
4.2.1 Swirl descriptors calculation.81
4.2.2 Engine sensitivities calculation An independent solution.....83
4.2.3 An importance of the generic Equidistance ring distribution
at the AIP.87
4.3 Acceptability analysis of the developed methodology90
5 CONCLUSIONS.95
REFERENCES...97
APPENDIX A...102
APPENDIX B105
APPENDIX C...106
APPENDIX D...108
APPENDIX E110
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
(a) An example of current design trend for intakes NACA scoop flush [1]
(b) Ingestion of ground vortex during thrust reversal [1]
(c) Ingestion of ground vortex during static operation [ Keith Blincow]
Definition of swirl angle [1]
Bulk swirl distribution with projected velocity vector along a ring [5, 1]
(a) Bulk swirl generation by large externally generated vortex into the inlet [1]
(b) Bulk swirl generation (internally) in plenum style inlet in cross wind [1]
Bulk swirl generation (internally) in a S-shaped duct [1]
Paired swirls distortion pattern [1]
Paired swirls formation in a duct bend [1]
Cross flow swirl patter and typical lift-fan [1]
(a) Ground vortex ingestion during thrust reverser operation [3]
(b) Tightly-wound vortex sucked from fuselage [3]
Stability margin definition [1]
Larzec-04: Distorted speed lines (by swirl distortion) [11]
Effect of bulk swirl on compressor characteristics [6]
Effect of pure bulk swirl on compression system characteristic [1]
Velocity diagrams showing the effect of swirl distortion, as a change in
incidence at rotor leading edge, at constant radius and constant axial speed [1]
Identification of positive and negative swirl extents [1]
Swirl directivity range [5]
Spectrum for swirl pairs [1]
Methodology for the assessment of engine stability [3]
Tornado aircraft with side mounted S-shaped inlet duct [1]

Free-jet test setup for Tomahawk cruise missile [1]
Dual fan characteristic for fan in wing configuration [1]
(a) Fan-in-wing section view [1]; (b) JSF lift fan (installed) [1]
Reverser test (B52/J29D): Inlet distortion vs. Ground speed [8]
Inlet distortion during thrust reverser (C-141/TF33) [8]
APU installed at tail cone of Airbus A300 [16]
(a) Complex vortex problem with multiple engines [20]
(b) Flow pattern for thrust reverser operation
Vortex formation characteristics map [21]
(a) Sucked streamlines in streamtube [17]
(b) Formation of vorticity over stagnation point [18]
(c) Elements of ground vortex inception [17]
iv
2.11 Atmospheric boundary layer [21]

2.12 Formation and ingestion of vortex lines [21]
2.13 Velocity profile for crosswind condition [21]
2.14 Vortex topology for crosswind condition [21]
2.15
Swirl velocity distribution of known vortex model and its agreement with
experiments [23]
2.16 Vatistas vortex model [24]
2.17 Algorithmic flow chart for the calculation of vortex circulation [21]
2.18 Vortex pattern change with the transition in wind condition [21]
2.19 (a) Rotor 67 geometry [25], (b) station designation for experiments [25]
2.20 (a) Shock wave system at near-peak efficiency point [25]
(b) Shock wave system at near-stall point [25]
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
(a) Near-stall points according to tip gap distance - Rotor 67 [28]

(b) Characteristic maps for diff. tip gap distance: Pressure ratio [29]
(c) Characteristic maps for diff. tip gap distances: Efficiency [29]
Spanwise distribution [25, 27, 28]: (a) Total Pressure ratio
(b) Total temperature ratio
Integral performance [25, 27, 28]: (a) Total pressure ratio,
(b)Isentropic efficiency
[14]
(a) Geometry , (b) Effect of downstream coupling [33]
Meanline theory [34]
Parallel compressor theory [6]
(a) Turbine engine analysis comp0ressor code (TEACC) [36]
(b) Meridional view of the model [36]
Compressor instabilities: Characterized by respective pressure rise feature [37]
Compressor instabilities: Three typical patterns [37]
(a, b) Zero-slope criterion principle [37],
(c) Unsteadiness growth vs. flow coefficient [38]
Geometry Rotor 67 [3]

(a) Mesh throughout the blade [3], (b) Mesh at mid span [3]
Flow domain Rotor 67
Geometry of Rotor 67 Full annulus [3]
Depicted methodology to calculate the circulation [3]
New coordinate system [3]
Axis transformation of the vortex model [3]
V plot ground vortex at mid span position [3]
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
Validation of the CFD model: (a) Compressor pressure ratio map [3]
(b) Compressor efficiency map [3]
Validation near stall point: (a) Span distribution of pressure ratio [3]
(b) Span distribution of temperature ratio [3]
Flow chart of the work distribution for Rotor 67
Developed methodology
Hub position of the co-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
contour, (b) Vorticity contour
Mid position of the counter-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
Tip position of the co-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
Hub position of the counter-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
contour, (b) Vorticity contour [3]
Mid position of the co-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
Tip position of the counter-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
Depiction of relative rotating direction of the vortex and vortex content, in
comparison with compressor rotation: (a) Co-rotating vortex at 25% of blade
span (hub positioned vortex), (b) Counter-rotating vortex at 50% of blade span
(mid positioned vortex), (c) Co-rotating vortex at 75% of blade span (tip
positioned vortex)
Compressor/fan maps with inlet swirl distortion co-rotating vortex at hub
position: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Compressor/fan maps with inlet swirl distortion counter-rotating vortex at mid
Compressor/fan maps with inlet swirl distortion co-rotating vortex at tip
Distorted speed lines from: co-rotating vortex at hub, mid and tip positions
Distorted speed lines from: counter-rotating vortex at hub, mid and tip positions
Definition of the orbits
Orbits map vortex at hub: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Orbits map vortex at mid: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Orbits map vortex at mid: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
LE and TE definition for the span-normalized charts: (a) LEs (b) TEs
Span-normalized charts for the case of co-rotating vortex at hub position
vi
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.28
Span-normalized charts for the case of counter-rotating vortex at mid position

Span-normalized charts for the case of co-rotating vortex at Tip position
Span normalized chart from extended polylines for the case of hub position of
the co-rotating vortex
Three dimensional plot of swirl angle distribution for the case of vortex located at
hub position [3]
Distribution of swirl descriptors (for 200 rings) in radial direction Ground
vortex in crosswind configuration: (a) Swirl intensity, (b) Swirl directivity, (c)
Swirl Pairs, (d) Swirl radial intensity
Radial swirl engine sensitivity for the cases of vortex location at hub, mid and tip
Depiction of flow field when vortex is at tip: (a) Co-rotating, (b) Counterrotating
Depiction of methodology that is used to correlate the results from CFD
simulations and swirl descriptor calculation, to find KSIradial
Depiction of old ring distribution that varies with location of the vortex core
Depiction of new ring distribution that is independent of location of the vortex
core
4.29 Max of sum of SRI according to the improved ring distribution

4.30 Comparison of two different ring distributions in terms of KSIradial
4.31 Grid chart for the strategic prediction of KSIradial to find PRS
4.32 Radial swirl engine sensitivity for the cases of vortex location at hub, mid, tip
and lower_mid (a new location)
4.33 Depiction of the vortex at lower_mid position
vii
LIST OF TABLES
1.1
Possible surge margin engine technical specification [4]
2.1
Major specifications of Rotor 67 [27]
3.1
3.2
Grid dependency study [3]

Selected parameters for CFD simulation [3]
4.1
Resulted PRS from different investigated cases
4.2
4.3
Results of the acceptability analysis in accordance with SAE standards

Results of the acceptability analysis in accordance with developed methodology
(which include radial swirl descriptor)
viii
NOTATION
General
b
c
CC
CR
D
DC60
EX
F
H
int
KC
KR
KS
KSI
KSD
KSP
n
PAV
PFAV
SS
SI
SD
SP
SRI
SFI
P
p
PR
Pressure
r
SC60
SM
Step
U
V
yplus
W
Superposition function
Constant
Circumferential total pressure distortion offset coefficient
Radial total pressure distortion offset coefficient
Diameter
Total pressure distortion descriptor
Extent function
General purpose function
Inlet height from the ground
Integer function
Circumferential pressure distortion engine sensitivity
Radial pressure distortion engine sensitivity
Sector swirl distortion engine sensitivity
Swirl intensity distortion engine sensitivity
Swirl directivity distortion engine sensitivity
Swirl pair distortion engine sensitivity
Mass flow
Vatistas shape factor
Area-averaged total pressure
Face-averaged total pressure
Sector swirl
Swirl intensity
Swirl directivity
Swirl pair
Swirl radial intensity
Face-averaged swirl intensity
Total pressure
Static pressure
Pressure ratio
Total pressure distortion function
Radius
Swirl distortion descriptor
Surge margin
Square wave function
Axial component of the velocity vector, equivalent to Vx
Velocity Vector
Dimensionless wall distance
Velocity in the relative reference of the frame
ix
PRS
(
)
(
)
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
amb
AV
c
C
i
crit
in
l
LOW
max
R
P
PS
radial
rel
s
surge
v
x
Loss in stability pressure ratio

Total pressure distortion circumferential intensity
Total pressure distortion radial intensity
Swirl angle
Yaw angle
Circulation
Axial cosine director
Air kinematic viscosity
Rotor loading coefficient
Aerodynamic loading coefficient
Swirl angle extent
Circumferential cosine director
Atmospheric conditions
Average
Vortex core
Circumferential distribution
Critical condition vortex blow-away
Ring index
Inlet
Intake highlight
Region of low pressure
Maximum
Radial distribution
Total pressure distortion related to the interaction of total pressure
and swirl
Radial direction
Relative frame of reference
Swirl distortion
Surge conditions
Circumferential direction
Related to the vortex core
Axial direction
Condition far upstream
x
Superscripts
+
*
Positive content
Negative content
Non-dimensional variable
Abbreviations
DP
HPC
LE
TE
LES
LPC
SPIV
RANS
RMS
TEACC
Design point
High pressure compressor
Leading Edge
Trailing Edge
Large Eddy Simulations
Low Pressure Compressor
Stereoscopic Particle Image Velocimetry
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes Equations
Root Mean Square
Turbine Engine Analysis Compressor Code
xi
xii
Dedicated to,
My mom, dad and my
fianc..
I want to thank my parents who have given me breath of their
soul to keep me lighting and happy.
I want to thank my colleagues who stand beside me on every
way.
I want to thank my Guru Dr. Vassilios Pachidis who helped
me throughout the project and of course throughout my
masters degree. I sincerely thank to Ahad who has kept me
fired whenever I needed to be ignited. I thank to Domenico who
helped me to clear the base of fundamentals for this research
work.
Special Thanks to,

Alex
Tao
Darshan Mehta
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
This research project addresses the specific study area of aircraft inlet swirl
distortion. A structured methodology is presented to emphasize and characterize
different steady state swirl distortion in particular format with a set of swirl descriptors
and the correlation of these descriptors with loss in stability pressure ratio. The current
industrial methodology to assess the effect of non-uniform intake flows on
fan/compressor is based on the circumferential and radial variations in total pressure at
the engine inlet. Engine tests are carried out with specific amounts of circumferential
and radial distortion and combination in such a way that can enable to develop a
methodology which can equate the loss in surge margin. An assessment in this way has
proven adequate for long time particularly for the intakes with low curvature and
resulted low swirl levels.
With increasing stealth requirements for military aircrafts, the reduction in
overall intake size has been of greatest importance in order to hide the engine face. This
has been resulted in shorter and highly offset intakes. The prolonged modification has
come out with greater duct curvature which is a crucial leading factor for significant
swirl, such as concentrated vortices induced by bend separations during straight-level
flight and bulk swirl during sideslip. In addition with that, current efforts to reduce
engine noise and specific fuel consumption with increment in bypass ratio have
provided a likelihood of ground vortex.
The industry has not meet the esteemed possible approach in assessing the
influence of swirl on gas turbine engines, in term of the loss of stability pressure ratio
the identified pressure ratio as a stability limit. The use of IGVs has mitigated the risk
resulting from swirl by optimization of compression system efficiency and operation
capabilities. In this way, swirl component can be taken out before entering the rotor
with some bearable loss coefficient. On the contrary, some combat and transportation
aircrafts are found to be non-compatible in coupling of the IGVs with engine.
The poorly understood phenomena of the swirl distortion compared with the
total pressure distortion can lead to hazardous results in terms of costs and risks as
coupled with unexpected problems those are related to swirl. In example, the Tornado
aircraft suffered with loss of surge margin, significantly. As resulted from, two kinds of
flow separation mechanism during subsonic and supersonic flights in combination with
Inlet Swirl Distortion
Page: 1
higher incidence angle and sideslip angle. Another example of project TP400 had
experienced high levels of swirl even after modifications those were done to counteract.
During a rig test when a bulk swirl generator was placed upstream, the amount of loos
in surge margin had been detected due to bulk swirl. The more detail study of these
consequences in these particular case and some other cases are sighted in 2.1.
The SAE S-16 committee have recognized this and have published a summary
of knowledge to couple with the proposed swirl characterizing parameters which can
allow indentifying of unique swirl patterns. However, these parameters and
methodology has not been validated, yet.
(a)
(c)
(b)
Figure 1.1: (a) An example of current design trend for intakes NACA scoop flush [1]
(b) Ingestion of ground vortex during thrust reversal [1]
(c) Ingestion of ground vortex during static operation [ Keith Blincow]
The Ground Vortex on Rotor 67
Page: 2
1.1
Project aim and objectives
The aim of this research thesis is to analyze the effect of swirl distortion on
engine performance and hence, to develop and improve the database of current
knowledge of influence of swirl on Turbomachinary. For this, a task was assigned to
carry out a parametric study that will assess the effects of different types of swirl
distortion, particularly ground vortex, on the performance of NASA Rotor 67. And for
the same, following objectives have been intended to be completed throughout.
1. Literature review of the Inlet flow distortion and existing CFD modelling
methods for the same.
2. Familiarization with CFD tools. Such as ANSYS CFX and TURBOGRID, in
order to be capable for the further investigation on ground vortex cases.
3. Understanding of the vortex model that had been created by previous researcher
as a part of boundary condition.
4. To complete the simulations of ground vortex cases with proper implementation
and use of the Rotor 67 geometry and ground vortex boundary condition.
5. To predict compressor performance from post processing and by capturing main
flow field effects of inlet swirl distortion.
6. To elaborate the current knowledge of swirl descriptors and its correlation with
loss in stability pressure ratio.
7. To suggest upon necessity for any modification in methodology of CFD
technique and its establishment in correlating swirl descriptors according to the
present topology.
1.2
Inlet Flow Distortion
In this section, the fundamental definition of inlet flow distortion is given with
typical focus on relatively new problem of swirl distortion. Different types and sources
of swirl have been emphasized in order to understand the behaviour of each type of
swirl. That is followed with major effects of swirl on engine operability, which defines
a proper way for engine/inlet compatibility investigation. Moreover, swirl descriptors
are defined thoroughly as this assessment is crucial to check the proper correlation of
these descriptors with loss in stability pressure ratio.
Page: 3
1.2.1 Definition of the problem

Inlet flow distortion can be defined as an uneven distribution of flow
properties at inlet of the engine, which is caused by engine orientation and aircraft
ambient airflow conditions during different flight modes. Basically, there are three types
of inlet flow distortion as described below,
1. Swirl distortion
2. Pressure distortion (static or total)
3. Temperature distortion
The most common one type of inlet flow distortion is pressure distortion.
Which can be simply defined as pressure variation or uneven pressure distribution
across inlet surface caused by the same as stated in definition of inlet flow distortion.
The magnitude of pressure variation from average pressure and the location of this
variation, radial and circumferential, are the dominant factors which make the engine to
experience variation in surge margin [2]. It has been encountered during high speed
operation at supersonic speed and in aircrafts with high manoeuvrable thrust vectoring.
At instances, total pressure distortion which has been extensively investigated by the
SAE S16 committee [2]. While during the development of Harrier, issue of static
pressure distortion had been of major concerned [4].
The temperature distortion is an effect of circumferential extent, magnitude and
rate of change in, inlet temperature, on the compressor system stability margin. HP
compressor is more sensitive to this type of inlet flow distortion. The main variable
which affects on engine stability margin is the magnitude for spatial temperature
distortion and the rate of change for time dependent temperature distortion.
The reader may have already inferred that the main purpose of this work is to
develop the current methodology for assessing swirl distortion. Unfortunately, total
pressure distortion cant be decoupled from this scenario [3]. In general total pressure
and swirl distortion appear as a single problem, interacting in a non-linear fashion [5].
Furthermore, total pressure distortion cases had been used in order to validate the CFD
results [3]. These seems the valid adoption to being focused on two types of distortion:
total pressure distortion and swirl distortion at preliminary stage of investigation. The
SAE S16 committee has shifted their focus on the new type of inlet flow distortion,
because of the advent of current complex inlet shapes fitted fighter aircrafts. The move
toward aircrafts with stealthier inlets has been provoked to reduce the radar detection.
And hence, the presence of a flow angularity at the face of inlet of an engine has gained
importance. As stated earlier, the aim of this study is to analyze the effect of swirl
distortion, a more detailed perspective of the problem is given in 1.2.2.
Page: 4
1.2.2 Inlet Swirl Distortion

Many gas turbine installations can produce swirl in the engine compressorinduction system. The swirl can be manifested as a measurable parameter that is flow
angularity regarding to inlet duct. Flow angularity can be simply defined as, the
deviation between the local velocity vector and a normal to the aerodynamic interface
plane (AIP). The combination of radial and circumferential components of the flow
angle is defined as the total flow angle. According to the SAE S16 report: AIR5686, the
engines which do not use IGVs can be directly affected by circumferential component
of the velocity vector (as flow incidence angle), on rotor blade airfoil section and that
can strongly affect the loading and work of a downstream component fan or
compressor[1]. This is due to the fact that a change in incidence angle either increasing
or decreasing influences blade loading.
According to the current trend of more aggressive inlet shapes and wrapped
inlets for turboprops have raised the problem of ground vortex ingestion and also the
necessity to develop a structured approach to address swirl.
There are twelve different types of swirls have been identified yet. However,
accounting with the swirl distribution criterion; only four different types of swirls have
been defined yet. The characterization of these four swirls is based on the parameter
called, Swirl angle. According to the eq. (1.1) and figure (1.2), the swirl angle can be
defined at a point as the circumferential angle of flow from the axial direction and it is
considered to be positive if it coincides with the direction of fan or compressor rotation.
= 1
(1.1)
Figure 1.2: Definition of swirl angle [1]

The detailed description of the types and sources of these four swirls is in 1.3.
Page: 5
1.3
Different types and sources of swirl
In this section typical four types of swirl have been described, which is purely
based on the characteristic of the swirl pattern. According to characteristics of the swirl,
inlet configuration and the physics behind generation it can be classified into as many
as dozen different categories [1]. This section concludes the brief introduction about the
mechanism for compression system degradation by means of swirl distortion. In the
following subsection four categories has been grouped for swirl:
1. Bulk Swirl
2. Paired Swirl
3. Cross-Flow Swirl
4. Tightly-Wound Vortex
As discussed in 1.2.2, this characterisation is described in terms of swirl angle
. The swirl pattern is representative of the distribution of swirl angle over the AIP [1].
1. Bulk Swirl
When entire flow approaching to the compressor is rotating in one direction
about the rotational axis of the compressor, is called bulk swirl. There are two more
sub-categories for bulk swirl which are classified on the basis of the rotation of entire
flow about the compressor rotational axis. The same direction of entire flow as
compared with the compressor rotational axis is called co-rotating bulk swirl.
Conversely, the opposite direction is recognized as counter-rotating bulk swirl. An
example flow field (upstream of a compressor) resulting from bulk swirl is illustrated in
figure (1.3).
Figure 1.3: Bulk swirl distribution with projected velocity vector along a ring [5, 1]
Page: 6
A number of mechanisms either external or internal to the inlet can generate

bulk swirl. In example, pitot style inlet can externally generate a large vortex shown in
figure (1.4-a), which can be a source for the generation of bulk swirl.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.4: (a) Bulk swirl generation by large externally generated vortex into inlet [1]
(b) Bulk swirl generation (internally) in plenum style inlet in cross wind [1]
An internally generated bulk swirl is shown in figure (1.4-b), what represents
the generation in geometry of air induction system together with inlet flow condition.
The inlet featuring with S-shaped duct can also internally generate bulk swirl, the
mechanism can be easily understood from figure (1.5). Such inlets can be found in some
centrally engine mounted commercial aircrafts, cruise missiles and fighter aircrafts.
Figure 1.5: Bulk swirl generation (internally) in S-shaped duct [1].

Page: 7
2. Paired Swirls
A most common type of swirl is paired swirls. The distribution of swirl angle
from ring to ring is shown in a figure (1.6), as a sinusoidal wave. In this case, the source
of vorticity can be depicted as the boundary layer formation that causes velocity
gradient along the inlet.
Figure 1.6: Paired swirls distortion pattern [1]

The mechanism for this generation of velocity gradient can be explained well
by considering the figure (1.7). A bend (see figure 1.7-A) shows that static pressure
increases as radius of turn increases to balance the centrifugla forces at outer wall and
hence velocity decreases. In cotrarory, static pressure is lower at inner wasll with
Page: 8
increase in velocity. As velocity vary from maximum at the core and zero at the wall,
creates non-uniform momentum distribution. These fact cause the core flow to be
deflected towards outside of the bend. Now, combination of the deflection and high
velocity core region sets up the secondary flow and hence paired swirls, see figure 1.7B.
Figure 1.7: Paired swirls formation in a duct bend [1]

Another source for this typical formation is plenum-style inlets those are
usually used in APU installation. In fact several authors adapted that such inlets are
capable of creating different paired swirls patterns, with different strength and altered
predominance of one of the swirls [3, 5-7]. It seems also quite notable with the change in
sign of sinusoidal pattern from hub to tip, due to certain radial distribution.
3. Cross-Flow Swirl
Cross flow swirl can be differentiated from paired swirl by looking at the
sinusoidal distribution of the pattern, see figure (1.8). It is simply spectacular that no
change of sign along the radial positions.
Very short and straight inlet ducts such as fan in wing configuration,
experience cross flow during forward flight conditions. The latter cause a flow to turn
around by 90 degrees and create swirl distribution. The main characteristics of such type
of swirl is that increased incidence with advancing blades and decreased incidence with
retracting blades. The latter may provoke a hysteresis effect due to the change in
incidence as the blade rotates around the annulus [3]. Some inlets like wrapping one
Page: 9
which are used in turboprop/turboshaft inlets (as shown in figure 1.1), tends to generate
swirl that is as same as cross-flow swirl.
Figure 1.8: Cross flow swirl patter and typical lift-fan [1]
4. Tightly-Wound Vortex
Tightly-wound vortices are highly dynamic by location-wise and strength-wise.
It is compact in nature and extremely difficult to be measured, they can be generated by
several mechanisms. The elements which contribute in formation of such vortices are: a
flow-sink, a stagnation point and vorticity in the flow field. From figure (1.9), it can be
depicted that the formation can occur on the ground or over the fuselage. Not only is the
high-level angularity in the flow that is intrinsically present at vortex core, but the sharp
deficit in total-pressure is also the main concern for the formation. The latter was
suggested to be the cause for surge during thrust reversing operation [8-10].
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.9: (a) Ground vortex ingestion during thrust reverser operation [3]
(b) Tightly-wound vortex sucked from fuselage [3]
The detailed description for the phenomena is in 2.2.
Page: 10
1.4
Effect on engine performance
The influence of inlet flow distortion on engine performance ranges from

operability issue to mechanical issue. An issue of limitation for transient performance
can appear from the former fact and an issue of blade resonance can appear from the
former fact latter fact. The former effect appears only with loss in stability pressure
ratio, particularly when distortion is at the engine face. Thoroughly, the shift of stability
line is the main aim of this study. Consequently, the effect on downstream component
can be inferred. Moreover, the generation of hot-spots within the compression system
resulting from flameout or the changes in turbine engine performance, can also be seen
afterwards.
The definition of the loss in stability pressure ration can be given in two
different ways:
Constant corrected airflow: Ease in coupling the compression system and

intake for the engine stability assessment is the main advantage of this
definition.
Constant rotor speed: The rig test of compressor is very likely to be done
at constant rotational speed. As with the throttling, the movement of the
measured point takes place from choking to stalling condition.
With the consideration of corrected airflow, the mathematical expression for

the loss in stability pressure ratio which is related to the loss in surge margin can be
seen in eq. (1.2) and its depiction in figure (1.10). The assumption for no change in
operating point for distorted condition has been intrinsically adapted for this definition.
1
= 1 100
1
= 100
(1.2)
Figure 1.10: Stability margin definition [1].
Page: 11
Lets look into one of the cases; a Larzec-04 engine was used for the swirl
distortion test by [11] to obtain the running line as shown in figure (1.11). The figure
allows one to infer that the effect of swirl distortion is nearly negligible in comparison
with clean speed line. This small change in running line is related to the fact that
downstream components are primarily affected by the distortion.
Figure 1.11: Larzec-04: Distorted speed lines (by swirl distortion) [11]
The other side effects by inlet swirl distortion other than a lower surge
margin as a global performance effect are listed as follows,
Change in incidence angle: The reader may have inferred that the effects
resulting from the bulk swirl can either be to increase or to decrease an
incidence angle of the blade, which is purely dependant on the relative
direction of the compressor rotation. It is easy to understand from the figure
(1.12), (1.13) and (1.14) that co-rotating swirl implies to the flow condition
with lowered incidence and hence results in lower pressure ratio and lower
corrected mass flow with the shift of speed line to the downwards and to the
left. Whilst, in the case with counter rotating bulk swirl, whole phenomena
is opposite. The movement of speed lines with bulk swirl cases of 5 degree
and 10 degree can be seen in figure (1.12) and (1.13).
Complexity in patterns: The effects of distorted cases with another swirl

patterns paired swirls, cross-flow swirl and tightly-wound vortex on
Page: 12
engine performance have not been figured out yet, and hence making this
present research work with ground vortex cases much more motivating.
Figure 1.12: Effect of bulk swirl on compressor characteristics [6]
Figure 1.13: Effect of pure bulk swirl on compression system characteristic [1]
According to [7], surge can be occurred by itself from inlet swirl distortion.
However, the effects of bulk swirl had been totally understood and very less
information is available in public domain about the effects from other swirl patterns.
Page: 13
The more detailed view about the change in incidence angle in the cases of co and
counter-rotating bulk swirls are given in figure (1.14).
Figure 1.14: Velocity diagrams showing the effect of swirl distortion, as a change in
incidence at rotor leading edge, at constant radius and constant axial
speed [1]
1.5
Swirl descriptors
As mentioned in the previous section that displacement of the surge line is one
of the main effects of inlet swirl distortion on engine performance and operability. In
fact, the surge margin loss that is associated with effects of distortions is the highest in
the list, as presented in table (1.1).
The main challenge of the airframe/engine integration is to build a propulsion
system, that enables the flight envelop with secure provision of stability limit. Mainly,
the stability assessment involves the characterisation of the points from the flight
envelop for distortion of highest levels. This can be accomplished by ground testing,
particularly by assessing whether the propulsion system needs modification or not. The
definitions for some kind of threshold values are needed in order to have a measurement
of the distortion pattern (quantitatively) below which the operation of the engine can be
done in a safe manner. This scenario justifies the necessity of swirl descriptors as a way
to define the flow field ahead of the compressor face. Moreover, the introduction of the
swirl descriptors allows establishing a correlation with loss in stability pressure ratio.
Page: 14
The method to define these swirl descriptors is based on ring-by-ring

consideration at the AIP (aerodynamic interface plane). The positioning of such plane is
required to be done in a manner that inlet flow distortion should not change by it
reaches to the compression system; this term was introduced by the S-16 committee. By
considering the phenomena of flow redistribution, this definition does not seem feasible
[3]
. Actually, this redistribution of the flow enables the compression system to operate
when subjected to large inlet flow distortion extents [12-14].
Table 1.1: Possible surge margin engine technical specification [4]

The detailed description for these swirl descriptors are given in the following
subsection. Firstly, the description starts with classical approach, continued with SAE
S-16 committee proposal together with previously introduced new descriptor by [3].
Lastly, the proposed correlation is detailed.
1. SC60
This is a more classical swirl descriptor for the case of swirl distortion, SC60 (eq.
(1.3) [15]). The simplicity of the definition is raising the question about the
capability to depict the flow distribution by this descriptor [3].
60 =
max ( )
2. The SAE S-16 committee approach
(1.3)
These swirl descriptors were firstly introduced by [5], with definition of three
descriptors and two sub-parameters. Before proceeding with the definitions of swirl
descriptors, one parameter that creates the base for descriptors is needed to be
defined.
Swirl extents (circumferential swirl distortion elements): These parameters identify
the positive and negative annular regions over the ring. Figure (1.15) and eq. (1.4)
Page: 15
enable the definition of this parameter, the swirl extent with positive content is
known as + (theta plus extent) and swirl extent with negative content is known as
- (theta minus extent). These extents are classified when swirl angle changes sign.
The measurement of swirl angle for a typical paired swirl at ith ring, at AIP for 360
degree complete revolution, can be found in figure (1.15).
+
= 2 1
= 3 2
(1.4)
Figure 1.15: Identification of positive and negative swirl extents [1]

(a) Sector swirl: This descriptor classifies quantitatively the average positive swirl
+
content as and the average negative swirl content as , at a given
radial ring at AIP.
(1.5)
(b) Swirl intensity: This descriptor represents the predominant absolute

circumferential swirl angle for each ring.
(1.6)
(c) Swirl directivity: This descriptor identifies the generalised direction of the
swirl rotation with respect to the compressor rotation, the value that shows the
Page: 16
directivity ranges from -1 to +1. The spectrum for the variation in this
parameter is given in figure (1.16).
(1.7)
Figure 1.16: Swirl directivity range [5]

(d) Swirl pairs: This descriptor stands for the indication of the number of pairs,
related to the change in positive and negative swirl direction. The spectrum
given below shows that it ranges from 0.5, which is indicated for pure bulk
swirl. One thing should be noted that swirl pairs indicating parameter can
exceed the unity for the cases of multiple-per-rev.
(1.8)
Figure 1.17: Spectrum for swirl pairs [5]

(e) Swirl radial intensity: The reader may have noticed about the comments to
account the new swirl descriptor throughout the analysis that was proposed by
the previous researcher [3]. Basically, this descriptor provides the broad
prospectus to enhance the depiction of the effects of swirl distortion on
compression system. CFD results those had obtained in previous work (on
Rotor 67) justifies the necessity for this descriptor as it clarifies the name itself
Page: 17
of having different responses with the change in the radial position of the vortex
[3]
. The mathematical equation for this new descriptor appears in eq. (1.9).
(1.9)
Although the fact of having a new descriptor which is purely independent of
the number of rings that has been used to capture the flow field at the AIP, the proper
distribution of the rings throughout the face is very important. Especially, the concerned
issue of having a proper distribution of the rings may necessitate the redefinition of the
distribution criteria. The more detailed analysis is given in 4.2.
Swirl descriptors are still far away on the way of validation to be done as
compared to the total pressure descriptors. Interestingly, this is a one of the objectives
that has been anticipated to be achieved in this research work, as well as verification.
For this purpose, it is worth to mention that complex swirl patterns such as ground
vortex (from the class of tightly-wound vortices those have complex swirl distribution)
requires a proper measure of the radial distribution (SRI) and hence proper distribution
of the rings at the AIP.
The correlation given below in eq. (1.10) shows the consideration of the swirl
distortion and total pressure distortion together. Hence, eq. (1.10), accounts both
problems and moreover, the non-linear interaction with each other as well. There are
two different approaches in accordance with SAE committee for the definition of the
second term in eq. (1.10). Those are given below in eq. (1.11).
(1.10)
(1.11)
However, by introducing a new swirl descriptor which was proposed by

previous researcher the second approach from eq. (1.11) becomes eq. (1.12). This also
indicates the introduction of a one unknown KSIradial.
(1.12)
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To create a structured methodology for calculation of the sensitivities, a

comprehensive and consistent database of the experimental tests is needed. Nonetheless,
the flow of the procedure that needs to be conducted for such analysis is given in figure
(1.18). The dashed boxes in figure indicate the main objectives of this research work
and it anticipates the contribution for the development of the methodology, which is
mentioned above.
Figure 1.18: Methodology for the assessment of engine stability [3]
1.6
Chapter summary
Most of the fundamental theories were provided in this chapter which may
have cleared the vision of the reader. The definition of the problem and the
consequences those may arise during engine operation in such condition will be more
focused in the next chapter. The final section with swirl descriptors was explained to
understand different swirl patterns and this will magnify the way of its correlation with
pressure ratio surge margin loss and will provide better understanding in chapter of
results and discussion. However, the main focused area of this research work is only to
investigate the effects of ground vortex on compression system that is generated from
the crosswind condition. Thoroughly, as an effort to create the foundation of this
research work all necessary topics have been covered in this chapter.
Page: 19
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The key elements of the methodology development are sited in this chapter,
which will give the clear understanding to the reader and clear vision about the problem
of inlet swirl distortion. This chapter comprises five sections, exploring the ideas those
were proposed by other researcher.
2.1
Historical case studies of inlet swirl distortion
As discussed in introduction of chapter-1, the unstructured approach to swirl

distortion can lead to hazardous results in terms of costs and risks as coupled with
unexpected problems those are related to swirl. In order to illustrate the need of
considering the swirl while operability assessments, six case studies what demonstrated
the substantial effect of swirl on engine operation is presented in following subsections.
2.1.1 Tornado aircraft experience

The Tornado is a fighter bomber aircraft with two engines fitted with a pair of
S-shaped horizontal turning diffuser ducts on both sides. The engines are RB 199
without IGVs. The engine/inlet compatibility was tested with total pressure distortion at
the AIP. That was steady state and instantaneous distortion. In result, the distortion
coefficients were found to be under allowable limits.
Figure 2.1: Tornado with side mounted S-shaped inlet and bulk swirl generation [1]
Page: 20
During some full-scale tests at different flight speeds; the port (pilots left)
engine was found to be surged consistently at subsonic flight speeds with high angle of
attack and the starboard (pilots right) engine at supersonic flight speed with zero angle
of attack [1]. The increased loading of the left side engine and decreased loading of the
right side engine, due to bulk swirl (co/counter) and total pressure distortion can be seen
in figure (1.19). The modification was done to reduce the bulk swirl generation and the
instabilities were corrected.
2.1.2 Tomahawk cruise missile with sideslip experience

The Tomahawk cruise missile has a turbofan engine with low bypass ratio and
without IGVs (F107-WR-402). Air intake was fitted at the bottom with an S-band in the
vertical plane as shown in figure (1.20). While conducting the free-jet tests, an
asymmetric nature with sideslip angle (positive and negative) was found as engine
instability. During some inlet variability test, the manufacturing variations effect was
analyzed and response of the engine was same rather than the randomly change in
inlets.
Figure 2.2: Free-jet test setup for Tomahawk cruise missile [1]
The similarity in the behaviour of instabilities of Tomahawk with Tornado led
to the conclusion of effect of bulk swirl [1]. Accounting the test results, the modification
was done in Adoptive Throttle Management (ATM) algorithm to ride out the
instabilities.
2.1.3 Lift Fan experience

The VSTOL (vertical short take off and landing) aircrafts with fuselage or
wing mounted vertical lift fans can experience cross flow swirl distortion, when relative
wind possesses velocity component that is normal to the fan axis. In such condition, fan
experiences dual effect (increment and decrement in loading) as per the advancing and
retracting blades. This produces dual fan characteristics as shown in figure (2.3). Such,
Page: 21
asymmetric (according to rotational axis) disk loading may generate oscillatory thrust
during transition flight and even structural damage.
Figure 2.3: Dual fan characteristic for fan in wing configuration [1]
Two case studies were done by previous researchers for this problem. The one
was involved with the fan-in-wing configuration and the other was involved with JSF
lift fan. The geometries for both of the cases are shown in figure (2.4). As a result from
both analyses, cross flow swirl distortion is found to be influencing on the performance
of the engines. The cross flow swirl distortion is the most sever type distortion for the
transition mode flight.
(b)
(a)
Figure 2.4: (a) Fan-in-wing section view [1]; (b) JSF lift fan (installed) [1]
Page: 22
Afterward, with the analysis of the ground tests and results, the risks were
reduced by employing the static inlet especially for the hover flight condition. That is
required to be followed with full aircraft ground tests and flight tests.
2.1.4 Thrust reverser experience

For many years, the engine surges have occasionally been experienced during
thrust reverser operation in assistance of aircraft breaking (after landing). This issue was
analysed extensively by [8-10]. His investigation, revealed the fact of having a vortex into
the inlet air steam. Furthermore, a severe pressure distortion (due to vortex ingestion)
was found to be the predominant cause of surge while thrust reverser operation instead
of temperature distortion. Motycka listed comprehensive results, as conditions those
could cause surge due to a vortex in thrust reverser operation, as follows:
1. Motycka investigated on JT9D engine for thrust reverser operation on B-52
Flying Test bed. Thrust reverser was operated after 120 Kts speed of taxing
and stopped at surge or at 20 Kts, whatever took place first [8]. A part of the
results as pressure and temperature distortion is given below in figure (2.5)
that shows the vortex location. As the forward flight speed is lowered the
vortex core tended to move at the core of the flow and potentially resulting
for instabilities.
Figure 2.5: Reverser test (B52/J29D): Inlet distortion vs. Ground speed [8]
Page: 23
2. Another case for the thrust reverser experience was with Air Force C-141
aircraft. It was flown in 1971 with high response inlet-pressure
instrumentation. As shown in figure (2.6), very high levels of
instantaneous total pressure distortion were found during thrust reverser
operation [8].
Figure 2.6: Inlet distortion during thrust reverser (C-141/TF33) [8]
2.1.5 Auxiliary power unit (APU) experience

In the case with APUs, flow turning is usual in plenum chamber (often
incorporated in installation) and that is the potential cause for the generation of swirl. It
may happen during ground operation or flight. Such an example is JSCP 700-5 APU,
installed in Airbus A300 transport aircraft, at tail cone as shown in figure (2.7). The
inlet of APU was featured with flaps for ground and flight operations. Air is supplied to
the plenum chamber via inlet and flow turns as it is drawn from plenum chamber by
engine. A series of high-cycle-fatigue (HCF) failures of the compressor blades
prompted a study by [16]. Theoretical prediction revealed that blades were
aerodynamically excited at their natural frequencies. The investigation reported the
cause for this excitation as 40 degree swirl angle during ground operation and 50 degree
Page: 24
swirl angle during flight. The investigators notified the blade resonance to be generated
by the swirl pattern and modified the intake accordingly to reduce the flow angularity.
Figure 2.7: APU installed at tail cone of Airbus A300 [16]
2.2
Detailed study Ground vortex ingestion

problem
The ground vortex problem has being investigated since last five decades,
when proposals to extenuate the formation were suggested such as blow-away jet and
carried out on a DC-8 aircraft. This device was installed to guide bleed air to the region
just beneath the intake. In result, the solution was found much troublesome than the
problem itself; since the lifting of debris. It wasnt till coming of the turbofan when
propulsion engineers started to become more relevant to this phenomenon. As per the
fact, the use of high by pass ratios is more environmentally favourable and less noisy.
Nevertheless, the likelihood of ground vortex propagates with the rise in engine/intake
diameter. There are three major consequences of the ground vortex ingestion: 1) blade
Page: 25
resonance, 2) loss in stability pressure ratio and 3) foreign object damage (FOD). Just to
give an crude idea, the recommended height for the engine to avoid annoyance from
ground vortices is 2 diameters from the surface, typically for the operation on cleanhard surface [17].
Motycka [8] found that surge is the main consequence from reverser operation
by ingestion of strong ground vortices. After accomplishment of some flying bed tests
on C-141 and B-52 aircrafts, one of the main averment was found that ingestion of
ground vortex by core stream was more risky than one only from bypass stream. Three
main factors were reported to be most influencing on the distortion level: 1) power
setting, 2) reverse targeting and 3) the height of the engine from ground surface; by [9,
10]
. This prompted for the limitation of the thrust levels, particularly for the ground
operations. The more detail about these case studies is given in 2.1.4. In accordance
with the end of these experimental results, one more interesting result has been found by
Pratt & Whitney that was the proportionality of the vortex core radius with the inlet
diameter. It had been suggested that the inclination of increasing bypass ratio and hence
engine diameter would exacerbate the problem.
The problem with the debris (lifting) is one of the main reasons for the study of
ground vortex ingestion. It was stated by [18], the removal of 50% of engines from
aircrafts was due to direct or indirect deterioration from FOD. The industrial gas turbine
engines were followed with the solution of employing a filter at the front of the inlet.
But, it isnt feasible for the aircrafts as 2% loss in intake pressure recovery implicates a
loss of 15% to 40% of payload.
In the last, it was mentioned earlier about highly dynamic nature of such swirl
patterns. The blade resonance is also a major threat from the wavering pressure in a way
of matching with the natural frequency. The investigation was done by [19] on the vortex
for its unsteady behaviour, by means of LES. That enabled to capture the natural
frequency of the vortex.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.8: (a) Complex vortex problem with multiple engines [20]
(b) Flow pattern for thrust reverser operation
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Even though, the study detailed herein is mainly aimed for the vortex, which
persist between ground and inlet; and it seems to be more complicated to investigate the
cases with side by side mounted engine configuration. The researcher [20] had modelled
the whole aircraft with engines (mounted on wings) by use of unsteady RANS. The
flow becomes more complex, when ground vortices and horizontal vortices from
aircraft body (fuselage) and engines, both are taken into account (see figure (2.8))
2.2.1 Current knowledge about the vortex formation

There two main parameters which describe characteristics of the vortex: 1)
non-dimensional height and 2) velocity ratio. The former one (non-dimensional height
H/Din) defines the clearance between ground and the engine. The latter one is a
measurement of the streamtube contraction ratio, for the incompressible flow (eq. (2.1)).
(2.1)
At present, the map shown in figure (2.9) is a tool to avoid the vortex
formation. This chart shows the correlation between non-dimensional height and
velocity ratio and departs the regions of vortex occurrence and non-occurrence.
Figure 2.9: Vortex formation characteristics map [21]

Page: 27
Nevertheless, this map does not give any further indication about the other
factors which are important for the formation of vortex. With explanation of other
elements the better understand can be gained for the vortex origin. These are as follows,
1. Stagnation point: The shape of a sucked streamtube is cylindrical during cruise
flight mode. Nonetheless, the shape of this streamtube is tended to be distorted
as aircraft velocity lowers and it starts interacting with ground. Figure (2.10 (a))
represent the formation of streamline while aircraft is taxiing. The streamlines
from beneath location also contributes to the core mass flow that is sucked from
all directions and hence the formation of a point (stagnation point) with zero
velocity by counterbalance of streamlines can occur.
2. Vorticity: With consideration of the boundary layer effects, the curl of velocity
becomes distinct from null. In accordance with wind condition, it can be formed
by following sources: 1) Head wind condition: atmospheric boundary layer, 2)
Cross-wind or no-wind condition: the velocity gradient and 3) turn in the flow
before it enters into inlet.
3. Aircraft engine operation: A gas turbine engine is obviously the main
requirement for previous two elements. In fact, the inlet of an engine was
defined as, a big vacuum cleaner sucking air into the front fan, by [19]. There
are two mechanisms for the formation of the vortex those have been found by
previous researchers. The first one is pertaining to the head wind and no-wind
(quiescent) conditions and the other one is concerned to the crosswind condition.
In the head wind mechanism, the vortex formation is based on the
exaggeration of ambient vorticity. This phenomenon can be better understood
with the definition of a term vortex line. In concept, a vortex line is as same as
(a)
(b)
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(c)
Figure 2.10: (a) Sucked streamlines in streamtube [17],
(b) Formation of vorticity over stagnation point [18],
(c) Elements of ground vortex inception [17]
streamline a parallel line with vorticity vector (rather than velocity vector). In
the boundary layer, a velocity gradient behaves as a source for the creation of the
vortex line. Conservation of angular momentum (mr2) is one of the main
characteristics of it. The formation of vortex lines and its ingestion can be seen
in figure (2.11) and (2.12) that is resulting in the vortex inception at inlet.
Figure 2.11: Atmospheric boundary layer [21]

In no-wind condition, the formation of streamlines from all the
direction is the potential cause for vorticity. Especially, for the streamlines those
are being sucked from beneath of the engine has to turn for 90 degrees. Though
the vorticity was initially null, interaction of streamlines with ground is the cause
of vorticity formation.
Page: 29
Figure 2.12: Formation and ingestion of vortex lines [21]

In the crosswind condition, the mechanism for vortex formation is
little bit more complex. In this case, trailing vortex at the leeward lip also plays
an important role with formation of ground vortex (see figure (2.13) and (2.14)).
Figure 2.13: Velocity profile for crosswind condition [21]
Figure 2.14: Vortex topology for crosswind condition [21]

Page: 30
The source for the formation of vorticity is again velocity gradient, but
introduction of the tangential velocity component of the wind and hence yaw
angle also contributes in that. To note that as the yaw angle diminishes, the
crosswind mechanism will be partially offset by the headwind up to a certain
value below which the headwind mechanism becomes dominant [3]. An
interesting result was found by [22], vortex strength increases up to maximum
with decrease in velocity ratio and further decrement in velocity ratio results in a
fast reduction of vortex strength.
2.2.2 Empirical model to predict vortex circulation

One of the previous researchers, [21] had deeply investigated about the
formation of ground vortex and swirl pattern (formed by ground vortex). The
investigation was completed with the use of prototype of an intake at 1:30 scale and the
conditions for three types of ground vortex formation were analyzed. There were two
devices had been used to capture the flow field: 1) SPIV Stereoscopic Particle Image
Velocimetry and 2) Total-pressure measuring instruments.
For the CFD simulations, in order to analyse the problem of ground vortex; it
seems more complex and computationally demanding to simulate ground, the intake
and the fan. So, for the ease of modelling the enforcement of the vortex structure as a
boundary condition is quite attractive. In this way, an empirical model was established
to predict the vortex circulation which depends on the environmental condition of the
engine operation. However, the ascertainment of swirl distribution is also needed. For
this purpose ground vortices have been identified to fit well with known vortex models
such as Vatistas vortex model (see figure (2.15) and (2.16)).
Figure 2.15: Swirl velocity distribution of known vortex model and its agreement with
experiments [23]
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Figure 2.16: Vatistas vortex model [24]

The main benefit in selection of Vatistas vortex model is the suitability with
required swirl pattern. The irrotational behaviour of the vortex core can be depicted
easily from figure (2.16), and the legs of the vortex express the solution of the problem.
The vortex can be expressed in mathematical terms by eq. (2.2). As indicted in [17], the
neglection of radial velocity is due to its multiplication with kinematic viscosity of the
air.
(2.2)
There are two other parameters which need to be defined before proceeding
further to explain the model of vortex circulation prediction. Namely, vortex core radius
rc and shape factor n. The vortex core radius was selected as 6% of the intake
diameter and shape factor was taken as the unity. These values are based on the
previously carried experiments, explanation and experimental data base for those can be
found in [21].
(2.3)
(2.4)
As it was mentioned earlier, the key elements which characterize the ground
vortex are velocity ratio and no-dimensional height. Hence, it was considered as inputs
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for this method as the same parameters. The parameter Ucrit is denoted for the
particular value of velocity at which the vortex decreases rapidly and disappears (when
streamtube lifts up and detaches from the ground). The mass continuity phenomenon
can be used to find this velocity. To calculate this velocity, the non-dimensional height
and the ratio of the inlet diameter and highlight diameter must be known (eq. (2.4)).
After this the velocity at which the circulation peaks, Umax to Ucrit, can be related to the
empirical expression (eq. (2.6)). Another empirical relationship of Umax and related
maximum no-dimensional circulation can be found in eq. (2.6). As a final result the
combination of eq. (2.3) and (2.5) gives the value of non-dimensional circulation
according to the inputs. The whole procedure is depicted as summary in figure (2.17).
(2.5)
(2.6)
Figure 2.17: Algorithmic flow chart for the calculation of vortex circulation [21]
Page: 33
This method is limited to the headwind condition since yaw angle does not
exist in the formulation. In addition, over the velocity ratio of 19 the circulation
vanishes. Hence, for no-wind condition, it is acceptable to take the value of velocity
ratio as 20 at which circulation drops to the adequate magnitudes those are required for
this configuration.
With the use of more empirical relationships this procedure can be extended
further for crosswind condition. In order to accomplish this, firstly the distortion level
has to be calculated for a null yaw angle by use of eq. (2.7). Once after having this value
the distortion level for 90 degrees o yaw angle can be calculated from eq. (2.9). The
correlation amongst the value of DC60 at 90 degrees and the circulation can be seen in
eq. (2.10). Finally, for any definite value of the yaw angle other than 90 degrees the
circulation can be calculated from eq. (2.8).
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
(2.10)
The vortex model and the value of circulation are not only enough elements for
methodology, but also the number of vortices, its direction and characteristic of each
vortex mechanism are necessary to be considered. To account the topology of the flow
field for each vortex configuration, vortex visualisation was carried out by [21, 22]. The
main characteristics of such configurations are outlined below, as they are absolutely
essential in order to impose the correct phenomena as boundary condition.
No-wind: The swirl pattern for this condition is characterised according to its
unsteady behaviour that creates the complex flow field, as the streamlines
travelling from far (upstream and downstream, both) interact with each other. At
initial, two vortices rotating in opposite direction from each other (contra
rotating) are detected. Over the time, one of the vortices becomes dominant and
at this point the flow becomes steady or locked in this mode.
Page: 34
Headwind: Two contra rotating vortices with higher strength than the previous
ones are the characteristics of this configuration. The change in flow field in
accordance with velocity ratio and the direction of each mode is shown in figure
(2.18).
Crosswind: As compared with the case of headwind; when the wind has a
certain tangential velocity component, strength of the ground vortex formed in
this configuration may be three times higher. Moreover, as the lip separation
contributes in the formation of the vortex, the level of distortion becomes worse.
Nevertheless, the level of total pressure drop into the region of vortex is severer
than separation [21]. The worst case is presented crosswind configuration,
especially with the yaw angle of 90 degrees. The changes in circulation
according to the yaw angle can be fitted well with the use of sin3 trend.
Take-off and thrust reverser operation: The previous researcher [21]

had investigated about the effect of moving intake, by considering moving
ground and stationary intake. According to the swirl angle distribution, two
counter rotating vortices were consistently noted with the lower strength than
reported in the case of headwind configuration. Now for the case of thrust
reverser operation, investigation was done by [8] and enabled the depiction of the
flow field features. Over again the two vortices were found for ingestion into the
engine. In fact, this case is simply opposite to the case with take-off. The reverse
jets created by this condition act as strong tailwind condition and provides
likelihood for the vorticity. In spite of the fact that the values of circulation were
Figure 2.18: Vortex pattern change with the transition in wind condition [21]
not noted, the comparison of the total pressure drop can be made with other
database from [21]. As a result, the value of circulation can be predicted to be
little bit higher than in the case with headwind configuration. And furthermore,
it may be related to the level of tailwind during reverser operation.
Page: 35
2.3
Previous CFD analysis of inlet flow distortion

Rotor 67
Test cascade
Rotor 67 is the first-stage rotor of a two-stage transonic rotor that was designed
and tested at the Lewis Research Centre [26]. The data was collected along with 100%
speed-line by using aerodynamic probe and laser anemometer measurements. The major
specifications of the geometry and the flow field are given below in table (2.1).
Table 2.1: Major specifications of Rotor 67 [27]

The actual geometry of Rotor 67 can be seen in figure (2.19-a), and the
identified stations from where the experimental data was collected can be seen in figure
(2.19-b). The characterization of the flow field was done with the use of a shock wave
system and a tip leakage vortex. The main feature of this rotor design is the lower hub
to tip radius ratio that makes spectacular difference between the operating conditions of
hub and tip.
Total pressure and total temperature profiles were rendered (as the boundary
condition at the inlet) for the near-peak efficiency and the near-stall point. Though,
some researchers altered the boundary layer thickness to tune their results against the
experimental data.
Page: 36
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.19: (a) Rotor 67 geometry [25], (b) station designation for experiments [25]
Previous CFD assessments
Some flow field features and additional explanation for this geometry are
described below.
1. Shock wave: The change in the shock wave system can be seen from the nearpeak efficiency point to the near-stall point. For the near-peak efficiency point,
a lambda shock wave pattern is observed. The increased efficiency results from
the reduction in losses of a single strong normal shock and this happens due to
effect of a bow shock plus an in-package shock wave. For the case of the nearstall point, a trajectory followed by a single strong oblique shock; well
predicted by Chens model [28].
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.20: (a) Shock wave system at near-peak efficiency point [25],
(b) Shock wave system at near-stall point [25]
Page: 37
2. Interaction shock wave/tip clearance vortex: An extensive study was carried

out by [28] on Rotor 67 that was about the effect of tip clearance on its
performance. The strong interaction amongst shock wave and the tip vortex
was aforementioned. Nevertheless, for the near-peak efficiency point the
vortex is tighter and the interaction takes place in the flow passage. By
throttling the rotor, trajectory followed by the vortex gets more tangential and
the effect of aforementioned interaction creates low pressure region that is
shifted upstream. This results in a certain spillage and raises the mass flow
blockage level. This phenomenon was predicted to trigger the onset stall, but it
can not be ascertained with accountancy of the fact that, presence of complex
flow field and use of only two cells into the tip region.
(a)
(c)
(c)
Figure 2.21: (a) Near-stall points according to tip gap distance - Rotor 67 [28]
(b) Characteristic maps for diff. tip gap distance: Pressure ratio [29]
(c) Characteristic maps for diff. tip gap distances: Efficiency [29]
Page: 38
Figure (2.21) depicts that the rotor flow coefficient can increase with
reduction in tip gap distance. It should be noticed that, the point designated as
clearance aft % chord refers to the tip clearance that is zero at LE and but not
at TE. By foreclosing the losses colligated with the leakage vortex, the pressure
ratio becomes higher and the isentropic efficiency follows the same trend.
3. Hub corner stall: A hub corner stall is found to be present at the suction
surface of the geometry for all the operating conditions, it grows in size
according to increment in pressure ratio. This seems to be a common
characteristic of highly loaded transonic rotors. Such a flow separation
phenomenon can be related with higher incidence of the flow at hub that
develops a vortex roll-up near to the LE at the blade root.
4. Near-peak efficiency point: The sudden loss in efficiency near to the peak is
one of the interesting characteristic of the isentropic efficiency curve of Rotor
67. The results from [25], demonstrated such trend by unsteady simulations. The
rest of the researcher could obtain a smoother curve as can be seen in previous
figures. The hysteresis effects can be assigned for the explanation of this
sudden drop.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.22: Spanwise distribution [25, 27, 28]: (a) Total Pressure ratio
(b) Total temperature ratio
Page: 39
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.23: Integral performance
[25, 27, 28]
: (a) Total pressure ratio,

(b)Isentropic efficiency
The CFD results analyzed for this geometry are more interesting for Rotor 67
and its comparison with experimental results can be seen in figure (2.22) and (2.23).
The detailed explanation is given below:
1. Total-pressure deficit: As a characteristic of hub corner stall, decrement in
total pressure around at 40% of the blade span can be seen from the chart
(figure (2.22)) with comparison of experimental data and the results from other
researcher.
2. Near-stall point: The achievement of convergence at the last point on the
graph (figure (2.23)) with the use of steady RANS states to be the near-stall
point. It can be noticed that some dispel has been found for this point. Such
discrepancy can be related to the fact of having difficulties to vary the static
pressure at the outlet of the flow domain when the operating condition in the
simulation is very close to stall.
3. Chocked mass flow: The discrepancy in the value of mass flow at this
condition fluctuates from 0.5% up to 1.2%, which fairly depends on the
handling of the simulation by the researcher.
2.3.1 Inlet swirl distortion as a boundary condition
CFD studies
Page: 40
With the increase in computational power resources, the ability to simulate three
dimensional geometries such as flows in turbomachinary by using millions of nodes in
modelling have been grown in last few years. However, it is now possible to run
unsteady simulations of massive geometries by such powerful availabilities.
Nevertheless, the results database for inlet flow distortion cases is not available
sufficiently and it is less when considered particularly for swirl distortion. The list of
CFD results for inlet flow distortion; how it alters the compression system operability is
detailed below.
1. EJ200 low pressure compressor (first stage): This study was done by [3031]
on the first stage of the low pressure compressor of the EJ200. The CFD
modelling was accomplished by using 68000 nodes for rotational domain and
as same for the stationary domain. The cases with radial total pressure
distortion were run in steady simulations by simulating one flow passage. The
main analyzed effect was pointed out as the decrement in axial velocity and the
increment in incidence angle that loaded the blades in distorted region.
2. Transonic high pressure compressor rotor: This was study was done to
prove that totally inviscid condition for simulations of turbomachinary were
unable to capture the main flow field effects as per the negligence of the
viscous terms. The task was to use the unsteady RANS for full-annulus of the
rotor [32]. The 30 rotors were modelled by 360000 nodes for each and
approximately the meshing was completed with 11 millions of total nodes for
the whole geometry. The aim was to compare the results with experimental
one. In result, the throttling effect was found for the distorted region exertion
on the compressor. The reason was that spoilt region was the one more
aerodynamically demanding.
3. GE multistage fan: This was an interesting study with the simulation of a
military three stage fan and a row of IGVs, carried out by [12]. The geometry
was modelled by using 201 millions of nodes. The unsteady simulations were
run with sinusoidal total pressure distortion as a boundary condition. One of
the effects that was observed deviation of each flow passage from clean line.
This was found to be associated with a certain hysteresis effect, related with the
change in incidence angle.
4. NASA Rotor 67 stage: The aim of this study was concerned with the
improvement in the simulations for inlet flow distortion cases. It was carried
out by the use of Rolls-Royce in-house software Hydra. A chocked nozzle
was incorporated at the back of the domain to implement the mass flow value
as the outlet boundary condition rather than static pressure. The geometry was
meshed with total 42 millions of nodes for unsteady simulations and it took
around two months to be converged with the aid of 120 CPUs as per the
Page: 41
requirement of 25 revolutions of the rotor in order to achieve the convergence.

Figure (2.24) shows, L as low and H as high flow regions in notation, the low
pressure departure of the pressure ratio for the distorted pint is the stabilizing
effect of the downstream nozzle.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.24: (a) Geometry [14], (b) Effect of downstream coupling [33]
2.3.2 Other numerical schemes to account for inlet flow

distortion
On contrary to the three dimensions simulations discussed in 2.3.1, low order
models are still being used to analyze the effect of inlet flow distortion on the
turbomachinary those are given below.
1. Meanline theory: The velocity diagrams at the mean radius and its empirical
relationship with deviation and blade loss are the phenomena and the base for
this method. A depiction of this theory is shown in figure (2.25). The theory is
simplified with neglection of the radial effects which restricts its application to
simple swirl distortion cases.
The main application of this theory is to the pure bulk swirl distortion
cases accounting the ability of this theory to capture the change in incidence
angle. Nevertheless, the blade loading at the other positions (hub & tip) are
different. This shows the simplicity of the method. By the implementation of
this theory, [6, 34] were able to model completely the movement of the speed
lines of the compressor of the F109. The diffusion factor for the distorted
simulation equalled that for the stalling point of clean simulation and the
stalling point for the distorted case was achieved.
Page: 42
Figure 2.25: Meanline theory [34]

2. Parallel compressor theory: The basic feature of this method is the division
of the compression system into different circumferential segments. These
segments are independent during the operation, except the outlet. The operating
point is calculated as an average of the tow segments. Figure (2.26) shows the
averaged operating point of distorted and clean segments. The theory does not
account for interaction of the flow with other components and flow
unsteadiness [33]. Ease with the use of multi segment compressor theory
enabled [35] to model and calculate the distorted speed lines of J85-GE-5
compression system, by using eight segments.
Figure 2.26: Parallel compressor theory [6]
Page: 43
3. Multidimensional unsteady actuator duct: This method is based on more

complex modelling than the previous methods. The capability of this method
implies the use of the CFD to model the upstream duct, interblade row spaces
and the downstream duct. The streamline curvature code was used to model the
flow passage which enable to calculate the radial distributions. The
representation of the blade as body forces enables a considerably reduction in
computational time. Figure (2.27-a) shows sketch of this numerical approach.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.27: (a) Turbine engine analysis comp0ressor code (TEACC) [36]
(b) Meridional view of the model [36]
The software was validated by inventor [36] for the case of a military
three stage fan with IGVs. A Meridional view of this model can be seen in
figure (2.27-b).
2.4
Compressor system instabilities: Rotating stall

and surge inception.
As it can be predicted from table (1.1), the dodging of compressor instabilities

is the most concerned issue for the gas turbine engineers. Such instabilities come to act,
when the characteristic of compressor reaches on its extreme low mass flow and high
pressure ratio. This section feigns to be a brief summary of the inception and posterior
development of instability phenomena for compressor system.
2.4.1 Definition of the problem

The problem can be briefly described by defining the terms: Rotating stall and
surge. Those are explained as forward.
Page: 44
Figure 2.28: Compressor instabilities: Characterized by respective pressure

rise feature [37]
Figure 2.29: Compressor instabilities: Three typical patterns [37]

1. Rotating stall: This type of instability is a two dimensional phenomenon which
affect only on the part of an annulus. There are two sub-category has been
identified for such instability; namely, progressive stall and abrupt stall. The
former type can be described as a gradual deterioration of the pressure rise.
Figure (2.29) depicts the flow field, affected by such instability. Part span stall
cells those are rotating around the annulus can be seen. This instability is
particularly found in one or more stage of the multistage compressor.
The latter one instability shows a sudden pressure rise fall at the surge
line (see figure (2.28)). That is depicted well with its flow field in figure (2.29).
This distorted region possesses an axial extent which spreads throughout the
Page: 45
compressor. This shows the worse scenario than the former one, in terms of the
large pressure rise drop.
2. Surge: On contrary, this type of instability is one dimensional phenomenon that
oscillates through the whole engine. Flame out conditions have been found
during such instabilities as flow moves forward and back ward in the combustor.
This instability can be classified in other four categories.
Mild surge: This is a first stage of the rest of categories and only
involves small pressure fluctuations, no flow reversal.
Classic surge: In this category, lower frequency oscillations of the larger

pressure and mass flow are involved, no flow reversals.
Modified surge: This category represents the three dimensional

phenomenon of the instability with the combination of classic surge and
rotating stall. Fluctuations take place in the axial and circumferential
direction.
Deep surge: This is an intense interpretation of classic surge which

involves the flow reversal.
2.4.2 Modelling capability: Stall inception and prediction

Modal waves and spikes are the two different types of the stall inception. The
former one is disturbance with large wave length and small amplitude. It is commonly
found at the peak of pressure ratio curve of the compressor. On contrary, the latter one
is disturbance with small wave length. Its a typical characteristic of the highly loaded
compressor rotor. The inception occurs in negative sloped region at little far from the
peak of the compressor characteristic. This is related to unique rotor tip incidence,
after what the spike stall inception occurs. The dominancy of instability is attributed to
the modal waves when such incidence angle can not be achieved before the peak of
pressure rise [39].
The sign of the slope of the compressor characteristic can be used to predict
stall as same as used in this investigation. Figure (2.30) shows the negative slope of the
compressor pressure ratio curve with corresponding operating condition.
2.5
Chapter summary
All the themes comprehended throughout in this chapter are intended to be the
base for methodology development in the following chapter. With the beginning of
Page: 46
problem definition reader may have come to understand inlet flow distortion and
particularly inlet swirl distortion, together with a number of examples of historical
cases. Firstly, the ground vortex study has been carried out immensely by considering
the fact of having lack of the simulation result database, particularly for such swirl
pattern and its effect on turbomachinary, to the authors knowledge. On the second
hand, the flow field and the geometry that is simulated have been introduced roughly.
Moreover, the section with previous CFD studies regarding the inlet flow
distortion as a boundary condition has been introduced to focus on the type of the
investigation. In the last, the behaviour of the engine with instabilities has been
categorised since being a part of the stall prediction during simulations. Likewise, some
depictions to identify such condition are presented below.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.30: (a, b) Zero-slope criterion principle [37],
(c) Unsteadiness growth vs. flow coefficient [38]
Page: 47
CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter is intended to create a base line which is focused to magnify the
inherent analysis of the results, presented in next chapter Results and discussion.
This work is unique in itself by considering the fact of having done not much
investigation in this area to the authors knowledge; and hence, it makes this chapter to
be crucial for the future work. The reader may have inferred from the earlier comments
that the whole investigation is based on the previously built CFD model. However, the
adoption of this model has been done after looking into details of each and every
elements of it, to get understanding prior to agreement. All of the pieces of efforts are
lucubrated in this chapter that encompasses geometry, mesh, turbulence model, ground
vortex model and its implementation as boundary condition. The latter part of this
chapter is concentrated on the methodology to calculate the swirl descriptors and to
correlate it with pressure ratio surge margin loss. The tools used throughout the work
are listed below:
3.1
Geometry and
TURBOGRID
CFD simulations: CFX ANSYS
Pre-analysis: EXCEL and MATLAB
Post-analysis: MATLAB and CFX Workbench
mesh
generation:
BLADEGEN,
GAMBIT
and
Understanding of the previous CFD model

Rotor 67
In order to adopt the previously created CFD model, understanding of that is a

crucial aspect for this work as this enables to implement the modifications regarding to
the area of research. The particular stations of the domain are pointed out (of geometry)
where the data was post-processed and collected. In the end, the justification to select
mesh and turbulence model is given.
Page: 48
3.1.1 Geometry specification

The geometry was modelled in accordance with the guidelines provided in the
AGARD report [40, 3].
Blade generation: The Cartesian coordinates were taken from [40]. To depict the
stagger angle properly, total fifteen blade sections were defined along with blade
span. The greater number of layers enables to capture the change in aerofoil
shape. The meridional view of created geometry is shown in figure (3.1).
Figure 3.1: Geometry Rotor 67 [3]
LE and TE definition: These regions were created by defining twenty four

points. One of the listed software BLADEGEN was used for this.
Tip and Hub: The flow domain extension was necessary in order to improve
convergence. Hence, it was extended from inlet and outlet by keeping the
constant radius. This was done by holding the value of y coordinate as same for
each new calculation of x, according to eq. (3.1). The adopted coordinate
system can be seen in figure (3.1).
= 2 2
(3.1)
Page: 49
Tip clearance: Usually, the definition of tip gap height is specified In

accordance with the vena contracta effect. To define it adequately and to match
it with experimental results, it was necessary to have sufficient knowledge of
the losses concerned with tip clearance. Since, the limited availability of the
data related to vena contracta effect and suggestions from [29] for the
complexity of accounting the proper value have diversified towards the use of
real value of tip gap height.
3.1.2 Mesh generation

Finishing with the geometry creation the next step is mesh generation. In order
to get better mesh quality, the combination of different mesh topologies H/J/L/C/O
is necessary in a structured manner. Firstly, the inlet and outlet was meshed with H-grid
and J-grid was used to extend it through domain. And secondly, O-grid was used around
the blade profile which enabled the definition of the boundary layer, easily. Besides of
achieving the acceptable limits for skewness, the following steps were taken to improve
the expected results from this model.
Master control points: The skewness and mesh quality can be adjusted by the
defining more topology lines and hence control points, which controls the
shape of the cells. The complexity of geometry has demanded the greater
number of such points to enable the maintenance of max. and min. face angle
within acceptable range. Figure (3.2) depicts the mesh generated for the
simulations.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.2: (a) Mesh throughout the blade [3], (b) Mesh at mid span [3]
Edge split: This is a one more parameter which can enhance the mesh quality
regarding to the smoothness of the mesh. The smoothness is a difference of
cell size in comparison of one cell to the other cell. Consequently, the greater
difference in cell size leads to the destabilized CFD solver [41, 42]. Hence, the
local refinement was undertaken with the aid of more nodes by carrying edge
spilt process (for concerned regions). This process was carried out to obtain
Page: 50
good curvatures at leading and trailing edge; and it can be seen in figure (3.2)
at leading and trailing edge with consequence of concentrated nodes.
The skewness reduction was aimed to achieve it around 45 145
degrees, as per [41]. And finally, it was achieved within the range of 40 148
accurately. However, to note that due to limiting by computational resources
the tip clearance was not fitted in the meshing [3].
3.1.3 Turbulence model selection

This section defines the boundary layer. Two different turbulence models were
implemented and tested; its relation with the boundary layer characteristic is detailed
individually as follows.
1. K-epsilon model: The yplus dimensionless wall function identifies the distance
between first node and the wall. With accountancy of characteristic velocity
that is selected at inlet and characteristic dimension the blade chord; the
value of yplus was selected to be fifty. In result, efficiency was found to be
underestimated due to the fact of having thick boundary layer [43, 44].
Consequently, the lower value of yplus was chosen twenty five, in order to
reduce the thickness and recirculation. The simulation was intended to run in
full annulus mode and hence the number of nodes within the boundary layer
was selected to be eleven.
2. K-omega model: yplus was selected to be one for this turbulence model. The
use of automatic near wall-treatment solved the boundary layer with the case of
fine mesh and logarithmic wall function with the case of other meshes. The
number of nodes was defined to be forty this time. However, the model
demanded higher power computational resources for full annulus simulations
and hence the model was just used for clean case with one flow passage
(cascade) simulation.
Table 3.1: Grid dependency study [3]

Page: 51
In order to check the grid dependency on the results, seven numbers of

different meshes were generated and tested to analyze the mesh sensitivity. The results
with different meshes (tested and analyzed) are listed in table (3.1) with main
parameters. Finally, selected mesh and turbulence model, for further research work are
highlighted in table (3.1). The final geometry and flow domain can be seen in figure
(3.3) and (3.4).
Figure 3.3: Flow domain Rotor 67
Figure 3.4: Geometry of Rotor 67 Full annulus [3]
Page: 52
3.2
Ground vortices model: The ground vortex

problem as a boundary condition
In 2.2, two parameter non-velocity ratio and non-dimensional intake height

were identified as inputs to find the related value of circulation. The detailed
procedure to calculate this value of circulation according to these two parameters is
given in this subsection. The non-dimensional intake height can be found by
considering the wing mounted subsonic intakes. It was selected as 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5;
which considerably accounts the range of bypass ratios of the engines. Nonetheless, the
first parameter non-dimensional velocity ratio has induced the need of developing a
methodology for its specified accountancy to find the value of circulation relatively.
The principle of mass flow continuity was found to be suitable to fix the
problem. The value of mass flow (fixed at design point) and intake area enable the
calculation of velocity at inlet. These values allow to generate the curve of circulation
with different velocity ratio and different ground clearance values by varying velocity
and hence velocity ratio. The corresponding value of most interesting condition at
maximum circulation was chosen and used in the simulations 22.1. Here, it should be
noted about fixing of wind velocity as it is roughly constant during ground operation.
However, this phenomenon can not be related to the throttling operation as it changes
from choking to stalling points.
Figure 3.5: Depicted methodology to calculate the circulation [3]

The circulation values for the range of mass flow can be calculated with the
known value of the wind velocity. Figure (3.3) depicts the methodology, used for the
calculation of the circulation. For the view point of investigative interest, a typical value
of the intake diffusion factor was selected and found to not affect on the vortex pattern
or strength [3]. The last asseveration with the no change in swirl angle distribution is
Page: 53
consistent with aim to analyze the effect of ground vortex on turbomachinary that is
never done before with the use of CFD. From the developed methodology the value of
circulation was chosen to be implemented in all the simulations is 22.1.
3.3
An approach to the CFD simulations
This section is aimed to provide the information about selection of the

parameters for CFD simulations. Such as convergence criteria, boundary conditions (at
inlet and outlet), advection scheme and some other concerned points are discussed. The
implementation of the ground vortex as boundary condition is detailed in 3.2.2.
3.3.1 General procedure explanation

The list of detailed parametric selection to simulate Rotor-67 with the ground
vortex (associated with crosswind condition) problem in ANSYS CFX (CFD tool) is
enumerated below.
1. Type of simulation: Steady simulations were chosen instead of unsteady as
the requirement for computational resources is highly more in accordance with
qualitative and quantitative mesh.
2. Inlet boundary conditions: Total pressure and total temperature were
implemented as inlet boundary conditions. The prcised values of these two
parameters are given in table (3.2). However, they correspond to the SLS
value.
3. Outlet boundary condition: The imposition of mass flow as outlet boundary
condition allows to control and to simulate the operating point in speedline.
But the poor convergence had diverted to account static pressure at the outlet
as boundary condition. The selection of the value of static pressure at outlet of
the domain represented an echoless boundary condition, though sensitive for
initial guess [42]. The first simulation as cold start was toughest to be
converged. The results of each simulation were imposed as an initial condition
for the next simulation which enabled to reduce the computing time. The
speedline was achieved by increasing the outlet static pressure that worked as a
throttling the compressor.
4. New coordinate system: A coordinate system is shown in figure (3.4) that was
defined in order to alleviate the posterior boundary condition. The main
difference in a new coordinate system is the range of circumferential angle
which is from 0 to 2, in new one. While, normally it is from to . This
Page: 54
modification was done by introducing a new circumferential coordinate via

eq. (3.2). The sign convention for the positive part is from x to y, accordingly
right hand rule.
Figure 3.6: New coordinate system [3]
(3.2)
5. Characteristic boundary conditi1ons of Turbomachinary: The obtained

speedline is for 100% of the design rotational speed. Contra-rotating walls
were considered in order to impose more realistic endwall boundary conditions
[3]
. Furthermore, all the metal elements had no-slip condition.
6. Advection scheme: Here, the selection was ended with high resolution
advection scheme; which usually accounts a first order advection scheme for
the large gradients and a second order advection scheme for small gradients.
These schemes are switched by automatically which depends on the gradients
present in the flow filed of the domain.
7. Turbulence model: As mentioned before, two different turbulence models
were checked and the selected one was K-epsilon model with scalable wall
function, for the time being. As another one was found to be more time
consuming by considering the fact of having more nodes in the domain.
8. Convergence criterion: Generally, the recommended value of RMS residuals
for engineering issues to achieve the convergence is the order of 1e-5.
Nonetheless, by having a good initial guess the sharp decrements in local
imbalances were observed and the residuals had achieved the value with order
of 1e-6 and even lower for sometimes. However, these were not only the
Page: 55
monitoring aspects to accept the achievement of convergence. The expectation

of convergence is also related with the unchanged values of the variables.
Moreover, the mass flow imbalance, outlet static pressure and outlet mass flow
were also monitored. So, the convergence was considered to be claimed at
constant value of the variables after falling trend.
Table 3.2: Selected parameters for CFD simulation [3]
3.3.2 Imposition of the boundary condition Ground vortex

The reader may have understood properly the definition of inlet boundary
condition. Now there are two different ways to impose it namely, profile or CEL
expression.
Profile: Since the flow pattern is not uniform throughout the whole annulus,
one might think to decouple the intake and the fan stage. The pattern can be
extracted as a two dimensional profile. This can be used as boundary condition
and can considerably reduce the computing time.
CEL expression: This is another way to prescribe the non-uniform boundary

condition. CEL is a language that is developed by ANSYS CFX. Definition of
analytical expressions known to the type of boundary condition is the basic
and simple way to impose boundary condition.
With the know equations which describes the distribution of the nonuniformities, the second way CEL expression was selected to implement the boundary
condition. The following part of this subsection is focused on the achievement of such
boundary condition as ground vortex.
Ground vortex or Tightly-wound vortex
Page: 56
With the known value of circulation, boundary condition can be defined at the
inlet of the domain by using Vatistas vortex model. Nevertheless, the previously
considered coordinate system whose origin was defined at the vortex core related to eq.
(2.2); it is suitable for the ease of calculation of swirl descriptors to redefine it according
to the coordinate system with origin at the annulus centre. Figure (3.7) depicts the
transfer of the axis according from x, y to x, y. Equations (3.4) and (3.5) represent the
modified formulae for the vortex distribution.
Figure 3.7: Axis transformation of the vortex model [3]
(3.3)
(3.4)
A snapshot presented on the next page shows that how the boundary condition
looks like after imposing the ground vortex model in CFX (only V components). The
Page: 57
current work is associated with three different positions of the vortex on the rotor: 1)
25% - near hub position 2) 50% - mid position 3) 75% - near tip position.
Figure 3.8: V plot ground vortex at mid span position [3]
3.4
Study of clean case Rotor 67
The validation of CFD results with experimental one is one of the most crucial
issues for any research work that is related with simulation of the geometry. Hence, it is
already said that the whole research work is based on the previously created CFD
model; analysis of the previously obtained validation captured an interest to look in
detail study. Even, this will enable the reader to emphasize the previous work and the
current work with on a broader perspective. The analysis was carried out in three
different ways which are enumerated below. Moreover the previously ran distorted
cases are covered in chapter 4.
Compressor fan maps: After carrying out the mesh sensitivity analysis,
medium mesh was selected. The results obtained by implementing this mesh
were compared with experimental and other researchers results. Figure (3.9)
shows the pressure ratio and efficiency curves obtained by this CFD model.
The comparison shows that total pressure ratio curve was accurately captured.
But, the efficiency curve was found to be peaky rather than in trend.
Distribution was only smoother with intermediate value. In fact, only [25] has
shown better agreement with experimental data.
Page: 58
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.9: Validation of the CFD model: (a) Compressor pressure ratio map [3]
(b) Compressor efficiency map [3]
Span-normalized charts: This investigation was done to see the behaviour of

the blade for any of the flow property at particular operating point on the speed
line. However, the validation was concerned to investigate near the peak
efficiency point by accounting total pressure ratio and temperature ratio. Figure
(3.10) shows total pressure ratio and temperature ratio charts along with blade
span (in percentage). In agreement, total pressure ratio was found to be within
the limit. Nevertheless, there was found some induced discrepancy for
temperature ratio beyond the blade span of around 30% over predicted; that
was related with lower estimated value of efficiency than the experimental one.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.10: Validation near stall point: (a) Span distribution of pressure ratio [3]
(b) Span distribution of temperature ratio [3]
Page: 59
A flow chart presented below gives an indication for the partition of work. Due
to the fact of having very time consuming investigation the whole work was parted in
two different research works. The previous work was mainly related to develop the
methodology and particularly more focused on the computational capabilities. The
current work was to adopt the methodology, to investigate and modify it for more
accurate results and correlation, to carry out remaining simulation cases and particularly
more focused on the part of swirl descriptors. The reader may have been cleared for the
next chapter which will be purely an extract of the aforementioned efforts.
Figure 3.11: Flow chart of the work distribution for Rotor 67
Page: 60
3.5
Swirl descriptors calculation
This calculation can be done after completing several steps. The case with
ground vortex is different than other inlet flow distortions (total pressure, bilk swirl) and
it requires more complex use of numerical approach with coding in computational
language. MATLAB software was chosen for this approach and the following
procedure was followed.
Zeros calculation: By plotting the distribution of swirl angle over different

rings through annulus, the location of the roots of the function was identified.
For this purpose Newton Raphson method was used for an initial guess (as
priori).
Integral calculation: To raise the accuracy of calculating method, with known

values of zeros the integral of the function was calculated by using an adaptive
Lobatto quadrature theorem.
However, the selected ring distribution is found to be modified in the more

appropriate manner in order to catch proper flow field throughout the annulus. More
detailed analysis about this requirement is carried out in 4.2.
3.6
Chapter summary
The developed methodology to obtain the intended results in the following

chapter was explained above to the require depth. The analysis of the previously created
CFD model, the enumerated procedure to carry out the simulation and the
implementation of the ground vortex as a boundary condition are the main subsection
which builds up to tackle the simulations.
The topic of swirl descriptors is presented with less focus in this chapter as the
major contribution of the work is towards modification of the ring distribution and will
be discussed in next chapter, on a broader perspective. Moreover, the validation of the
clean case was carried out by the previous researcher. So, the methodology is less
different than the general one and was attempted to keep as simple on the basis of
anticipation for the future work. Figure (3.9) depicts the whole methodology in which
some of the figures are extracted from the next section, in order to give the better
perspective to the reader.
Page: 61
Figure 3.12: Developed methodology
Page: 62
CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter contains very interesting parts of this research work those are
obviously the fruitful outcome of the efforts. In accordance with the aim and objectives
which were predicted in the early stage of the work, are shown here as a part of the
achievement. The first section is purely related with the simulation results and the
second section is correlated with swirl descriptors. The former part consists of four
different types of investigation done to analyze the effect of co and counter rotating
(relative to the compressor rotation) ground vortex. The latter part begins with the
definition of improved ring distribution that is followed with analysis of obtained swirl
descriptors and finally its correlation with engine sensitivity to this type of inlet swirl
distortion. The last section of this chapter is attempted to analyze the acceptability of the
final results. However, this is done with the aid of some more simulation results
obtained from the cases ran at another radial position of the vortex.
4.1
Analysis of the CFD simulations
In accordance with previous work and other researcher, an analysis of the CFD
simulations was carried out in four different types as mentioned before. From which,
one with span-normalized chart represents a new proposed technique of postprocessing. All of the subsections are emphasized in four parts namely: hub, mid, tip
and comparison with previous work. First three parts are detailed with the current work
while the last one is a comparison of current and previous work with differed vortex
circulation direction.
4.1.1 Contour plots

This subsection includes the contour plots for each case of vortex location
and circulating direction. Two types of flow properties investigated: 1) Total pressure
and 2) Vorticity. The purpose of including such investigation is to track the vortex into
the flow domain and at the same time, to ascertain how performance of the fan rotor is
differed because of presence of the highly dynamic swirl tightly-wound vortex. This
contour plots were produced in the stream wise direction at different axial distances.
Streamlines in each contour were defined by piercing nodes into vortex a plane
defined exactly at the vortex radial position. And velocity was tracked throughout the
Page: 63
domain. Afterwards to see the throttling effect of rotor which is influenced by vortex,
more contour plots at different operating conditions are presented in Appendix A.
Hub
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.1: Hub position of the co-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
For this position of the fan rotor a co-rotating vortex was ingested. Total
pressure and vorticity contour plots can be seen in figure (4.1). The effect of vortex on
total pressure distribution is clearly visible to be restricted to the region of high and low
total pressure (see second contour of figure (4.1-a)). On the other hand, the vorticity
contour clarifies the movement of vortex in the opposite direction to the compressor
rotation. One thing should be kept in mind that in accordance with our assumption to
neglect the radial component, no movement is noticed in the radial direction. Figures
associated with different operating conditions of this case are provided in Appendix
A. As the operating point moves from the choking to near stalling condition the upper
part of outlet of the domain becomes more loaded (see figure (4.1), (A.1) and (A.2)).
But the distribution of the loading starts from the vortex location and; spread outs
gradually and continuously to the upper part. Moreover, by considering the effect of
vortex ingestion the distorted region with low and high energy spreads annularly as the
outlet becomes more loaded. In accordance with that the high vorticity contained region
is also moved and spread.
Page: 64
Mid
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2: Mid position of the counter-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total
pressure contour, (b) Vorticity contour
For this position of the fan rotor a counter-rotating vortex was ingested. Total
pressure and vorticity contour plots can be seen in figure (4.2). Again, the effect of
vortex on total pressure distribution is clearly visible to be restricted to the region of
high and low total pressure (see second contour of figure (4.2-a)). In agreement with the
previous case, the vorticity contour clarifies the movement of vortex in the opposite
direction to the compressor rotation. But, the notable point for this case is the movement
of distorted region is higher than the previous case at hub position. This can be related
to the fact of having different circulating directions of the vortex (more detail of this
particular behaviour is given in the last part of this subsection). Figures associated with
different operating conditions of this case are provided in Appendix A. As the
operating point moves from the choking to near stalling condition the upper part of
outlet of the domain becomes more loaded (see figure (4.2), (A.3) and (A.4)).
But in this case the whole vortex was interacted with core flow; hence 50% of
the vortex (that is towards hub) is in co rotating direction and 50% of the vortex is in
counter rotating direction, relatively with fan rotation. Loading of the upper annulus
dose not seems to be connected with distortedly loaded region. Though, relative co and
counter-rotating parts of the vortex has moved in the opposite directions. Moreover, by
considering the effect of vortex ingestion the distorted region with low and high energy
Page: 65
spreads annularly as the outlet becomes more loaded. In accordance with that the high
vorticity contained region is also moved and spread.
Tip
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.3: Tip position of the co-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
For this position of the fan rotor a co-rotating vortex was ingested. Total
pressure and vorticity contour plots can be seen in figure (4.3). The effect of vortex on
total pressure distribution is clearly visible to be restricted to the region of high and low
total pressure (see second contour). On the other hand, the vorticity contour clarifies the
movement of vortex in the opposite direction to the compressor rotation. The figures
associated with different operating conditions of this case are provided in Appendix
A. As the operating point moves from the choking to near stalling condition the outlet
of the domain becomes more loaded (see figure (4.1), (A.1) and (A.2)). Moreover, by
considering the effect of vortex ingestion the distorted region with low and high energy
spreads annularly as the outlet becomes more loaded. In accordance with that the high
vorticity contained region is also moved and spread.
Comparison with the previous cases

In accordance with the previous cases, the case with hub position of counter
rotating vortex majority of the vortex was in counter-rotating direction and has
Page: 66
pronounced saviour effect on the fan performance with high loading. In contrary, the
current case with co-rotating vortex majority of the vortex was in co-rotating direction
and has provoked less distorted behaviour in the core flow and on the fan performance
as well.
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.4: Hub position of the counter-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total
pressure contour [3], (b) Vorticity contour [3]
Now, in the cases of mid position of co and counter-rotating vortex both of the
vortex part have properly interacted with the core flow. Though, by considering the fact
of Rotor 67 that majority of the work (pressure ratio) is produced by the upper part of
the blade. The counter-rotating vortexs 50% of vortex part that is counter-rotating
relative to the compressor rotation has influenced on the upper part of the blade and
seems highly loaded.
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.5: Mid position of the co-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total pressure
contour [3], (b) Vorticity contour [3]
Page: 67
In the case with tip position of counter rotating vortex majority of the vortex
is in co-rotating direction and has pronounced saviour effect on the fan performance
with high loading as the vortex was located in the upper part of the blades. In contrary,
the current case with co-rotating vortex majority of the vortex is in counter-rotating
direction and has provoked less distorted behaviour in the core flow and on the fan
performance as well. This is very contradicting if major influencing part of the vortex is
considered. Although this opposite behaviour in comparison with the hub position case
can be related to the relative flow angle with the blade as the geometry has significant
curvature on the upper part. And it can be better predicted by looking into the
compressor/fan maps of the related cases (discussed later in 4.1.2).
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.6: Tip position of the counter-rotating vortex at near stall point: (a) Total
pressure contour [3], (b) Vorticity contour [3]
4.1.2 Compressor/fan maps

Following figures are made in order to understand the identification of two
different regions and respected natures of the vortex. Grin arrow corresponds to the
positive nature of the vortex and the red one represents the negative nature of the vortex
(as compared to the compressor rotation). In example, considering the case of corotating vortex at hub position, the part of vortex that is close to the hub is in counterrotating direction. On the other hand, the part of the vortex that is in opposite side of the
hub is in co-rotating direction. Hence, considering the fact of having two different
terminologies in terms of co or counter rotation, namely: 1) direction of the vortex part
or content, 2) direction of the vortex circulation itself; these depictions provide brief
differentiation in vortexs two different natures. And from the authors point of view,
the reader will enable to emphasize whichever content is being discussed in further
analysis of the results.
Page: 68
(a)
(c)
(b)
Figure: 4.7 Depiction of relative rotating direction of the vortex and vortex content, in
comparison with compressor rotation: (a) Co-rotating vortex at 25% of
blade span (hub positioned vortex), (b) Counter-rotating vortex at 50% of
blade span (mid positioned vortex), (c) Co-rotating vortex at 75% of blade
span (tip positioned vortex)
Hub
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.8: Compressor/fan maps with inlet swirl distortion co-rotating vortex at hub
The reader can observe from figure (4.8-a) the shift of speedline to the left and
downwards with lower pressure ratio and mass flow. This is the main characteristic of
the co-rotating swirl and here majority of the vortex content that influences on the fan
Page: 69
rotor performance is positive (co-rotating). Since, the proximity of the vortex core to the
lower endwall leads to confine the high swirl content to a narrower region. In addition,
the peak of the swirl that is closer to the shaft is not developed fully and interacts with
the shaft which leads to the less influence of negative content.
The change in speedline can be understood well with the change in velocity
diagram. Total pressure ratio can be defined by the combination of mass flow and angle
of incidence. In the case of co-rotating swirl, the mass flow reduces with the decreased
height of inlet velocity triangle as the compression system runs with reduced incidence
angle. Moreover, with the dominant effect of reduced incidence angle pressure ratio
diminishes. In result, the speedline shifts to left and downwards.
However, figure (4.8-b) depicts the increased efficiency which is not in
accordance with lower pressure ratio and mass flow. It should gain considerable rise in
efficiency. Although, attribution to result can be made by considering the fact of having
influence from another half of the vortex, that is negative. That creates a higher
temperature ratio and leads to the little increase in efficiency.
Mid
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.9: Compressor/fan maps with inlet swirl distortion counter-rotating vortex at
mid position: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Observing figure (4.9-a), the shift of speedline to the right and upwards with
higher pressure ratio and mass flow can be seen. This is the main characteristic of the
counter-rotating swirl and here majority of the vortex content that influences on the fan
rotor performance is negative (counter-rotating). But, the analysis becomes more
Page: 70
interesting here as the whole vortex interacts with the core flow (since far from
endwalls). This justifies the fact of having influence from both positive and negative
content of the vortex; and raises a question for the dominant effect of one of the vortex
contents. However, the answer can be obtained implicitly from the fan map as per the
movement of speedline.
The change in speedline speculates the fact of having dominant effect from the
negative content. Relating to the previous comments of the case with hub position
vortex, the phenomena with inlet velocity triangle is totally opposite to the current case.
This time compression system handles with increased incidence angle by increased
mass flow. The latter increases a choking mass flow and displaces the speedline towards
right and upwards.
Moreover, figure (4.9-b) depicts the drop in efficiency that is again in
accordance with the fact of having influence from another half of the vortex that is
positive in nature and results in as opposite as discussed in the previous case of hub
position of the vortex.
Tip
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.10: Compressor/fan maps with inlet swirl distortion co-rotating vortex at tip
It can be observed from figure (4.10-a) the shift of speedline to the left and
downwards with lower pressure ratio and mass flow. This is the most interesting case
from all others. Particularly in this case the majority of the blades experiences counterrotating swirl and the blades behave as like having influence from the positive content
(co-rotating) of the vortex. However, the tip region operates with a decreased relative
angle in accordance with the positive content of the vortex. This causes the shift of the
Page: 71
speedline in opposite manner. The upper region towards the tip has high rotational
speed and hence the greatest relative angle. This implies that in order to cope with
increased flow angularity related to the overall fan region, tries to suck less airflow in
the upper part of the blade as an effort to increase the incidence (note: this effect only
take place in distorted region [3]). These results in reduced mass flow and lowered
pressure ratio.
The change in efficiency curve (see figure (4.10-b)), seems to be related with
difference from lower temperature ratio produced by tip region and higher temperature
ratio produced by the rest of the blade. From the choking condition with lowered mass
flow and efficiency, as the throttling effect loads the fan the phenomena from increased
incidence becomes dominant and keep the efficiency curve almost in the same trend.

Now, figure (4.11) and (4.12) shows two compressor maps with distorted and
clean speed lines. The former one is presented to compare all the distorted speedlines of
co-rotating vortex at all the positions. And the latter one is presented to compare all the
distorted speedlines of counter rotating vortex at all positions.
Figure 4.11: Distorted speed lines from: co-rotating vortex at hub, mid and tip positions
Page: 72
Figure 4.12: Distorted speed lines from: counter-rotating vortex at hub, mid and tip
positions
Depicted points are enumerated below:
Observing both of the figures, pressure ratio surge margin loss is found
to be highest for the cases with hub position of the vortex. This behaviour can be related
with redistribution of the crosswind and concentration of the low energy flow field at
the hub position that is correlated with the flow separation near the hub [12, 14]. Such
characteristic of the Rotor 67 and influence of ground vortex in combination may have
resulted with more spoiled speedline as the worse effects of inlet swirl distortion.
The speedlines of the cases with mid position of the vortex was not
expected to be altered much. As both of the vortex content (positive and negative) are
influencing the fan rotor blades in same magnitude (50% 50%). Though, as
aforementioned the characteristic of dominancy of any of the vortex content either
positive or negative has played a role when the compressor fan operates with ground
vortex ingestion for. In regard with that a change in speedline is acceptable.
The final case with the vortex at tip position has created enthusiasm in
author from beginning of the previous case studies. As behaviour of the fan rotor was
not expected in the same manner as the hub case. And smallest extent of the vortex
content that is near endwall has found to play a dominant role to influence the
performance of the fan rotor in contrary to the other vortex content.
Efficiency curves presented in the same manner can be found in Appendix-B.
Page: 73
4.1.3 Orbits maps: Analysis of an operating point

To understand such analysis that is very new to the authors knowledge, it is
necessary to define the importance and the technique used. There are several type of
analysis can be carried out on turbomachinary. But those are restricted to investigate
either flow field of whole domain or flow properties on the blade. This type of analysis
enables to look into blade passages for any of the particular operating point. The blade
passage is recognized as orbit and orbits are grouped to define a zone. This enables to
analyze the whole annulus by means of different zones. Figure (4.14) depicts the group
of blades defined to create zones. There were total 22 blade passages which were
grouped in four different zones. Note that, the vortex core was located on the partition
line of orange and green zone.
Figure 4.13: Definition of the orbits
Hub
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.14: Orbits map vortex at hub: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Page: 74
The operating point chosen to be investigated is at middle of the choking and

near stalling condition, for all the positions of the vortex. In the case of vortex at hub
position, the major distorted regions are zone-3 and zone-4 (see figure (4.15)). The
zone-3 is purely affected by the core flow (bulk swirl rotating in the same direction of
compressor rotation), with nearly constant value. Mass flow and efficiency seems to be
the variables at this operating point. The change in efficiency can be related to the
change of work done by the fan; as the pressure ratio is roughly same, a small difference
in temperature ratio can alter the efficiency. The raise in efficiency can be related to the
influence by positive content of the vortex. The change in mass flow can be directly
related with axial velocity. The imposition of the cosine directors at the inlet of the flow
domain alters not only the flow direction but also the magnitude of the velocity
component.
Mid
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.15: Orbits map vortex at mid: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
In this case of vortex at mid position, the major distorted regions are zone-2
and zone-3. These are the zones where the vortex was defined. These zones are purely
affected by the vortex itself, with nearly constant value of the pressure ratio. Mass flow
and efficiency seems to be the variables at this operating point. The change in efficiency
can be related to the change in temperature ratio in both zones. According to the fact of
vortexs two different natures (positive content and negative content), the rise in
efficiency is related to the positive content while the loss is associated with negative
content of the vortex. For the mass flow, same comment is applicable as made in the
case of hub position of the vortex.
Page: 75
Tip
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.16: Orbits map vortex at mid: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
In the case of vortex at tip position, the major distorted region is zone-1. This
zones is affected by the core flow (bulk swirl), with nearly constant value of the
pressure ratio. Mass flow and efficiency seems to be the variables at this operating
point. The change in efficiency can be related to the change in temperature ratio in this
zone. As vortexs dominant parts effect the rise in efficiency is related to the positive
content. For the mass flow, same comment is applicable as made in the case of hub
position of the vortex.

For this analysis the difference in result is just associated with the influencing
part of the vortex, no more spectacular difference is found. In order to provide the
detailed perspective, the results achieved by previous researcher are provided in
Appendix-C.
4.1.4 Span-normalized charts A proposal for the new postprocessing CFD technique
The span-normalized chart represents distribution of flow property on the span.
That is done by defining the flow properties at leading edge and trailing edge. In order
to have flow following streamlines (note, this is assumed) trailing edge is interpolated
with leading edge in posterior work to achieve the same normalized span as leading
edge. For the case of ground vortex ingestion this is a first attempt to analyze the flow
by this technique. Since, the investigation needs to deal with 0.1 millions of cells in
Page: 76
Microsoft Excel sheet just for one case of the ground vortex. However, to analyze the
full case study, cases from previous work are also included.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.17: LE and TE definition for the span-normalized charts: (a) LEs (b) TEs
First of all to give an indication about which of the blades analyzed, the
snapshots from CFD tool with LE and TE are provided in figure (4.17). Nomenclature
made in the figure has two different terms n and v; where n stand for the blade
edges which are not in the distorted region and v stands for the blade edges which are
exactly in vortexs streamline direction. Moreover, as it is clear from the figure that four
blades represent distorted region and rest of three blades represent other region.
The results presented in previous sub sections have shown average values
either over the zone or over the whole annulus. Accordingly, flow redistribution has
found to be a typical way that is adopted by compression system to handle such total
pressure deficit generated by the vortex ingestion. The ingestion of vortex although
influences negatively, compression system operates by increasing mass flow over
distorted region. Nevertheless, the previous investigation revealed that some zones
operate under demanding condition and others in relatively less abrasive environment.
This difference in operation (zone-by-zone) enables compression system to handle
distorted flow. In order to analyze such behaviour number of blades has been chosen to
investigate as aforementioned. Figure (4.18), (4.19) and (4.20) are span-normalized
charts for the cases which are related to the current work. Charts related to the previous
work are provided in Appendix-D. In this analysis, total pressure ratio, total temperature
ratio and aerodynamic loading coefficient (eq. (4.1)) was calculated. The last one
parameter can show a good measure of static pressure rise [33].
(4.1)
Page: 77
Figure 4.18: Span-normalized charts for the case of co-rotating vortex at hub position
Figure 4.19: Span-normalized charts for the case of counter-rotating vortex at mid
position
Page: 78
Figure 4.20: Span-normalized charts for the case of co-rotating vortex at Tip position
A phenomenon of radial distribution of swirl and its concentrated flow more at
the hub than at the tip was already pointed out by [12]. Even it was found by [14] that the
redistribution of crossflow is acute at the hub. All in all, throughout analysis of all of the
cases has shown agreement with previous researchers that the hub is influenced by
higher vortex content which explains the behaviour of span distribution of respective
zones. Firstly, the pressure ratio and temperature ratio falls in affected regions.
However, the overall value of these parameters is more than unity which indicates that
the fan sill produces flow with high energy. Secondly, the deficit in aerodynamic
loading speculates the fact of having lower static pressure rise from the distorted
regions, mainly hub.
Moreover, some of the cases have shown very interesting results. Observing
figure (4.18), blade-v1 and blade-v2 are seems to be affected by the negative and
positive content of the vortex, respectively. Hence, the former one delivered higher
pressure ratio and higher temperature ratio whereas the latter one worked exactly
opposite to that. In accordance with that high aerodynamic loading acted on both of the
blades. The same behaviour was found with the case of counter-rotating vortex at hub
position (see figure (D.1)). However, the counter rotating vortex interacts more with
core flow than co-rotating one which has intensified the work done by these two blades.
Such behaviour could not be found in other cases with vortex at mid and tip positions
Page: 79
those are again in agreement of the radial distribution of swirl and its concentration at
hub. This may have affected to the swirl pattern while having radial distribution.
Figure 4.21: Span normalized chart from extended polylines for the case of hub
position of the co-rotating vortex
To cross check the definition of polylines which may has produced deficits
near to the hub, one more analysis was carried out. In this, previously defined polylines
close to the LE and TE (of one of the blade) were extended in upstream and downstream
directions by twice of the chord. In result, the same phenomenon was found to be
occurred, except the difference in axial distance and hence change in pressure ratio.
4.2
Analysis of swirl descriptors
This section includes the calculation of swirl descriptors, an importance of the

new ring distribution and developed methodology by its improvement and calculation of
engine sensitivity in terms of pressure loss in surge margin. A new definition of the ring
distribution was intended to provide at the beginning of the topic but accounting the fact
that without carrying out swirl descriptors and engine sensitivity calculations the
depiction would be unclear. And hence, this topic is explained later in order to compare
the difference in results those are captured by two different ring distribution. However,
the reader should note that the following calculation of swirl descriptors presented in
here is purely based on new ring distribution.
Page: 80
4.2.1 Swirl descriptors calculation

The parametric study carried out for the ground vortex in crosswind
configuration is well depicted in figure (4.7). This has enabled to compare four
descriptors at different radial positions with different circulation directions with
accountancy of previous cases. The location of vortex can be identified by eq. (4.2);
mainly, 25, 50 and 50% of the blade span.
Figure 4.22: Three dimensional plot of swirl angle distribution for the case of vortex
located at hub position [3]
(4.2)
In accordance with complexity of the model, the adoption of Vatistas vortex

model needs to define several numbers of rings at the AIP to accurately capture the
swirl angle pattern. The model can be seen in figure (4.22). The numerical procedure to
calculate swirl descriptors was presented in 3.5, has been used to obtain results. These
results manifested from the MATLAB code are depicted in figure (4.23).
Observing figure (4.23), the curves of swirl intensity seems to have an average
value and two extreme values. The maxima and minima are related to the swirl
distribution; which are exhibited after passing zero at the vortex core. The curves of
swirl directivity depict the vortex content to be either positive or negative. At start, swirl
directivity is null and swirl pairs is unity shows the behaviour of paired swirl. As
Page: 81
moving forward in the radial direction the distribution changes to either positive or
negative bulk swirl.
By means of magnitude, the difference in swirl directivity and swirl pairs is
approximately negligible. However, the difference in vortex core location is well
predicted and that intensifies the change in swirl angle distribution takes place. Now,
again accounting the swirl intensity descriptors the maxima and minima points are
dependent on the cortex core location in radial position. To note that the calculation of
swirl descriptor was done with aid of 200 rings over the AIP with assurance to capture
proper swirl angle distribution.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 4.23: Distribution of swirl descriptors (for 200 rings) in radial direction
Ground vortex in crosswind configuration: (a) Swirl intensity, (b) Swirl
directivity, (c) Swirl Pairs, (d) Swirl radial intensity
Page: 82
Now considering the last one and newly introduced swirl descriptor that was
noticed from the developing methodology of total pressure descriptors [3]. Three curves
of swirl radial intensity for different vortex positions can be seen in figure (4.23-d). This
descriptor has also properly captured the vortex core locations. Moreover, it shows the
change in swirl intensity along with radial direction and incorporation with each ring in
comparison with the value of whole annulus.
In result, by comparing these cases with previous one no more difference was
speculated (see Appendix-E). However, the difference in terms of swirl directivity can
be imagined, the change with either positive or negative nature of the vortex.
4.2.2 Engine sensitivities calculation An independent

solution
With the use of second approach (proposed by [1]) of eq. (1.11) and with the
introduction of recently defined swirl descriptor, an equation (1.12) was developed.
This is an enhanced correlation ever developed for such a complex inlet flow distortion.
Though accounting previous comments, the definition of proper ring distribution is also
crucial and plays vital role in engine sensitivity calculation. However, more detailed
study about this development will be discussed in 4.2.3. But it is important for the
reader to note that following calculation is based on the new ring distribution. Since
anticipated explanation for the ring distribution is purely based on the results of engine
sensitivity calculations.
Final result of this methodology is an unknown KSIradial which can be known
as radial swirl engine sensitivity. As, this term identifies the magnitude of influence that
is pronounced by swirl at different radial locations of compressor inlet. Now, the first
step to carry out this calculation was to find out the loss in pressure ratio surge margin
PRS, which was achieved with aforementioned methodology of CFD simulations.
Although the reader should notice that this simulations were ran in steady state and so
less accurate that unsteady one. However, this research work is focused on proper
correlation of these two methodologies (CFD & Swirl Descriptors) and hence, on
engines sensitivity to such distortion. The obtained results of PRS, from the
simulations are tabulated below in table (4.1). Moreover, a different indication of the
last row in table was done to point out that cases ran for this particular location
(lower_mid) of vortex are intended to be used in validation, 4.3. The known values of
PRS, bulk swirl database and swirl descriptors results are used in combination
according to eq. (4.3), to find the values of KSIradial for each of the cases.
(4.3)
Page: 83
Position of vortex in
blade-span %
25%
50%
75%
43%
radius
0.134
0.175
0.215
Position of vortex
on blade
hub
mid
tip
PRS cases
of co rotating
vortex
3.8965
3.43
2.297
PRS cases of
counter
rotating vortex
-1.14
-1.029
-0.551
0.15
lower_mid
3.740286
-1.03649
Table 4.1: Resulted PRS from different investigated cases
Figure 4.24: Radial swirl engine sensitivity for the cases of vortex location at hub, mid
and tip
Page: 84
Observing figure (4.24), the following conclusion can be made:
Difference in KSIradial for the cases of hub and tip position of the vortex: The
hub position of the vortex in co and counter rotating direction have found to be
more sensitive in terms of pressure ratio surge margin loss, as the numerator of
eq. (4.3) becomes higher in accordance with PRS; and opposite for the tip
vortex cases. As aforementioned in 4.1.4 (span-normalized charts), in
accordance with the flow phenomenon the flow redistribution results in deficit
of the region that is near to the hub. Hence accounting the fact of having low
energy region near to the hub position, it is being more affected by vortex than
tip position.
Difference in KSIradial for the case of co and counter-rotating vortex: By,

looking towards the physical phenomenon, the characteristic of transonic fan
Rotor 67 is being more loaded at tip position than at hub. This justifies that rise
in total pressure ratio from counter rotating vortex than the design point value is
difficult to achieve for the same design of the blade, than to achieve the drop in
total pressure ratio from co rotating vortex; which contributes towards higher
radial swirl engine sensitivity for the hub position of the vortex than at tip one.
Difference in bulk swirl angle (related to the core flow) provokes more
sensitivity for the cases of co-rotating vortex than counter one: Accounting
the flow phenomenon, the low energy region is present near hub in all of the
cases. Hence, by increasing the bulk swirl angle in co-rotating direction of the
compressor rotation; the flow field near to the hub becomes more worsen with
deficits in energy than the increment in the angel of counter rotating bulk swirl.
Now, when the vortex is implemented with the cases of bulk swirl; again the
same phenomenon is followed with more deficits from co rotating vortex than
the counter one. Relating to the first line of the paragraph, combination of two
co rotating flow fields are much worse than the coupling of stronger co-rotating
bulk swirl with counter rotating vortex (like sailing in opposite to the wind
direction!)
Difference in following trend from mid position of the vortex of the

cases of co and counter-rotating vortex at tip position than at hub: Here all
of the flow physics play a vital role. In the case of counter-rotating vortex at tip
position the dominant vortex content is positive (keep tracking figure (4.25)).
This contributes more with the low energy core flow and provokes higher
influence than co-rotating vortex in which the dominant vortex content is
negative. The vortex content near to annulus casing is negative in counterrotating vortex and opposite to the entire flow and reduces the influence of rest
of the flow in smaller amount. Because when dominant negative content of the
Page: 85
co-rotating vortex effects more to the rest of combined core flow and positive
content; and hence this results in lower radial swirl engine sensitivity in corotating vortex case and higher in counter one in comparison of each of the
respective case of the hub position of the vortex.
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.25: Depiction of flow field when vortex is at tip: (a) Co-rotating, (b) Counterrotating
One more point was found to be interesting in this investigation of KSIradial

which is discussed in 4.3, as it is related with the validation case.
The discussed methodology to find the radial swirl engine sensitivity by

correlating the CFD simulation results and the results from swirl descriptors calculation
is shown in figure (4.26) on the next page.
Page: 86
Figure 4.26: Depiction of methodology that is used to correlate the results from CFD
simulations and swirl descriptor calculation, to find KSIradial
4.2.3 An importance of the generic Equidistance ring

distribution at the AIP
A small change in developed methodology according to the cases investigated
for any research work can provoke discrepancies in the results and loses uniformity in
investigation of different cases. Accounting this fact, a previous ring distribution has
pronounced such behaviour in results of KSIradial, which is well depicted in figure (4.30).
Page: 87
The discrepancies in results can be better understood with the depiction of such two
different ring distributions.
Figure 4.27: Depiction of old ring distribution that varies with location of the vortex
core
Figure 4.28: Depiction of new ring distribution that is independent of location of the
vortex core
Page: 88
The partition of the whole domain was necessary with the introduction of new
swirl descriptors, to account different vortex contents. However, the previous ring
distribution is depicted in figure (4.27). That shows the selection of any number of rings
results in domains with same number of rings and hence varies with concentration of
rings in one domain in accordance with the radial position of the vortex (except mid
position of the vortex). There are two different mechanisms which affected the whole
research work. Firstly, the discrepancy was found from the base of eq. (4.3). According
to SAE standards the ring distribution should capture the same magnitudes of positive
and negative content of the vortex, with the case of tightly-wound vortices. However,
the previously developed methodology failed to do that by accounting the ring at vortex
core twice in calculation of SRI. Secondly, the ring distribution was not uniform by
itself, for all of the radial position.
Figure 4.29: Max of sum of SRI according to the improved ring distribution
The former fact has pronounced the difference in curve of max of sum of SRI,
where the parameter was not same for co and counter cases though having same trend.
The new developed ring distribution is based on equal spacing of the rings, which can
be better predicted from figure (4.28).The resulted curve from this distribution is in
agreement with the SAE standards by showing the same trend and values of the
parameter for all of the cases with co and couter-rotating vortex. However, the
distribution of the rings should be cross checked by applying equiarea phenomenon
which was used in experimentations by SAE committee.
Page: 89
Figure 4.30: Comparison of two different ring distributions in terms of KSIradial

Figure (4.30) shows the discrepancies aroused from the non-uniform ring
distributions. The dashed curves are related to the old ring distribution and the solid
curves are related to the present ring distribution. However, the efforts made till the last
day in post-processing have resulted well in figure. That justifies the over predicted
values KSIradial by old methodology at hub and tip position while the mid position was
having the same number of rings in both of the domain, for both type of ring
distribution. Overall, the designation given to the engine sensitivity calculation seems to
be proving as an independent solution that is not influenced by the radial position of the
vortex.
4.3
Acceptability
methodology
analysis
of
the
developed
The developed methodology was analyzed in a very uncommon and in a quite

interesting way. After obtaining the curves of KSIradial from all of the six cases (three
with co-rotating vortex and three with counter rotating vortex); the prediction was made
Page: 90
from the curve trends for the value of KSIradial. For this purpose the location which was
chosen to be analyzed is 0.15 m (radial position) or 43% of the blade span. The
predicted values can be seen with blue circles over yellow spots.
Figure 4.31: Grid chart for the strategic prediction of KSIradial to find PRS
Then the analysis was carried for both of the methodologies: 1) SAE standard
methodology, 2) Current developed methodology. The aim was to calculate the value of
PRS in a reverse way by applying the predicted value of KSIradial rather than inputting
from the simulation database. And in the final step the derived value of PRS was
compared in terms of difference in percentage with the one obtained in simulation. This
procedure was followed for both of the methodologies to check that which one could
fall on the agreement.
However, the predictably derived values of PRS can not be as same as the
simulation one. Since, it was known from the beginning the fact of having low accuracy
by running steady-state simulations. Though, the validation may better promise to stick
to one of them for the future work after investigating with unsteady simulations.
Page: 91
The results are tabulated in table (4.2) and (4.3):
According to SAE standards:

Co-rotating
PRS
5 Degree
7 Degree
Predicted
0.543
-0.27533
Obtained
3.74
3.74
difference in %
85.48
107.36
Predicted
-1.7381
-1.8136
Obtained
-1.03644
-1.03644
difference in %
67.697
75
Lower_mid_position
Counterrotating
Table 4.2: Results of the acceptability analysis in accordance with SAE standards
According to the developed

methodology:
Co-rotating
PRS
Predicted
5 Degree
4.009
7 Degree
4.2087
Obtained
3.74
3.74
difference in %
7.2
12.5
Predicted
-0.62322
-0.24299
Obtained
-1.03644
-1.03644
difference in %
39.87
76.55
Lower_mid_position
Counterrotating
Table 4.3: Results of the acceptability analysis in accordance with developed

methodology (which include radial swirl descriptor)
The results have shown better agreement with current methodology for the
cases of co-rotating vortex. However, the big difference in percentage for the cases of
counter-rotating vortex aroused from the accuracy which couldnt fit well with small
values of PRS than the bigger one with cases of co-rotating vortex. Though, the results
from unsteady simulations which are still under development may prove it more
precisely.
Figure (4.24) is presented once again as figure (4.32) on the next page, with
another one new location of the vortex lower_mid (43% of blade span), as it was
commented at the end of 4.2.2 to explain another one interesting point which can be
depicted from engine sensitivity calculation. The reader should note that values of this
location are related to the simulation database (not the predicted one!).
Page: 92
Figure 4.32: Radial swirl engine sensitivity for the cases of vortex location at hub, mid,
tip and lower_mid (a new location)
A kink from the curves of counter-rotating vortex trend lines: The

phenomenon can be better understood with a following figure (4.33).
Figure 4-33: Depiction of the

vortex at lower_mid position
It is clear from the figure that the counterrotating vortex at this lower_mid position interacts
with lower energy flow field before possessing flow
redistribution. This shows the dominant positive part
of the vortex is contributing to the flow field and
remaining vortex part that is counter in nature tries to
catch up the deficits induced by the other part. But at
this stage the recovery from negative part is not as
high as compared with the case of the counter-rotating
vortex at mid position. Hence a kink was found in
agreement with the flow field at lower_mid position.
Page: 93
4.4
Chapter summary
The chapter has shown in depth analysis of the flow fields around Rotor 67 and
swirl pattern of the ground vortex from the results obtained in this research work. It is
now worth to mention that the CFD database of around 400 GB was compressed on
excel sheet of around 15 MB. This enabled to analyze such a complex flow field
induced by inlet swirl distortion.
The contour plots near peak efficiency were quite simple to predict the flow
phenomena. The movement of speedlines in compressor fan maps were in agreement
with the nature of vortex. Results obtained from the orbits maps have explained the
dominant behaviour of the vortex content. The intensified efforts on span-normalized
charts and the resulted blade behaviours have played very important role in detail
explanations of engine sensitivity part.
Now, the second major section of this chapter swirl descriptors was very
interesting for the unseen results of the engine sensitivity curves. The development of
the ring distribution enabled to provide a more general AIP to capture the swirl pattern,
properly. In the end, a new way to check the compatibility of current methodology in
future work can be regarded a promising improvement in correlations proposed by SAE
standards.
Page: 94
CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
An in depth study of the ground vortex ingestion in transonic rotor fan (Rotor
67) has resulted in fruitful outcomes. Several stages in this work were found to be most
challenging for the time being. In achievement of the aim and the objective several steps
were carried out which are identified as follows:
An introduction of the topic and the problem definition were clearly identifying
the work. The understanding of basic flow features and its influence on performance of
the compression system have necessarily created the clear vision on the flow
phenomena. And the final subsection with definition of swirl descriptors and its
correlation with loss in pressure ratio surge margin have depict a typical methodology
which is used to analyze such a complex swirl pattern.
The vast literature review has made the foundation for this research work. The
section of historical case study has explained the hazardous effects of such type of
distortions. The detailed study of the ground vortex enabled to understand the
methodology which has created the base to find out the value of the circulation.
Especially, the section with previous CFD cases has speculated the anticipation of result
analysis, in terms of developing techniques to use in analysis of inlet flow distortion. At
the last an inception of compressor system instabilities was well pronounced while
running the simulations.
The methodology of this work was more or less similar to a literature review
although it was focused on the handling of the problem. Hence with the intention to use
previously created CFD models, understanding of each aspect was necessary to be
gained for proper simulations. However, the prediction of the value of strength of
ground vortex and numerical approach explained as a first step to calculate the swirl
descriptors has been a foundation for the simulations and for the final outcomes as well.
The last and final chapter was anticipated to become quite interesting as the
combination with previous works database has revealed extremely complex flow
features which raised the requirement to depict the flow fields and resulted in discussion
with complex sentence structures. As a part of the necessity they have shown good
characteristic of different eight cases and resulted with a new definition of
methodology, particularly for ring distribution. However the last section of this chapter
has shown greater agreement with the developed methodology.
Page: 95
However, the reader may have inferred about no-existence of any experimental
database related to such flow phenomena and hence, it is quite clear that the validation
of such results is far in a way. Nevertheless, the definition of a new ring distribution
which is not dependant on the radial location of the vortex has shown promising
agreement for the future work, during acceptability analysis of the current methodology.
Moreover with available result, in order to clear the imagination of the
resulting engine sensitivity curve and; to crosscheck the developed methodology and its
development requires quite large database in terms of the simulations. For this purpose
the following task can be proposed for the future work:
1. The low energy field near to the hub seems to be working as a counter part of
stabilising the tip which was not able to capture the proper flow phenomena
without a tip clearance. Hence, comparison of one of the case with and without
a tip clearance can give a better idea for the future work.
2. In accordance with the depicted change in KSIradial graph, the kink provokes to
investigate at more radial positions with the same value of circulation.
3. As a part of being more focused with ground vortex cases, more investigation
is needed to be done with increased and decreased value of circulation.
4. However, considering the fact of having less accurate results from steady state
simulation, one should compare results from both type of analysis before
proceeding with the third step.
5. The definition of ring distribution influences significantly on the final
outcomes. Hence, much more precise definition of ring distribution can be
achieved by investigating in accordance with SAE standards, equally area
distributed rings; and also by magnifying the number of rings at proper extent.
6. An investigation of a new swirl descriptor SRI or modification in the
methodology of swirls descriptors may seems to be necessary which couldnt
account the swirl content interacting with shaft as it didnt come up at any
instance of the analysis.
7. The database with more bulk swirl cases is necessary to be created for proper
identification of the kink found in the graph of KSIradial along with radial
position.
Page: 96
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APPENDIX A
This section includes the contour plots total pressure and vorticity. Those were made
to monitor the effects of vortex on the flow field while throttling the compressor from
chocking to stalling condition.
Hub position of the co-rotating vortex
(a)
(b)
Figure A.1: Hub position of the co-rotating vortex at choking condition (a) Total
(a)
(b)
Figure A.2: Hub position of the co-rotating vortex at middle of the chocking and near
stalling conditions (a) Total pressure contour, (b) Vorticity contour
Page: 102
Mid position of the counter-rotating vortex
(a)
(b)
Figure A.3: Mid position of the counter-rotating vortex at choking condition (a) Total
(a)
(b)
Figure A.4: Mid position of the counter-rotating vortex at middle of the chocking and
near stalling conditions (a) Total pressure contour, (b) Vorticity contour
Page: 103
Tip position of the co-rotating vortex
(a)
(b)
Figure A.5: Tip position of the co-rotating vortex at choking condition (a) Total
pressure contour (b) Vorticity contour
(a)
(b)
Figure A.6: Tip position of the co-rotating vortex at middle of the chocking and near
stalling conditions (a) Total pressure contour, (b) Vorticity contour
Page: 104
APPENDIX B
This section includes two figures. Figure (B.1) consists of efficiency curves of all the
co-rotating vortex cases. And figure (B.2) consists of efficiency curves of all counter
rotating vortex cases.
Figure B.1: Distorted efficiency curves from: co-rotating vortex at hub, mid and tip
positions.
Figure B.2: Distorted efficiency curves from: counter-rotating vortex at hub, mid and
tip positions.
Page: 105
APPENDIX C
This section includes the resulted orbits maps from previous researcher.
Hub position of the counter-rotating vortex
(a)
(b)
Figure C.1: Orbits map vortex at hub [3]: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Mid position of the co-rotating vortex
(a)
(b)
Figure C.2: Orbits map vortex at mid [3]: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Page: 106
Tip position of the counter-rotating vortex
(a)
(b)
Figure C.3: Orbits map vortex at tip [3]: (a) Pressure ratio map, (b) Efficiency map
Page: 107
APPENDIX D
Figure D.1: Span-normalized charts for the case of counter-rotating vortex at hub
position
Figure D.2: Span-normalized charts for the case of co-rotating vortex at mid position
Page: 108
Figure D.3: Span-normalized charts for the case of counter-rotating vortex at Tip
position
This section includes span-normalized charts those are related to the cases analyzed
previously. These charts are attached to support the resulting conclusion from this
particular investigation.
Page: 109
APPENDIX E
This section includes the results of calculated swirl descriptors those were done by
previous researcher. These are presented to emphasize the difference in descriptors with
the change in vortex circulation direction either positive or negative.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 4.23: Distribution of swirl descriptors (for 200 rings) in radial direction
Ground vortex in crosswind configuration [3]: (a) Swirl intensity, (b)
Swirl directivity, (c) Swirl Pairs, (d) Swirl radial intensity
Page: 110

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CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY