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4RADITIONAL USE OF REED

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&LEXIBLE REED n 4HE USE OF REED IN HANDICRAFTS ART OBJECTS AND FINE ART

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2EED AS ENERGY RESOURCE IN %STONIA

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4HE BALANCE BETWEEN THE PRESERVATION UTILISATION AND MAN
AGEMENT OF COASTAL AREAS IS A FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION AND IS ONE
THAT IS RELATED TO THE CREATION OF STRATEGY PILOTS IN &INLAND AND
%STONIA 7E SHALL SEE AN EXAMPLE OF A STRATEGY MAP OF THE TOWN
OF 3ALO IN THE CHAPTER 'ATHERING IN 2EED
/UR &INNISH %STONIAN hREED TEAMv FELT THAT THIS MULTI AND
INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECT FITS WELL IN THE )NTERREG )))! PRO
GRAMME FRAME 4HIS KIND OF APPROACH WAS IMPORTANT BECAUSE
SPECIALISTS TEND TO DISCUSS MATTERS IN CIRCLES OF THEIR OWN AND
IN THIS CASE IT WAS ESPECIALLY FRUITFUL TO HAVE INPUT FROM EXPERTS
IN OTHER FIELDS )N THIS WAY INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE WAS
SHARED AND COMPILED IN NUMEROUS MEETINGS 4HE NETWORK CRE
ATED BY THIS PROJECT IS OF VITAL IMPORTANCE TO ITS SUCCESS
4HERE ARE REGIONALLY TAILORED SOLUTIONS TO THE QUESTION OF
HOW TO MAKE A PROFIT FROM REED WHILE STILL HONOURING OTHER
VALUES SUCH AS BIODIVERSITY RECREATION AND WATER PURITY 3US
TAINABLE AND ECOLOGICALLY SOUND SOLUTIONS SUCH AS REED CON
STRUCTION WILL CERTAINLY TAKE DEEPER ROOT IN THE FUTURE !FTER A
LONG WORKING DAY IT IS HEAVENLY TO REST IN A PEACEFUL THATCHED
HOUSE AND TO BLEND IN WITH THE HARMONY OF NATURE 4HE PROJ
ECT HAS FORMED THE BASIS FOR SEVERAL NEW APPROACHES AND PROJ
ECTS IN THE "ALTIC 3EA 2EGION
4HE WINDS OF CHANGE ARE BLOWING

2EED IS THE MAIN CHARACTER IN %STONIAN AND 3OUTHERN &INN

ISH COASTAL AREAS BOTH ONSHORE AND OFFSHORE 4HE SPECIES IS
KNOWN THE WORLD OVER 2EED HAS GRADUALLY ENCROACHED UPON
OUR COASTLINE AND ITS EXPANSION HAS BEEN ACCELERATED BY HUMAN
ACTIVITIES EUTROPHICATION CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CESSATION OF
COASTAL MEADOW MANAGEMENT
4HE CHARACTERISTICS OF REED AND REED BEDS AND THEIR SIGNIFI
CANCE FOR WATER QUALITY ARE DESCRIBED IN THE FIRST AND SECOND
CHAPTERS OF THIS BOOK 2EED AS IT IS AND 0URE 2EED
2EED CAN BE SEEN AS AN INVASIVE PROBLEM SPECIES 7E CAN
LOSE OUR FAMILIAR LANDSCAPE AND OUR RECREATION AREAS BECAUSE
THE COASTLINE HAS BECOME OVERGROWN 2EED BEDS HOST SEVERAL
SPECIES BUT AT THE SAME TIME THE AMOUNT OF COASTAL MEADOW
AND THE SPECIES THAT LIVE ON IT HAVE DRASTICALLY DECLINED 4HE
THIRD CHAPTER 6OICES IN THE 2EED "ED DESCRIBES THE BIODIVERSITY
OF REED BEDS AND COASTAL MEADOWS ! GLOSSARY INCLUDING BIRD
AND VASCULAR PLANT NAMES IN %STONIAN &INNISH AND 3WEDISH
CAN BE FOUND ON THE LAST PAGES
2EED BEDS CAN ALSO BE SEEN AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE OF INCOME
2EED CAN BE USED AS BIOENERGY AND AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
4HE )NTERREG )))! PROJECT h2EED 3TRATEGY IN &INLAND AND %STO
NIAv HAS DEVELOPED AND TESTED SOME SOLUTIONS SUITABLE FOR OUR
COASTAL AREAS 4HE CHAPTER 4OUCH AND 4HATCH DESCRIBES THE HIS
TORY OF REED AND ITS USE IN ART AND HANDICRAFTS AND THATCHING
ROOFING  "URNING TO +NOW REVEALS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF REED
AND THE POSSIBILITIES OF UTILISING REED FOR BIOENERGY

0ROJECT #OORDINATOR
)IRO )KONEN
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-ORPHOLOGICALLY THE #OMMON 2EED 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS IS A

PERENNIAL HYDROPHYTE GEOPHYTE WITH USUALLY VERY HIGH SHOOTS
UP TO  M SELDOM EVEN  M  4HE HEIGHT OF THE SHOOTS DE
PENDS ON AIR AND WATER TEMPERATURE HUMIDITY THE CONTENT
OF NUTRIENTS AND MANAGEMENT 4HE #OMMON 2EED USUALLY
FORMS DENSE STANDS AND APPROXIMATELY  SHOOTS OF  M CAN
BE FOUND WHICH LEAVES ARE HELOMORPHIC   CM SELDOM  CM
WIDE 4HESE PLANTS HAVE AN EXTENSIVE CREEPING RHIZOME SYSTEM
RHIZOMES   CM THICK  DENSE FIBROUS ROOTS AND VESICULAR
ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZA IS A CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF ITS ROOTS
4HE FLORESCENCE IS A DENSE PANICLE UP TO  CM SOMETIMES
 CM LONG 4HE DURATION OF FLOWERING LASTS UP TO  MONTHS
0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS IS CROSSPOLLINATED BY WIND WITH THE
WEIGHT OF SEEDS COMPRISING  G WHICH ARE NOT ONLY DISPERSED
BY WIND BUT ALSO BY BIRDS WATER AND HUMANS 4HE SEEDBANK
IS SHORT AGED TRANSIENT LESS THAN  YEAR  2EPRODUCTION BY
SEEDS HOWEVER IS POOR AND THE REED GROWS MAINLY VEGETATIVELY
BY RHIZOMES (ASLAM   /N THE OTHER HAND SEEDS WERE
DISPERSED BY HUMANS IN THE )*SSELMEER AREA IN .ETHERLANDS IN
S RESULTING WITHIN  YEARS IN MONOTONOUS REED STANDS
2ODEWALD 2UDESCU  
)N PLANT COMMUNITIES THE #OMMON 2EED IS HIGHLY COM
PETITIVE ACCORDING TO 'RIME{S LIFE STRATEGY SYSTEM IT IS A
COMPETITORSTRESS TOLERATOR HTTPUFZDEBIOLFLOR  4HE MAIN
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES OF REEDS ARE AS FOLLOWS
 ANY LATERAL BUD CAN DEVELOP INTO A HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL
RHIZOME
 TALL AND DENSE REED STANDS PREVENT LIGHT REACHING TO
GROUND LEVEL AND SUPRESS THE GROWTH OF OTHER SPECIES
 THE LITTER MAT COVERS THE GROUND PREVENTING OTHER SPECIES
FROM GERMINATING AND GROWING THERE
 A DENSE ROOT AND RHIZOME SYSTEM CREATES VERY DIFFICULT
ROOT COMPETITION CONDITIONS FOR OTHER SPECIES IN THE SOIL
(ENCE THE REED EXCLUDES SMALLER SPECIES AS A RESULT OF COM
PETION AND MODIFYING THE ENVIRONMENTAL GROUND  MUCH OF

#OMMON 2EED 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS 0ICTURE -IMMI 6UORISTO 

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AND CALCIUM IONS IN THE SOIL 4HE #OMMON 2EED IS ABLE TO
GROW IN A VERY WIDE ARRAY OF HABITATS FENS SHALLOW LAKES SALT
MARSHES OPEN AQUATIC COMMUNITIES )N CLASSIFYING PLANT COM
MUNITIES THE FOLLOWING COMMUNITY TYPES ARE MOST FREQUENTLY
MENTIONED 0ARVOCARICETUM -AGNOCARICETUM -OLINIETUM
(ALO 0HRAGMITETUM AUSTRALIS COMMUNITY 0HRAGMITES 3CHOENO
PLECTUS 4YPHA LATIFOLIA COMMUNITY 0HRAGMITES 3CHOENOPLECTUS
COMMUNITY (ASLAM  
)N RECENT DECADES THE #OMMON 2EED HAS BECOME A SERIOUS
CONSERVATION PROBLEM BECAUSE IT HAS SPREAD INTO ECOLOGICALLY
VALUABLE HABITATS AND AS A RESULT OF BEING A STRONG COMPETITOR
IT HAS ELIMINATED MOST OTHER SPECIES 4HIS PHENOMENON HAS
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#OMMON 2EED GROWS FAST ON TH *UNE  WHICH WAS A MOWING DAY
IN (ALIKKO 3OUTHWEST &INLAND THIS REED WAS ALREADY TWO METRES HIGH
0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG

LITTER AND ABOVE GROUND HIGH SHOOTS LEVEL -INCHINTON ET

AL  4HESE FACTORS DECREASE THE COMPETITIVE ABILITY OF THE
#OMMON 2EED
 SHADING BY OTHER PLANT SPECIES
 SEVERE FROSTS IN WINTER
 SERIOUS DROUGHT DURING THE VEGETATIVE PERIOD
 STRONG WAVE AND ICE ACTIVITY
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 BURNING

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4HE SOILS WHERE THE #OMMON 2EED GROWS ARE VERY VARIABLE
(OWEVER IT PREFERS NUTRIENT RICH HABITATS WITH ORGANIC MAT
TER CONTENT UP TO  4HE P( OF THE SOIL CAN VARY BETWEEN
  BUT IN MOST CASES IT IS   4HE SHOOT HEIGHT IS


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RESULTED IN THE RAPID DECREASE IN BIODIVERSITY 4HE MAIN REA

SONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE #OMMON 2EED ARE AS FOLLOWS
 DECREASED MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES MAINLY GRAZING AND
MOWING
 CLIMATIC CHANGES COMPARATIVELY MILD WINTERS WITHOUT
PERMANENT ICE ON THE SEA ICE DESTROYS THE REED RHIZOMES 
 INCREASED MEAN T FAVOURS THE GROWTH OF REED

(ASLAM 3-  0HRAGMITES COMMUNIS 4RIN "IOLOGICAL &LORA OF

THE "RITISH )SLES n * OF %COL   
,AMBERTINI # 'USTAFSSON -(' &RYDENBERG , ,ISSNER *
3PERANZA -  "RIX (  ! PHYLOGEOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE
COSMOPOLITAN GENUS 0HRAGMITES 0OACEAE BASED ON !&,0S n 0LANT
3YST AND %VOL   
-AL 4+  .ARINE ,  4HE BIOLOGY OF #ANADIAN WEEDS
0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS #AV 4RIN EX 3TEUD n #AN * 0LANT 3CI 
 
-INCHINTON 4% 3IMPSON *#  "ERTNESS -$  -ECHA
NISMS OF EXCLUSION OF NATIVE COASTAL MARSH PLANTS BY AN INVASIVE
GRASS n * OF %COL  
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"AND 886)) 3TUTTGART
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OF THE #OMMON 2EED 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS INTO .ORTH !MERICA
n 0ROC OF THE .AT !CAD OF 3CI OF THE 53!   
4HE DATABASE "IOL&LOR 5&: #ENTRE FOR %NVIRONMENTAL 2ESEARCH
THE $EPARTMENT OF #OMMUNITY %COLOGY 'ERMANY
HTTPWWWUFZDEBIOFLORINDEXJSP ;REF TH !PRIL =

3OME YEARS AGO ONE MORE IDEA EMERGED HELPING TO EXPLAIN

THE RAPID INVASION OF THE #OMMON 2EED 4HE COMPARISON
OF GENOTYPES OF HISTORICAL USING HERBARIUM COLLECTIONS AND
PRESENT DAY SPECIMENS OF REED DEMONSTRATE THAT THESE ARE
GENETICALLY DIFFERENT AND PROBABLY HAVE A DIFFERENT ABILITY TO
EXPAND TOO 3ALTONSTALL   ! GOOD DESCRIPTION ABOUT THE
PHYSIOLOGY BIOLOGY ECOLOGY AND RESPONSE TO MANIPULATIONS OF
THE #OMMON 2EED IS GIVEN EG BY -AL AND .ARINE  



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)N SPITE OF BEING A PROMINENT PART OF THE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM

IN SOUTHERN &INLAND AND %STONIA THERE HAS BEEN A LACK OF AC
CURATE INFORMATION ON THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF REED 0HRAG
MITES AUSTRALIS  OR AT LEAST STUDIES CONCERNING THE TOPIC HAVE
BEEN RELATIVELY SMALL SCALE AND SCATTERED 2EED IS A CHALLENGING
TARGET TO MAP SINCE IT GROWS ON THE INTERFACE BETWEEN MARINE
AND TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS )N ADDITION ITS APPEARANCE AND
EXISTENCE MARKEDLY DEPEND ON THE ACQUISITION DATE WITH REED
STANDS OFTEN BEING CHARACTERIZED BY UNCLEAR TRANSITIONAL ZONES
TO EG MEADOWS /WING TO THESE REASONS AS WELL AS TO A LIMITED
INTEREST IN PRODUCING ACCURATE REED MAPS THE EXISTING INFOR
MATION REGARDING REED GROWING AREAS PRIOR TO THIS RESOURCE
MAPPING WAS FOUND TO BE INSUFFICIENT AND NOT UP TO DATE TO
BE SUITABLE FOR SPECIFIC REED ORIENTED PURPOSES 4HAT IS WHY
IT WAS FOUND ESSENTIAL TO CONDUCT THIS ANALYSIS n TO ASCERTAIN
MORE ACCURATELY WHERE REED ACTUALLY GROWS
4HE RESOURCE MAPPING WAS CARRIED OUT OVER A COMPARATIVELY
LARGE RESEARCH AREA COASTAL AREAS OF SOUTHERN &INLAND AND .%
%STONIA &IG   AND THE TIME SPAN ALLOCATED TO COMPLETE THE
STUDY WAS THREE MONTHS &EB !PR   7HEN MAPPING VEG
ETATION PATTERNS SUCH AS REED GROWING AREAS A SUITABLE BALANCE
BETWEEN THE SCALE AND SCOPE HAS ALSO TO BE DECIDED UPON THE
RESULT OF WHICH BEING THAT THE DECISION MUST CORRESPOND TO
THE WORKLOAD AND THE COSTS AVAILABLE TO BE UTILISED &OR THAT
REASON THE ANALYSIS WAS CONDUCTED BY INTERPRETING SATELLITE IM
AGES ENABLING THE PROCESSING OF A LARGE AREA IN A COMPARATIVELY
SHORT TIME !IR PHOTOS WOULD HAVE GIVEN FAR MORE DETAILED
RESULTS BUT NEITHER THE SCHEDULE NOR FINANCIAL RESOURCES SUP
PORTED THEIR USE
0RIOR TO PERFORMING THE ANALYSIS FOR THE WHOLE AREA A SMALL
PILOT STUDY WAS CONDUCTED IN ORDER TO ASSESS THE SUITABILITY

&IG  4HE RESEARCH AREA

OF SATELLITE IMAGERY FOR REED RESOURCE MAPPING AS WELL AS TO

PROVIDE A ROUGH ESTIMATE ON THE ACCURACY OF THE RESULTS !
SMALL AREA NEAR THE CITY OF 4URKU 37 &INLAND WAS SELECTED
FOR THE TESTING AREA BECAUSE OF THE OPTIMAL AVAILABILITY OF
SATELLITE IMAGES AND AIR PHOTOS FOR THIS PURPOSE 4HE SATEL
LITE IMAGES SELECTED WERE THREE SEPARATE ,ANDSAT 4-%4-
FRAMES ACQUIRED ON *UNE  *ULY  AND !UGUST 
4HESE ,ANDSAT SATELLITES HAVE A SPATIAL RESOLUTION OF  M IE
THE IMAGE PIXEL SIZE THE SMALLEST DETECTABLE UNIT AND THEY
CONTAIN  CHANNELS EACH OF WHICH IS CAPABLE OF DETECTING


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A DIFFERENT WAVELENGTH AREA OF THE SPECTRUM OR  %4-
SATELLITES POSSESS AN EXTRA PANCHROMATIC CHANNEL  ! ,ANDSAT
FRAME COVERS AN AREA OF  X  KM WITH A  DAY ACQUISI
TION CYCLE DETECTION FREQUENCY OF THE SAME AREA (OWEVER THE
USABILITY OF A SINGLE FRAME DEPENDS PRIMARILY ON THE WEATHER
CONDITIONS !LL OF THESE THREE ANALYSED IMAGES COVERED EXACTLY
THE SAME AREA BUT BECAUSE THEY REPRESENTED DIFFERENT MONTHS
OF ACQUISITION THEY MADE IT POSSIBLE TO ASSESS WHETHER THERE
WERE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EARLY AND LATE SUMMER DATES REGARD
ING REED GROWING AREAS 7INTERTIME IMAGES WERE NOT CHOSEN
TO BE UTILIZED BECAUSE THE AVAILABILITY OF WINTER IMAGES OF GOOD
AND UNIFORM QUALITY WOULD BE FAIRLY DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN FOR THE
WHOLE STUDY AREA AS A RESULT OF HIGHLY VARYING SNOWICE CONDI
TIONS /NE IMAGE ACQUIRED BY !34%2 SATELLITE WAS ALSO INVES
TIGATED BUT DESPITE ITS BETTER SPATIAL RESOLUTION  M  IT WAS
NOT FOUND TO BE SUPERIOR TO ,ANDSAT IMAGES AS !34%2 IMAGES
ARE LIMITED BECAUSE OF POORER SPECTRAL RESOLUTION NUMBER OF
CHANNELS  -OREOVER ANALYSING THE WHOLE RESEARCH AREA BY US
ING THEM WOULD HAVE BEEN FAR MORE EXPENSIVE AND LABORIOUS
COMPARED TO ,ANDSAT FRAMES !LL THE COMPUTER AIDED ANALYSES
NEEDED FOR THE PILOT STUDY AS WELL AS FOR THE WHOLE RESOURCE
MAPPING STUDY WERE CONDUCTED IN THE ,ABORATORY OF #OMPU
TER #ARTOGRAPHY AT THE $EPARTMENT OF 'EOGRAPHY 5NIVERSITY
OF 4URKU &INLAND BY USING %2$!3 )MAGINE  AND !RC')3
 PROGRAMS
4HE PILOT STUDY INVOLVED TESTING SEVERAL METHODS DEVELOPED
FOR SATELLITE IMAGE PROCESSING 4HESE METHODS INCLUDED UNSU
PERVISED CLASSIFICATION )SODATA CLUSTERING  SUPERVISED CLASSIFI
CATION VEGETATION INDICES )22 AND .$6) AND OTHER SPECTRAL
ENHANCEMENT PROCEDURES PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS AND
4ASSELLED CAP nTRANSFORMATION  )N CONCLUSION THE BEST RESULTS
WERE GAINED BY CAREFULLY SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION n A METHOD
THAT REQUIRES THE DEFINITION OF SMALL TRAINING AREAS FOR EACH
SPECTRALLY DIFFERING LAND COVER CLASS "ASED ON THE INFORMATION
PROVIDED BY THE USER THE CLASSIFICATION FOR THE WHOLE IMAGE
AREA IS COMPLETED BY THE COMPUTER PROGRAM 3OME FURTHER
PROCESSING STEPS WERE FOUND NECESSARY PRIOR TO INTRODUCING
THE FINAL AREA OF REED GROWING AREAS IN POLYGON FORMAT ONLY
THOSE AREAS CLASSIFIED TO BE REED IN CONTACT WITH THE SHORELINE
SHOULD BE KEPT THIS WILL DELETE ALL INLAND hREEDv AREAS THAT ARE
MORE LIKELY TO BE ERRONEOUSLY CLASSIFIED AND DO NOT BELONG TO
THE SCOPE OF THIS STUDY  4HE REMAINING REED CLASSIFIED PIXELS
SHOULD BE FILTERED BY USING X MAJORITY FUNCTIONS THIS WILL
REDUCE NOISE IE FILL SMALL HOLES INSIDE LARGER REED PATCHES AND
DELETE ISOLATED REED PIXELS  !FTER CONVERTING THE RASTER DATA SET
INTO POLYGON FORMAT BORDER LINES SHOULD BE SLIGHTLY SMOOTHED

OUT TO ACHIEVE A REALISTIC RESULT 2EED PATCHES APPEAR TO EXTEND

THEIR AREA SIGNIFICANTLY DURING THE LATE SUMMER DATES (OW
EVER THE EXPANSION OF REED AREAS IN GENERAL BETWEEN THE YEARS
n MAY HAVE AFFECTED THE RESULTS 4HE ANALYSIS CON
CLUDED THAT LATE SUMMER IMAGES SHOULD BE USED IN THE ANALYSIS
&URTHERMORE AN ACCURACY ASSESSMENT OF THE RESULTING REED AREA
DELINEATIONS WAS PERFORMED BY COMPARING AERIAL IMAGE INTER
PRETATION 4WO TRUE COLOUR AIR PHOTOS FROM THE YEAR  WERE
USED ACQUIRED AT AN ALTITUDE OF  M )T WAS FOUND THAT SAT
ELLITE IMAGE INTERPRETATION IS BY NO MEANS A FLAWLESS METHOD
.EVERTHELESS IT STILL IS CAPABLE OF PRODUCING FAIRLY ACCURATE
RESULTS BY RECOGNIZING APPROXIMATELY   OF ALL REED GROWING
AREAS 4HIS DEGREE OF ACCURACY WAS JUDGED TO BE SUFFICIENT TO
BE USED IN REED RESOURCE MAPPING
4HE MAPPING WAS CONDUCTED FOR THE WHOLE STUDY AREA BY
USING THE METHODOLOGY FOUND MOST SUITABLE DURING THE PILOT
STUDY 4HE SATELLITE IMAGES CHOSEN FOR THIS TASK WERE ,ANDSAT
4-%4- IMAGES WHICH FULFILLED THE CONDITIONS SET FOR THE
ACQUISITION YEAR LESS THAN  YEARS OLD  MONTH END OF *ULY
OR !UGUST AND WEATHER AS FEW CLOUDS AS POSSIBLE  AND FOR
THE PRICE n THE MOST EXPENSIVE CATEGORIES OF ,ANDSAT IMAGES
WERE NOT AFFORDABLE 4HE STUDY AREA WAS COVERED BY USING FOUR
SEPARATE IMAGE FRAMES ACQUIRED BETWEEN THE YEARS n
4WO ADDITIONAL IMAGES WERE USED TO COVER A FEW MINOR CLOUDS
PRESENT IN THE MAIN IMAGES 4HERMAL AND PANCHROMATIC CHAN
NELS WERE REMOVED FROM THE IMAGES AND THEY WERE GEOREFER
ENCED AND RECTIFIED AT A MAXIMUM ERROR OF  METERS WITH WA
TER AREAS BEING MASKED AWAY !FTER PREPROCESSING PROCEDURES
ALL SATELLITE IMAGES WERE CLASSIFIED BY USING THE SUPERVISED AP
PROACH MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD CLASSIFICATION  4HE CLASSIFICATION
RESULTS OF SEPARATE IMAGES ESPECIALLY OF THE ADJACENT FRAMES
WERE CONSTRUCTED TO BE AS SIMILAR AS POSSIBLE BEFORE CONVERTING
THEM INTO POLYGONS AND COMBINING THE OUTCOME INTO A SINGLE
DATA SET !LL POLYGONS OUTSIDE THE SHORE ZONE WERE DELETED AND
RESULTS WERE CHECKED WITH APPARENTLY MISCLASSIFIED POLYGONS
BEING REMOVED &INALLY BORDERLINES WERE EVENED OUT
7HILE THE RESULTS INDICATED THAT REED IS QUITE COMMON IN THE
COASTAL ZONE OF SOUTHERN &INLAND &IG   THE EXTENT OF REED
PATCHES VARY MARKEDLY BETWEEN DIFFERENT REGIONS 4HE LARGEST
AREAS COVERED BY REED ARE LOCATED IN THE SHELTERED BAYS OF MIDDLE
AND SOUTHERN 6ARSINAIS 3UOMI PROVINCE AS WELL AS IN EASTERN
5USIMAA AND +YMENLAAKSO PROVINCES 2EED GROWING AREAS ARE
MOST EXTENSIVE ON THE MAINLAND SHORES n PATCHES GROW SMALLER
AND BELTS NARROWER IN THE MORE UNSHELTERED ARCHIPELAGO AREAS
4HE TOTAL REED COVERAGE IN THE &INNISH STUDY AREA WAS  
HA CONSISTING OF APPROXIMATELY   SEPARATE POLYGONS /N


5HHG DV ,W LV
THE MUNICIPAL LEVEL THE LARGEST REED GROWING
AREAS WERE FOUND IN 0ERNAJA  HA  0OR
VOO  HA AND 4AMMISAARI  HA 
)N THE %STONIAN STUDY AREA REED AREAS ARE
NOT AS EVENLY LOCATED AS IN &INLAND &IG 
n SOME SHORES ARE TOTALLY LACKING REED BUT A
FEW PATCHES ESPECIALLY IN -ATSALU BAY COVER
CONSIDERABLY LARGE AREAS 4HE MAJORITY OF
OTHER NOTEWORTHY REED AREAS ARE LOCATED ON
THE MAINLAND SHORES AND ON THE SHELTERED
COASTLINE OF 3AAREMAA ISLAND "Y CONTRAST
THE AREAS OF HIGHER WIND EXPOSURE ARE ALMOST
REEDLESS 3ATELLITE IMAGE INTERPRETATION WAS
FOUND TO BE MORE DIFFICULT IN %STONIA COM
PARED WITH &INLAND BECAUSE OF A LARGER AREA
OF MEADOWS AND OTHER REED LIKE VEGETATION
REED LIKE REGARDING SPECTRAL SIGNALS RECEIVED
BY SATELLITE  4HE TOTAL COVERAGE OF REED
GROWING AREAS IN THE %STONIAN STUDY AREA WAS
  HA CONSISTING OF APPROXIMATELY 
SEPARATE REED POLYGONS /N THE MUNICIPAL
LEVEL ,IHULA  HA  2IDALA  HA
AND +RLA  HA WERE MOST FEATURED BY
REED GROWING AREAS THE TWO FIRST MENTIONED
OF WHICH ARE SITUATED ON -ATSALU BAY AND
THE LAST ONE ON THE SOUTHERN COAST OF 3AARE
MAA ISLAND

&IG  2EED PATCHES IN THE &INNISH STUDY AREA

4HE ACCURACY OF SATELLITE BASED MAPPING IS DEPEND

ENT ON THE METHODOLOGY USED AND THE EXPERIENCE OF THE
INTERPRETER 4HE RESULTS HOWEVER MAY ALWAYS BE SEEN
AS SLIGHTLY SUBJECTIVE .ONETHELESS THE RESULTS ATTAINED
IN THE REED RESOURCE MAPPING WERE REGARDED AS FAIRLY
ACCURATE COMPARED WITH THE WORKLOAD 3TILL BECAUSE
THEY LACK A COMPREHENSIVE ACCURACY ASSESSMENT AND THE
RESOLUTION OF THE SATELLITE IMAGES RESTRICTS THE DETECTION
OF SMALLER TARGETS THEY SHOULD FOR THE MOST PART BE
INTERPRETED AS TREND INDICATING RESULTS /THER SOURCES
OF ERRORS ALSO INCLUDE POSSIBLE DEFICIENCIES IN GEOMETRIC
ACCURACY hMIXED PIXELSv OR PIXELS CONTAINING MORE THAN
ONE LAND COVER TYPE FALLACIOUS CLASSIFICATION TRAINING
AREAS AND SPECTRAL SIMILARITIES OF REED GROWING AREAS
COVER CLASSES (OWEVER THE PURPOSE OF THE MAPPING
WAS FOUND TO BE SUFFICIENTLY REALIZED n THE STUDY OFFERS
A GOOD GENERAL LEVEL ESTIMATE OF THE PRESENCE OF REED
GROWING AREAS ON THE COASTAL ZONES OF SOUTHERN &INLAND
AND .7 %STONIA PROVIDING A GOOD STARTING POINT FOR
FURTHER REED RELATED ACTIVITIES

&IG  2EED PATCHES IN THE %STONIAN STUDY AREA



5HHG DV ,W LV
4HE METHODOLOGY OF MAPPING REEDS FROM INTERPRET
ING ,ANDSAT SATELLITE IMAGES HAS BEEN DEVELOPED AND
TESTED IN &INLAND %STONIAN COASTAL CONDITIONS ARE
DIFFERENT WITH DIFFERENT BEDROCK RELIEF GRADIENTS AND
COASTAL MORPHOLOGY 4HUS REEDS ARE SUBJECT TO DIFFER
ENT ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 4O CONTROL HOW THE EFFICACY
OF THE METHOD IN %STONIAN REEDS &INNISH MAPPING RE
SULTS WERE COMPARED WITH THE %STONIAN REED MAP FROM
3AAREMAA )SLAND "OTH THE AREA OF REED BEDS AND THE
SPATIAL PLACEMENT OF REED POLYGONS ARE COMPARED
4HE 3AAREMAA REED MAP &IG  IS MADE BY CORRECT
ING &INNISH DATA BY ANALYZING TRUE COLOR AERIAL PHOTOS
AS WELL AS BY EXAMINING THE %STONIAN BASIC MAP 
  #ORINE LAND COVER DATA COASTAL DATABASES AND
USING EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
4HE RESULTS 4ABLE  SHOW THAT THE AVERAGE REED
AREA ERROR AMOUNTS TO  WHICH IS IN ACCORDANCE
WITH THE PREFERRED  PROBABILITY 4HE MAXIMUM
ERROR IS UP TO  IN -USTJALA PARISH 4HE RESULTS ARE
NOT AS ACCURATE WHEN OR AFTER COMPARING THE COMMON
PART OF CORRECTED AND NOT CORRECTED REED POLYGONS )T
SEEMS THAT POLYGONS DERIVED FROM SATELLITE IMAGES AND
DETAILED REED POLYGONS HAVE A COMMON SPATIAL PART OF
LESS THAN  MEANING  OF CALCULATED REED AREAS
DONT ACTUALLY HAVE REAL REED COVER )N ,EISI PARISH THE
CALCULATED REEDS COVER SPATIALLY ONLY  OF THE REEDS
HAVING AN AREA ERROR OF ONLY 
 )T SEEMS THAT
BECAUSE REEDS HAVE SPREAD TO THE NARROW AREA ALONG
THE COASTLINE THE SPATIAL ERROR OF ^ M CAN hRELOCATEv
REEDS TO AREAS DEVOID OF REEDS
4HE RESULTS OF THIS ANALYSIS SHOW THAT THE METHODOL
OGY OF MAPPING REEDS FROM A SATELLITE WORKS IN %STO
NIAN COASTAL AREAS ON THE COUNTY LEVEL /N THE PARISH
LEVEL THE PROBABILITY OF ERROR CAN BE TOO SIGNIFICANT TO
USE THIS DATA IN THE ACTUAL PLANNING PROCESS "ECAUSE
REEDS USUALLY HAVE A SPECIFICALLY STRETCHED SHAPE THEY
ARE VERY SENSITIVE TO SPATIAL ERRORS 4HE PREPROCESSING
OF SATELLITE IMAGES MUST BE VERY CAREFULLY PERFORMED IN
ORDER TO PROVIDE THE REED MAP WITH SPATIAL ACCURACY

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&IG !N EXAMPLE OF THE COMPARISON BETWEEN THE FIRST STUDY WHICH WAS &INNISH AND THE SECOND STUDY WHICH WAS %STONIAN -AP 4AMBET +IKAS



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-APPING REED BEDS IN -ATSALU %STONIA 0HOTO +AJA ,OTMAN



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STAGE OF NATURAL SUCCESSION FROM YOUNG REED THAT RECENTLY
COLONISED AREAS OF OPEN WATER TO DRY LAND "ECOMING OLDER
REED BEDS ACCUMULATE LITTER AND DEAD VEGETATION ON THE GROUND
LEVEL !S A RESULT A LITTER LAYER RISES AND REED BED BECOMES DRY
ER ALLOWING OTHER PLANT SPECIES INCLUDING SHRUBS AND TREES
TO COLONISE THESE HABITATS $IFFERENT REED BED CLASSES REPRESENT
DIFFERENT HABITATS THAT VARY IN THE SPECIES THEY CAN SUPPORT
4HOSE REED BEDS STANDING IN WATER DURING THE SUMMER OFTEN
ATTRACT BIRDS AND INVERTEBRATES BUT HAVE LITTLE BOTANICAL INTER
EST )N CONTRAST REED BEDS WITH WATER LEVELS AT OR BELOW THE
SURFACE DURING THE SUMMER CONTAIN RICHER PLANT SPECIES COM
POSITION
4HE STUDY FOLLOWED THE VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION SCHEMA OF
/ESCH /ESCH   ACCORDING TO WHICH REED BEDS CAN BE
DIVIDED INTO SIX SUB CLASSES RANGING FROM DRY REED BED THAT
CONTAINS A LARGE AMOUNT OF OTHER VEGETATION CLASS ) TO PURE
STANDS OF REED GROWING IN WATER 4HE CLASSIFICATION OF REED
BEDS IS BASED ON THE BEDS STRUCTURE WATER AND LITTER LEVEL AND
PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF OTHER VEGETATION SEE !PPENDIX  FOR
CLASSES CHARACTERISTICS  $UE TO THE WATER LEVEL AND SOIL PROPER
TIES GROUND IN REED BED CAN BE MUDDY BOGGY OR RATHER DRY
OTHER VEGETATION MAY OCCUR VIGOROUSLY AND BE PREDOMINANT
OR BE ABSENT %ACH REED BED CLASS CAN ALSO BE CHARACTERISED
BY THE TYPICALLY ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES %MPLOYING THIS CLAS
SIFICATION AT OUR STUDY SITES ONE MORE REED BED SUB CLASS WAS
ADDED (AVING THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS A 6) REED BED CLASS IT
DIFFERS FROM IT STRUCTURALLY PRESENTING A MOSAIC OF WATER OPEN
INGS AND PATCHES OF DENSE REED STANDS 4HIS SUB CLASS HENCE
HAS BEEN NAMED AS A 6) MOSAIC TYPE OF REED BEDS $UE TO THE
STRUCTURE SUCH REED BED SEEMS TO BE AN IMPORTANT HABITAT FOR
NUMEROUS BIRD SPECIES

4HIS WORK AIMED TO PRODUCE VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION FOR

COASTAL WETLANDS IN TWO PILOT SITES IN 3OUTHWEST &INLAND )N
THIS CLASSIFICATION REED BEDS WERE SUBDIVIDED INTO SEVERAL SUB
CLASSES BASED ON SPECIFIC PROPERTIES THAT ARE GENERALLY RELATED
TO THE PARTICULAR STAGE OF REED BED SUCCESSION 4HE STUDY EM
PLOYED AN INTERPRETATION OF THE COLOUR INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHS
AND FIELD SURVEYS CARRIED OUT DURING THE SUMMER  4HESE
')3 BASED VEGETATION MAPS WERE THEN COMBINED WITH THE RE
SULTS OF DRY REED BIOMASS AND THATCH QUALITY MAPPING #OM
BINING A VEGETATION MAP AND REED QUALITY MEASUREMENTS INTO
ONE DATABASE ENABLES AN OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF REED BEDS AND
CAN SERVE AS A STARTING POINT FOR PLANNING OF THE MANAGEMENT
ACTIVITIES 4HE ARTICLE IS FOCUSING MOSTLY ON THE DESCRIPTION OF
THE METHODOLOGY USED IN THIS WORK

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0LANNING OF CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION ACTIVITIES WITHIN REED
BEDS REQUIRES KNOWLEDGE ON THEIR LOCATION EXTENT AND QUALITY
4O ASSESS THEIR POTENTIAL BIODIVERSITY VALUE OR USEFULNESS FOR
BIOENERGY AND CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES THESE COASTAL WETLANDS
SHOULD BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR PROPERTIES 4HERE IS A
CHALLENGE HOWEVER TO FIND A UNIFORM CLASSIFICATION APPROACH
THAT CAN BE APPLIED TO DIFFERENT GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS 4HIS IS
BECAUSE REED BEDS VARY FROM PLACE TO PLACE DUE TO A NUMBER OF
FACTORS INCLUDING CLIMATE TOPOGRAPHY SOIL PROPERTIES AND MAN
AGEMENT HISTORY OF THE SITE
7HILE ALL REED BEDS ARE TYPICALLY DOMINATED BY MONOTONOUS
STANDS OF 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS THEY DIFFER IN MANY WAYS 4HEY
VARY IN AGE STRUCTURE WATER AND LITTER LEVEL AND PRESENCE AND
ABUNDANCE OF OTHER VEGETATION 3TEMS OF REED MAY BE DIFFERENT
IN HEIGHT DENSITY AND THICKNESS 4HESE PROPERTIES ARE LIKELY RE
LATED TO THE GRADUAL STAGES OF SUCCESSION IN THE COASTAL WETLAND
AND MAY SERVE AS A BASIS TO CLASSIFY REED BEDS INTO SEVERAL TYPES
!S KNOWN AN UNMANAGED REED BED PRESENTS A TRANSITIONAL

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4WO COASTAL WETLANDS BOTH REPRESENTED BRACKISH WATER AREAS
IN DIFFERENT PART OF THE 3OUTHWEST &INLAND WERE USED IN THIS


5HHG DV ,W LV
STUDY /NE IS SITUATED ALONG THE (ALIKONLAHTI "AY 3ALO TOWN
IN A PART OF THE 3ALO REGION WHICH IS LOCATED  KILOMETRES
EAST OF 4URKU AND  KILOMETRES WEST OF (ELSINKI 4HE WHOLE
AREA OF REED BEDS ALONG THE (ALIKONLAHTI "AY IS MORE THAN 
HA 7ATER OF THE BAY IS NUTRIENT RICH DUE TO THE RUNOFF FROM
THE SURROUNDING AGRICULTURAL LANDS AND NATURALLY SLOW WATER
EXCHANGE RATES %XTENSIVE REED BEDS THERE OFFER SHELTER FOR NU
MEROUS MIGRATORY BIRDS AND NESTING SPECIES 4HE SECOND SITE IS
LOCATED ON THE ISLAND OF (IRVENSALO WHICH IS A PART OF THE CITY
OF 4URKU AND SITUATED IN THE FRONT OF THE 4URKU HARBOUR 4HE
WHOLE AREA OF THE ISLAND IS  HA WITH REED BEDS COVERING
ABOUT  HA 0ART OF THE AREA &RISKALANLAHTI IS BELONG TO THE
.ATURA  .ETWORK

OF REED STANDS BASED ON THEIR SHADOWS 4HE INTERPRETATION OF

THE VEGETATION TYPES WAS ALSO SUPPORTED BY THE DIGITAL 4OPO
GRAPHIC $ATABASE PROVIDED BY THE .ATIONAL ,AND 3URVEY OF
&INLAND 4HIS DATABASE CONTAINS AMONGST OTHERS POLYGONS OF
FLOODPLAINS AND MUDDY AREAS 4HE POLYGONS REPRESENTED DIF
FERENT VEGETATION TYPES WERE DRAWN UP ON SCREEN IN !RC')3
5NCLEAR BOUNDARIES BETWEEN PATCHES WERE CHECKED IN THE
FIELD EMPLOYING THE GLOBAL POSITION SYSTEM '03  4HE FIELD
SURVEYS WERE CONDUCTED IN THE SUMMER OF  "ECAUSE THE
STUDY AREAS WERE RELATIVELY SMALL IT WAS POSSIBLE TO OBSERVE
MOST OF THEM )N THE FIELD THE VEGETATION TYPE OF THE PATCH
THE SITE PROPERTIES SUCH AS BOTTOM CONDITION AND WATER LEVEL
AND THE PLANT SPECIES FOUND WITH IN WERE RECORDED IN THE DATA
SHEETS AND THEN INPUTTED INTO THE !RC')3 DATABASE

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0RELIMINARY VEGETATION MAPS WERE BASED ON AN INTERPRETA

TION OF THE COLOUR INFRARED AERIAL PHOTOS HAVING A HIGH SPATIAL
RESOLUTION ONE PIXEL COVERS AREA OF  M  M  CAPTURED IN
EARLY AUTUMN 4HE IMAGES WERE INTERPRETED TO DELINEATE DIF
FERENT VEGETATION PATCHES 3EPARATION OF REED BEDS FROM OTHER
VEGETATION TYPES IN COLOUR INFRARED PHOTOS WAS POSSIBLE DUE TO
THE DIFFERENCES IN COLOUR SHADOWS VARYING FROM LIGHT GREEN TO
INTENSIVE RED 4HE DENSITY OF THE VEGETATION CAN ALSO BE SEEN IN
THE PHOTOGRAPHS !T SOME SITES ONE CAN EVEN RECOGNISE HEIGHT

-APPING OF REED QUALITY AND BIOMASS WAS CARRIED IN SPRING

 &IELD SURVEY AND LOCATION OF THE SAMPLE POINTS WERE
PLANNED BASED ON THE MAPS DERIVED FROM THE SATELLITE IMAGERY
AND AIR PHOTOS
)N THE FIELD PROPERTIES OF REED STANDS OF EACH SAMPLE SITE
WERE FIRST EVALUATED VISUALLY AND THEN MEASURED 4HREE TO SIX
QUADRATE SAMPLE PLOTS WERE SELECTED FROM EACH LARGE REED BED
BY USING  X  M WOODEN FRAME 4HE RESULTS OF THE REED AS
SESSMENT WERE RECORDED ON A FIELD SHEET THAT INCLUDED FOLLOW

3TUDY AREAS IN 4URKU AND 3ALO 3OUTHWEST &INLAND



5HHG DV ,W LV
ING PARAMETERS COORDINATES OF THE SAMPLE
POINT DESCRIPTION OF THE SITE AND ITS SUR
ROUNDINGS CURRENT WEATHER CONDITIONS
LEVEL OF THE ICESNOW ABOVEGROUND LENGTH
OF THE STEM AND BASAL STEM DIAMETER AN
AVERAGE OF FIVE STEMS AS WELL AS THE PROP
ERTIES OF THE REED MATERIAL SUCH AS HARD
NESS STRAIGHTNESS AND COLOUR )N ADDITION
THE COLOUR OF THE LOWEST PART OF THE STEMS
WAS CHECKED 7E ALSO MEASURED THE HEIGHT
AND BASAL DIAMETER OF THE HIGHEST STEMS
THAT SEEM TO BE ATTRACTIVE FOR BIRD NESTING
4HE FOLLOWING EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL
WAS USED IN THE FIELD A  X  M WOODED
PLOT FRAME FIELD SHEETS A '03 NAVIGATOR
CLIPPERS 6ERNIER CALLIPERS FOR MEASURING
STEM DIAMETER A METRIC RULER A DIGITAL
SCALE AND BLACK PLASTIC BAGS
(IGH QUALITY THATCHING REED IS BRIGHT
YELLOW STRAIGHT AND HARD HARD WHEN
FELT AND NOT BRITTLE  )T STANDS IN BUNCHES
FAIRLY UNIFORM IN LENGTH WHERE THE AVER
AGE LENGTH IS ABOUT  CM LONG AND THE
AVERAGE THICKNESS   MM )T SHOULD ALSO
BE DURABLE AS THATCH )N ADDITION A HIGH
QUALITY REED STEM SHOULD BE SLIGHTLY RED
DISH AT ITS BOTTOM "ASED ON THESE PARAM
ETERS REED MATERIAL WAS CLASSIFIED INTO FOUR
CLASSES RANGING FROM THE PRIMA QUALITY
REED TO REED UNSUITABLE FOR THATCHING 4HE
FIRST CLASS REED MATERIAL SHOULD BE HOMOGE
NEOUS IN STRUCTURE AND NO HIGHER THAN TWO
METERS TALL WITH A BASAL STEM DIAMETER  
MM COARSE AND STRAIGHT DEVOID OF RUB
BISH SUCH AS OLD REED STEMS AND THE STEMS
OF OTHER PLANTS 4HOSE REED STANDS WHICH
ARE TOO TALL OR TOO THICK OR CONTAINING
POOR QUALITY MATERIAL CANNOT BE USED FOR
THATCHING AND ARE ASSIGNED TO THE FOURTH
CLASS OF POOR REED MATERIAL 'OOD QUAL
ITY REED THAT HOWEVER EXCEEDED TWO AND
HALF METERS WAS MARKED AS AN APPROPRIATE
MATERIAL FOR REED MATS
&OR BIOMASS ASSESSMENT ALL ABOVE
GROUND REED STEMS INSIDE A SAMPLE PLOT
WERE HARVESTED BY CUTTING THEM AT ICE

2EED BED TYPE )) 2ATHER DRY GROUND THICK LITTER LAYER NUMBER OF OTHER PLANT SPECIES (ALIKONLAHTI "AY
3ALO 0HOTO .ATALIA 2IKKNEN TH *UNE 

2EED BED TYPE 6) MOSAIC -OSAIC OF DENSE REED AND WATER PATCHES (ALIKONLAHTI "AY 3ALO
0HOTO .ATALIA 2IKKNEN TH *UNE 



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4HE MOISTURE CONTENT CAN BE CALCULATED AS FOLLOWS
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&INALLY THE DRY REED BIOMASS CAN BE ESTIMATED BY MULTI

PLYING THE FIELD REED BIOMASS ON THE MOISTURE CONTENT AND
EXPRESSED IN TONNES PER HECTARE

! SQUARE METRE FRAME HAS BEEN PLACED ON THE REED BED %VERY STEM
INSIDE THE FRAME IS COUNTED 4HIS IS HOW THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF REED
STEMS IS MEASURED 3CIENTIST LO +ASK AT WORK IN SPRING  IN
(IRVENSALO 4URKU &INLAND 0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG
&IG  &OLLOWING VEGETATION TYPES WERE DISTINGUISHED IN THE STUDY AREAS
7XUNX

2EED ENTREPRENEUR -IHKEL ,ING IS SHOWING A &INNISH GROUP HOW

TO IDENTIFY THE BEST QUALITY REED FOR THATCHING 3AAREMAA %STONIA
-ARCH  0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG

SNOW LEVEL AND THEN WEIGHED 4HE FIELD WEIGHT OF REED MATE
RIAL HOWEVER IS AN UNSTABLE CHARACTERISTIC BECAUSE MOISTURE
CONTENT MAY VARY SIGNIFICANTLY DUE TO THE WEATHER AND SITE
CONDITIONS 4HEREFORE THE DRY BIOMASS SHOULD BE ESTIMATED
TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY BETWEEN THE SITES )T REQUIRES DETER
MINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT THAT CAN BE DONE IN A LABORA
TORY WHERE REED SAMPLES SHOULD BE DRIED AT  # FOR 
HOURS !LAKANGAS  

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4HE RESULTS OF THE WORK ARE SHOWN IN &IGURES
 4URKU AND 3ALO VEGETATION TYPES AND
&IGURE  (ALIKONLAHTI "AY 3ALO  )N LATTER
DRY BIOMASS VALUES AND QUALITY CLASSES ARE
VISUALIZED OVER THE VEGETATION MAP (ERE
DIFFERENT COLOURS ILLUSTRATE DIFFERENT VEGETA
TION TYPES AND REED BED CLASSES 4HE GRADES
OF BIOMASS VALUES ARE PRESENTED AS DARK PUR
PLE CIRCLES VARYING IN SIZE WHILE CLASSES OF THE
REED QUALITY ARE VISUALIZED BY PATTERN FILLING
GRADES 4HE REED BEDS OF 6) TYPE AND )6 TYPE
HAVE BEEN REPRESENTED THE MOST EXTENSIVELY
IN BOTH STUDY SITES COVERING ACCORDINGLY
  AND   OF THE STUDY AREA IN 4URKU
AND   AND   OF THE (ALIKONLAHTI "AY
STUDY AREA &IG  AND &IG  
%STIMATES OF ABOVEGROUND DRY BIOMASS OF
REED VARY IN THE (IRVENSALO STUDY AREA FROM 
TO  ON AVERAGE   TONNES PER HECTARE AND
IN REED BEDS ALONG (ALIKONLAHTI "AY FROM 
TO  ON AVERAGE   TONNES PER HECTARE
4HE QUALITY OF REED ALSO VARIES SIGNIFICANTLY
NOT ONLY FROM PLACE TO PLACE BUT EVEN WITHIN
THE SAME REED BED 2EED ON THE EDGES OF THE
BED IS USUALLY MORE THICK AND CROOKED AND
CAN BE USED FOR ENERGY PURPOSES 4HE EDGES
ARE USUALLY RICHER IN OTHER VEGETATION BE
CAUSE THEY ARE BRIGHTER WARMER AND DRIER
!S A RESULT REED MATERIAL HARVESTED FROM THE
EDGES REQUIRES MORE LABOUR FOR SEPARATING IT
FROM OTHER PLANTS SHOOTS )NSIDE OF REED BED
WIND INTENSITY DECLINES WETNESS INCREASES
AND REED TENDS TO BE MORE DENSE THIN AND
STRAIGHT AND HENCE MIGHT BE BETTER SUITED
FOR THATCHING
3UCH DETAILED CLASSIFICATION OF THE COASTAL
WETLANDS WAS POSSIBLE DUE TO THE RELATIVELY
SMALL STUDY AREAS AND AVAILABILITY OF HIGH
QUALITY AERIAL IMAGERY )T SHOULD BE NOTED
ALSO THAT THE RESULTS OF REED BIOMASS AND
QUALITY MAPPING HAVE TEMPORARY NATURE AND
CAN VARY FROM YEAR TO YEAR DUE TO THE WEATHER
CONDITIONS OR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

&IG  2ESULTS OF VEGETATION MAPPING AND REED QUALITY AND BIOMASS MAPPING HAVE BEEN PUT
ON THE SAME MAP -AP .ATALIA 2IKKNEN

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4HE -ATSALU REED BED IS ONE OF THE BIGGEST AND OLDEST IN THE
COASTAL REGIONS OF THE "ALTIC 3EA 4HE FIRST WRITTEN DETAILS ABOUT
THE REED BED DATE FROM  WHEN THE ORNITHOLOGIST 2US
SOW AND THE LANDOWNER 'ERNET WERE DESCRIBED THE EXTENSIVE
ALMOST  KM IN TOTAL REED BED IN THE +ASARI RIVER DELTA
4HE REED BED HAD #OMMON 2EED BULRUSH AND CALAMUS WITH
LARGER CLUMPS OF SEDGE GROWING IN BETWEEN
)N  % +UMARI ESTIMATED THE -ATSALU REED BED TO BE 
KM IN SIZE AND HE REPORTED THAT THE REED BED WAS SPREADING
TOWARDS THE WEST IN THE SHALLOW WATERS OF THE BAY AND TOWARDS
THE EAST ALONG THE RIVERBANKS +UMARI   "Y  THE
REED BEDS SURFACE AREA HAD GROWN EVEN FURTHER !CCORDING TO
+SENOFONTOVA   THE SURFACE AREA OF THE REED BED WAS
THEN  KM AND IT STRETCHED FROM EAST TO WEST FOR A DISTANCE
OF  KM AND FROM NORTH TO SOUTH FOR A DISTANCE OF   KM

&IVE BASIC REED TYPES CAN BE DISTINGUISHED IN -ATSALU +SENO

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!S A RESULT OF DECOMPOSITION AND PALUDIFICATION FOLLOW

ING CHANGES IN THE WATER LEVEL THE CURRENT VEGETATION IN THE
REED BEDS IS SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT 4HE HABITATS OF CATS TAIL AND
CLUB RUSH HAVE EXPANDED AND THERE SEEMS TO BE MORE REED
SWEET GRASS ,ARGE GROUPS OF IRIS GROW IN THE REED
BEDS
4HE MAIN FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE STRUCTURE
AND DYNAMICS OF A REED BED IN -ATSALU AND THE
WESTERN COAST OF %STONIA ARE AS FOLLOWS
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4HE VAST REED BEDS OF -ATSALU "AY CAN ONLY BE SEEN FROM A WATCHTOWER NEAR 3UITSU 2IVER
OR ELSE FROM THE AIR 0HOTO )VAR /JASTE



4HE ABOVE MENTIONED CONTINUING GROWTH IN

THE REED BEDS SURFACE AREA IS IN THE MAIN DUE
TO THE SHAPE OF THE -ATSALU +ASARI 6ALLEY )N THE
S THE BIGGEST AND WIDEST PART OF -ATSALU
"AY REACHED AN IDEAL DEPTH FOR THE SPREAD OF REED
BEDS DUE TO THE ISOSTATIC UPLIFT OF THE AREA &UR
THER GROWTH OF THE SURFACE AREA OF THE REED BED IS
NOT POSSIBLE BECAUSE THE VALLEY GETS NARROWER IN

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4HE FIRST MENTION OF THE AREAS BIRD LIFE IS FROM  WHEN THE
CURATOR OF 4ARTU 6)34 5NIVERSITY :OOLOGICAL -USEUM 6ALERIAN
2USSOW FIRST FOCUSED HIS ATTENTION ON THE LOCAL BIRD POPULATION
/N HIS JOURNEYS HE STUDIED THE PRESENCE AND NESTING HABITS
OF   BIRD SPECIES 3INCE THEN THE AREA HAS ATTRACTED SEVERAL
OTHER ORNITHOLOGISTS EACH OF WHOM HAS FOUND SOMETHING NEW
)MMEDIATELY BEFORE THE AREA WAS DREDGED IN  IES -I
HKEL (RMS STAYED HERE FOR ALMOST ONE MONTH (E FOCUSED ON
THE BIRD POPULATION OF THE RIVER DELTA ! MORE THOROUGH STUDY
OF -ATSALU "AY WAS UNDERTAKEN BY %ERIK +UMARI 3ITS  WHOSE
INITIATIVE IN  LED TO THE FOUNDATION OF THE -ATSALU NATURE
RESERVE

!CTIVE GRAZING KEEPS THE COASTAL MEADOWS OPEN AND FLAT #OWS ESPE
CIALLY ARE GOOD GRAZERS IN REED BED AREAS AS THEY DO NOT AVOID MOIST OR
EVEN WET AREAS (AESKA -ATSALU .ATIONAL 0ARK 0HOTO )IRO )KONEN

THE WEST -ERISTE TS +IRSIME   7E CAN ONLY OBSERVE

INTERNAL STRUCTURAL CHANGES AND THICKENING OF THE REED BED
-ERISTE TS +IRSIME  
%UTROPHICATION HAS PROBABLY BEEN THE FATE OF -ATSALU "AY
THROUGHOUT HISTORY )N PARTICULAR IN THE S THE S
AND THE S WATER CONTAINING LARGE AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS
FLOWED ALONG THE RIVERS INTO -ATSALU "AY 4HE HEIGHT OF THE
REED AND THE THICKNESS OF ITS STEMS INCREASED WITH THE RESULT
THAT THE REED BENT OVER AND BECAME MORE BRITTLE +SENOFON
TOVA 0OLMA   4HE RAPID EXPANSION OF THE REED BED WAS
BLAMED ON AGRICULTURE
)F THE SURFACE AREA OF THE DELTAS REED BED APPEARS TO BE GROW
ING SMALLER THE DECREASE IN HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE COASTAL
REGIONS IN THE S AND S RESULTED IN THE EXPANSION OF
THE -ATSALU "AY REED BEDS ALONG THE SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN
SHORES TO THE FORMER COASTAL MEADOWS OF (AESKA AND +EEMU
AND ALSO TO THE ISLETS THE PENINSULAR OF 3ASSI THE AREA OF 4AUK
SI (AESKA REEFS 3AARDO AND +IIDEVA SHORES LOWER SHORE OF THE
0UINEN &OREST 2OOGLAIU PENINSULAR ETC 

4HE DEVELOPMENT OF 3OUTH %ASTERN -ATSALU BAY REED BEDS   
-APS -ATS -ERISTE



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4HE SURFACE AREA OF -ATSALU "AY REED BEDS IS APPROXIMATELY
 HA /RNOTHOLOGICALLY THE REED CAN BE DIVIDED INTO SEV
ERAL ZONES /NNO  0AAKSPUU +ASTEPLD  

+ASARI AND 2UDE APPROXIMATELY BETWEEN THE MOUTH OF THE

RIVER 3UITSU AND THE END OF THE 2UDE CANAL 4HIS KIND OF REED
BED HAS ALWAYS BEEN THE HABITAT OF THE MOST DIVERSE OF REED BED
BIRD POPULATIONS 4HE REED BED NORTH OF THE OF 2UDE 2IVER
ONLY CONTAINS A FEW PATCHES OF OPEN WATER 4HE STRIP OF OPEN
WATER ALSO RUNS ALONG THE -ATSALU MARINE REED BED WHICH IS
BEYOND THE BANK OF THE +ASARI RIVER 4HE HABITATS ON THE WEST
ERN FRINGES OF THE REED BED HAVE REMAINED ALMOST INTACT BUT
OVER TIME HAVE MOVED CONSIDERABLY TO THE WEST
!BOUT  YEARS AGO THE REED BED OF -ATSALU WAS STRUCTURALLY
VERY DIFFERENT )N THE CONTINUOUS REED BED THERE WAS  
OF OPEN WATER IN SMALL AND LARGER PATCHES WHEREAS TOWARDS THE
OPEN SEA THE AMOUNT INCREASED TO   AND IN THE REED
MOSAIC AREA OF THE OUTER ZONE IT INCREASED TO AS MUCH AS 
 +UMARI 3ITS   
!LONGSIDE THE CHANGING REED BED THE NESTING BIRD POPULA
TION HAS ALSO CHANGED TO A GREAT DEGREE 4HE LARGE COLONIES
OF "LACK HEADED 'ULLS HAVE DISAPPEARED .O ONE KNOWS THE
REASON FOR THEIR DISAPPEARANCE 4HE NUMBER OF ,ITTLE 'ULLS
IN THE REED BED BEFORE DREDGING VARIED A LOT BUT IT CONTINUED
TO BE A COMMON NESTING BIRD 3INCE  THIS SPECIES HAS NOT
NESTED IN THE REED BED AS FAR AS IS KNOWN BUT IT IS POSSIBLE THAT
A COUPLE OF PAIRS MAY HAVE DONE SO 4HERE ARE FEWER LITTLE GULLS
HOVERING ABOVE THE REED BED YEAR UPON YEAR OTHER THAN THE OC

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VRFNV DQG D IHZ :LOORZ EXVKHV
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4HE ALMOST DRY LOW REED BED CLOSE TO THE SHORE WITH ITS
SEDGE TUSSOCKS AND WILLOW BUSHES HAS MOVED SEVERAL HUNDRED
METRES FURTHER TO THE WEST DURING THE PAST   YEARS )N
SEVERAL PLACES WHERE REED USED TO GROW NOWADAYS TALL 3EDGE
4USSOCKS 2EED 3WEET 'RASS AND )RIS THRIVE !T THE SAME TIME
ISLANDS OF ALMOST DRY LOW REED BED WITH 3EDGE 4USSOCKS AND
SOMETIMES 7ILLOW BUSHES CAN BE FOUND SOME WAY FROM THE
SHORE INSIDE THE EASTERN REED BED FOR INSTANCE NEAR THE HUM
MOCK OF 4KU )N SUMMERTIME LOW REED BEDS GROW SCATTERED
IN THE AREA AND THERE ARE PLENTY OF OTHER TYPES OF GRASSES
)RIS 3EDGES 2EED 3WEET 'RASS (ORSE -INT #UCKOO &LOWER
'REATER 3PEARWORT -ARSH 0EA 3PIKE RUSHES ETC
/N THE OTHER HAND AREAS OF DRIER RAISED REED BEDS
HAVE STARTED TO INVADE SEVERAL PLACES !T THE END OF THE
S THE ENTIRE SEASHORE AT -ATSALU AND THE SEASHORE
ON THE 3UITSU SIDE OF ,IHULA VILLAGE HAD BEEN OVERRUN
BY DRIER RAISED REED BEDS AND A THIN BELT OF THEM WAS
ALSO FOUND AT THE EDGE OF THE FLOOD PLAIN /F LATE THE
SURFACE AREA OF THESE REED BEDS HAS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY
PARTICULARLY AT THE EDGE OF THE FLOOD PLAIN )N WINTER
REED IS MAINLY HARVESTED FROM THE DRIER RAISED REED
BEDS
4HE MAIN SECTION OF THE EASTERN PART OF THE REED
BED COMPRISES A DENSE SHALLOW REED BED WITH LITTLE
OPEN WATER WHICH MAKES UP OF THE TOTAL MASS OF REED
GROWTH
!CCORDING TO AERIAL PHOTOS THERE IS STILL A THIN BELT
OF DENSE DEEP WATER REED BED RUNNING NORTH SOUTH IN
OPEN WATER IN THE MASS OF REED BEDS IN THE RIVER BETWEEN
.UMBER OF BIRDS NESTING IN THE REED BED IN  
%ARLIER LITERATURE *GI  (RMS  +UMARI 
/NNO  0AAKSPUU +ASTEPLD    AND  MEANS
THAT THE SPECIES IS DOMINANT FREQUENT OR COMMON  MEANS THAT
THE SPECIES OCCURS



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CASIONAL FEEDER 4HE OCCURRENCE OF "LACK 4ERN HAS ALWAYS BEEN
VARIABLE .OWADAYS THE NUMBERS HOVER AROUND THE   FIG
URE AND IN SOME YEARS THERE MAY EVEN HAVE BEEN FEWER
-UTE 3WANS ARE THE DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF THE REED BED THEY
CAN BE SEEN FROM FAR AFIELD AND THE SPECIES IS PARTICULARLY WELL
REPRESENTED ON THE OUTER FRINGES OF THE REED BED 4HE NUMBER
OF "ITTERN HAS GROWN $URING THE LATEST INVENTORY OF SPECIES
THE NUMBER OF 7ATER 2AILS AND 3POTTED #RAKES WAS ESTABLISHED
PARTICULARLY WELL THERE WERE MASSES OF BOTH 4HE NUMBER OF
THESE TWO SPECIES HAS VARIED A LOT OVER THE YEARS AS HAS THEIR AC
TIVITY IN  THERE WERE  TIMES FEWER WATER RAILS AND 
TIMES FEWER SPOTTED CRAKES IN DRY AND BENT REED STEMS THAN
THERE WERE DURING NORMAL WATER LEVELS AND IN UPRIGHT REED IN
 $URING DRY SUMMERS #ORNCRAKES NEST IN THE REED BED
4HERE ARE NUMEROUS 0ASSERIFORMES LIVING IN THE REED BED
4HE 3EDGE 7ARBLER IS COMMON IN THE THINNER AND SHALLOWER
PART OF THE REED BED AND ON RIVERBANKS )N DRIER AND DENSER
SECTIONS OF THE REED BED THERE ARE FEWER OF THEM THESE SECTIONS

ARE DOMINATED BY 2EED 7ARBLERS AND 'REAT 2EED 7ARBLERS

4HE REED BED IS FULL OF 2EED "UNTINGS AND 3AVIS 7ARBLERS
4HERE ARE PLENTY OF 9ELLOW 7AGTAILS WHOSE OCCASIONAL NESTING
PLACE HAS BEEN THE PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED +UMARI
4HE FIRST SIGNS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN -ATSALU REGION DATE
FROM THE 3TONE !GE AND THE AREA BECAME PERMANENTLY IN
HABITED IN THE -IDDLE )RON !GE BETWEEN THE TH AND TH
CENTURIES  2EED ROOFS WERE POPULAR IN THE -ATSALU REGION TILL
THE END OF THE TH CENTURY BUT THE OLD TRADITION HAVE STILL
NOT DECLINED )NCIDENTS ARE KNOWN FROM THE S IN WHICH
THE FARMS ALONG THE SHORELINE PLANTED REED IN THE SHORE AREAS
IN ORDER TO HAVE A SUPPLY OF IT CLOSE BY
2EED WAS ALSO USED IN OTHER WAYS IT WAS USED FOR REED PIPES
AND BAGPIPES MATS AND FENCES INSULATION FOR WALLS AND IN
SPRINGTIME FOR ANIMAL FODDER )N TIMES OF TROUBLE PEOPLE
WERE EVEN KNOWN TO HAVE HIDDEN IN THE REED BEDS 4HE REED
BED GUARDS BECAME A PHENOMENON IN THEIR OWN RIGHT 4HE LIFE
OF ONE SUCH GUARD IS TOLD IN A CHILDRENS STORY BOOK

! MAGNIFICENT DISPLAY OF MALE 'REAT 3NIPES PLAYING IN THEIR LEKS CAN STILL BE SEEN IN -ATSALU BUT NOT IN &INLAND ANYMORE "UT WHAT ABOUT THE FUTURE
7ILL PROACTIVE MANAGEMENT MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO RE ESTABLISH THE SPECIES IN COASTAL MEADOWS IN &INLAND TOO 0HOTO !NTTI "ELOW



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/LD FISHERMENS HUTS ALONG THE 3UITSU 2IVER IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF -ATSALU .ATIONAL 0ARK 3OME OF THE REED ROOFS ON THESE HUTS ARE NEARLY  YEARS OLD
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#OASTAL MEADOW MANAGEMENT AT A VOLUNTARY CAMP IN -ATSALU .ATIONAL 0ARK IN SUMMER  0HOTO +EIJO ,UOTO

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DUDE PESITSUSALANE %ESTIS n (IRUNDO    LK  
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AND  PER SQUARE METRE *ALAS    )N &INLAND THE
SPECIES FLOWERS IN THE END OF SUMMER AND THE SEEDS RIPEN IN
MID WINTER !FTER FLOWERING THE REED STEMS TURN WOODY SHED
THEIR LEAVES AND REMAIN UPRIGHT THROUGH THE ICE 2EED SEEDS
GERMINATE IN &INLAND AT THE RATE OF   *ALAS   
4HE SEEDS ARE DISPERSED IN LATE WINTER BY THE WIND 6EGETATIVE
SPREAD BY BELOW GROUND RHIZOMES IS COMMON 3ALTONSTALL
  ;AMONGST OTHERS=  #OLONIZATION OF REED OCCURS
THROUGH THE RHIZOME AND ROOTS hHIDDENv IN THE GROUND AND
IT CAN COLONIZE NEW AREAS MANY METRES PER YEAR $EEP WATER
MAY STOP VEGETATIVE COLONIZATION OF NEW HABITATS )F REED HAS
COLONIZED NEW AREA IT DOES NOT ALWAYS SUPPRESS THE GROWTH
OF OTHER SPECIES DURING ONE GROWING SEASON $OMINANCE AND
MONOCULTURE MAY DEVELOP AFTER SEVERAL YEARS 'SEWELL 
   2EED OFTEN DOMINATES LAND WATER INTERFACE AND
FORMS MONOCULTURES 2EEDS STEM AND LEAVES GROWS ALMOST AL
WAYS ABOVE THE WATER LEVEL /VERWINTERING GREEN BUDS OF REED
ARE IN THE UNDERGROUND PARTS OF THE PLANT /VERWINTERING
OCCURS IN GREEN OVERWINTERING BUDS BUT THE NEW GREEN LEAVES
EMERGE ONLY IN SPRING %LLENBERG ET AL    
4HE DEPTH OF WATER IMPACTS THE OCCURRENCE OF REED /XY
GEN TRANSPORT CAPACITY OF REED IS RELATED TO THE WATER DEPTH
4HE DEEPER IT GROWS THE MORE DIFFICULT IT IS FOR IT TO TRANSPORT
OXYGEN INTO THE ROOTS 4HE OPTIMUM SALT TOLERANCE OF THE SPE
CIES IS   PER MILS 4HE COLONIZATION OF REED INTO NEW AREAS
CAN ALSO BE AFFECTED BY WAVES ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE
COMPETITION WITH OTHER PLANT SPECIES AND PROBABLY NUTRIENT
LOAD 7EISNER  3TRAND   2EED CAN LOWER THE SULPHATE
CONTENT IN THE UPPER ORGANIC LAYERS OF SEDIMENT WHICH LEADS
TO A MORE VIGOROUS GROWTH 4HIS ENABLES REED TO COLONIZE HARSH
ENVIRONMENTS "ART  (ARTMAN     2EED CAN OXY
GENATE THE SEDIMENT AROUND ITS ROOTS AND THEREBY PREVENT ITSELF
FROM TAKING IN TOXIC SUBSTANCES FROM THE SEDIMENT 'RIES ET AL
    4HE OCCURRENCE OF REED INDICATES SLIGHTLY ACID
AND NITROGEN RICH CONDITIONS %LLENBERG  
2EED GROWS USUALLY IN HARD SEDIMENT WITH LOW AMOUNT OF

2EED BELONGS TO THE 0OACEAE FAMILY #OMMON 2EED n IN ,ATIN

0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS #AV n IS ONE OF THE MOST WIDELY FOUND
VASCULAR PLANTS IN THE WORLD OCCURRING ON ALL CONTINENTS EX
CEPT !NTARCTICA #OMMON 2EED IS ONE OF THE DOMINANT PLANT
SPECIES IN %UROPEAN LAND WATER ECOTONES VAN DER 0UTTEN
  4HE SPECIES IS PERENNIAL ITS BASAL STEM IS UPRIGHT AND
USUALLY   METRES HIGH )N NUTRIENT RICH AREAS IT CAN GROW
EVEN TALLER 4HE LEAVES ARE LONG   CENTIMETRES WIDE GREEN
AND SHARP EDGED 4HE FLOWERS ARE THICK APPROXIMATELY THE
SIZE OF THE PALM OF YOUR HAND 4HE FLOWERS WILL NOT DEVELOP
IN POOR HABITATS WHERE REED GROWS AS A hHABITAT RELICv *ALAS
   4HE SIZE OF THE IN FLORESCENCE ALSO DEPENDS ON THE
QUALITY OF THE HABITAT 2EED THRIVES IN WETLAND HABITATS AND
GROWS IN FRESH OR IN BRACKISH WATER )N DIFFERENT HABITATS THE
GENETICALLY SIMILAR CLONES OF THIS ADAPTABLE SPECIES MAY SEEM
REMARKABLY DIFFERENT
2EED HAS AN EXTENSIVE CREEPING RHIZOME AND THE UPTURNED
ENDS OF ITS BRANCHES DEVELOP INTO AN AERIAL SHOOT *ALAS 
  2EED SOMETIMES PRODUCES A SHOOT UP TO  METRES AWAY
FROM THE RHIZOME AND THE SHOOT MAY END UP GROWING IN A
PLACE THAT APPEARS RATHER DRY )T IS SUFFICIENT THAT A PART OF THE
RHIZOME IS IN A MOIST HABITAT 2EED RECEIVES ITS NUTRIENTS BY
MEANS OF AN EXTENSIVE UNDERGROUND RHIZOME THAT EXTENDS TO
A DEPTH OF BETWEEN  AND  CENTIMETRES )T ALSO HAS THIN
NER ROOTS OF OVER  CENTIMETRES IN LENGTH WHICH GROWS BOTH
HORIZONTALLY AND VERTICALLY .UTRIENTS STORED IN RHIZOME ARE
IMPORTANT IN THE BEGINNING OF THE GROWING SEASON 7ITH THESE
RESERVES THE PLANT ENSURES ITS SURVIVAL IN CHALLENGING HABITATS
'RANELI ET AL    2EED OFTEN IMPROVES THE OXYGEN
CONTENT OF OXYGEN POOR SEDIMENT BY RELEASING OXYGEN INTO THE
SEDIMENT THROUGH ITS EXTENSIVE RHIZOME 4HE LIFESPAN OF THE
RHIZOSPHERE IS APPROXIMATELY   YEARS )N POLLUTED AND EU
TROPHICATED AREAS THE RHIZOME BIOMASS IS LOW BUT THE SHOOT IS
OUTSTANDING 'RIES  'ARBE  
!T ITS DENSEST A REED BED MAY CONTAIN AS MANY AS 
SHOOTS PER SQUARE METRE BUT THE AVERAGE DENSITY IS BETWEEN 


3XUH 5HHG

2EED CAN COLONISE LARGE AREAS AGGRESSIVELY )T CAN GROW DENSELY THE AVERAGE DENSITY IS BETWEEN  AND  SHOOTS PER SQUARE METRE 0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG

ORGANIC MATTER )N SOFT SEDIMENTS AND IN SHELTERED LOCATIONS

THIS SPECIES USUALLY IS NOT GOOD IN COMPETITION WITH OTHER
PLANT SPECIES )F REED GROWS ON A SOFT SURFACE IT IS OFTEN GRAZED
BECAUSE ANIMALS CAN HAVE ACCESS TO ITS ROOTS BY PULLING THE
STEM
2EED HAS BEEN STUDIED EXTENSIVELY BUT ITS IMPACTS ON THE
WATER QUALITY ARE NOT ENTIRELY CLEAR AND SOME RESULTS OF THE
RESEARCH ARE CONTRADICTORY "ECAUSE REED IS A COMMON AND
OFTEN ABUNDANT SPECIES IT IS HIGHLY SIGNIFICANT FOR MANY WATER
AND LAND ECOSYSTEMS )N GENERAL AQUATIC MACROPHYTES ARE
VERY IMPORTANT FACTOR GOVERNING THE NUTRIENT LEVELS IN AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEMS 0HILLIPS    

A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON THE BIOMASS OF THE FISH THAT ENHANCE

THE EUTROPHICATION IE BREAM AND ROACH *EPPESEN  3AM
MALKORPI    !QUATIC VEGETATION SUPPRESS THE IM
PACT PLANKTIVOROUS FISH ON THE ZOOPLANKTON BECAUSE OF THE
INCREASED SHELTER FOR ZOOPLANKTON -ICRO CRUSTACEANS LIVING IN
AQUATIC VEGETATION CAN REDUCE THE BIOMASS OF PHYTOPLANKTON
REMARKABLY 6AKKILAINEN   !QUATIC MACROPHYTES CAN
ALSO SHADE THE PHYTOPLANKTON AND THEREBY AFFECT ITS GROWTH
AND BIOMASS *EPPESEN  3AMMALKORPI   
2ESEARCH BY 4OIVONEN AND (UTTUNEN  AND -ARISTO
 SUPPORTS THE GENERAL VIEW THAT THERE IS A STRONG LINK
BETWEEN AQUATIC MACROPHYTES AND EUTROPHICATION 4HIS LINK IS
OBVIOUS IN WATER BODIES THAT ARE NATURALLY EUTROPHIC A STRONG
POSITIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN NUTRIENT LEVELS AND THE BIOMASS
OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES AT THE LAND WATER INTERFACE  4HE NI
TROGEN CONTENT OF REED STEMS IS ALSO HIGH IN THE SHORE AREAS OF
EUTROPHIC LAKES PROBABLY BECAUSE REED RETAINS NUTRIENTS COM
ING FROM THE CATCHMENT AREA +VET  3ANDSTRM  
)F NUTRIENT LOAD OF WATER ECOSYSTEM IS CONSTANT AND HIGH
AQUATIC MACROPHYTES ARE ABLE TO CONTROL THE BIOMASS OF PHY
TOPLANKTON 6AKKILAINEN   )N EUTROPHIC AND ALGAE RICH
WATER BODIES THE BIOMASS OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES WILL USU

5HHG DQG ZDWHU TXDOLW\

!QUATIC MACROPHYTES COMMONLY STABILIZES THE SEDIMENTS AND
REDUCES THE IMPACTS OF WATER MOVEMENTS ON THE SEDIMENT OF
WATER BODIES 6ERMAAT ET AL  ;AMONGST OTHERS= AND IT
IS COMMONLY KNOWN THAT THEY REDUCE THE GROWTH POTENTIAL OF
ALGAE 0HILLIPS   !QUATIC MACROPHYTES CAN ALSO HAVE AN
INDIRECT EFFECT ON THE NUTRIENT LEVELS BECAUSE THEY IMPROVE
THE HABITAT OF PREDATORY FISH 4HESE FISH IN TURN CAN HAVE


3XUH 5HHG
ALLY REMAIN HIGH EVEN IF THE EXTERNAL NUTRIENT LOAD DECREASES
)N SOME CASES NITROGEN IS LIMITING THE GROWTH OF ALAGAE VAN
$ONK ET AL   4HE NITROGEN INTAKE OF AQUATIC MACROHYTES
IS KNOWN TO BE LINKED WITH THE RHIZOSPHERE AND ITS SURROUND
ING SEDIMENT 2ISGAARD 0ETERSEN  *ENSEN   !QUATIC
MACROPHYTES THAT HAVE BOTH ROOTS AND AERIAL SHOOTS SUCH AS
REED CAN KEEP THE PHOSPHORUS LOCKED IN THE SEDIMENT 4HE
RELEASE OF OXYGEN FROM THE ROOTS CAN LEAD TO THE OXYGENATION
OF IRON AND THIS IN TURN LEADS TO THE RETENTION OF PHOSPHATES
!QUATIC MACROPHYTES CAN ALSO INCREASE THE PHOSPHORUS LEVELS
IN THE WATER BECAUSE OF THE DECOMPOSING PLANT MASS FOLLOWED
BY A SEDIMENTATION AND AN INCREASE IN ORGANIC MATTER -OSS
ET AL  

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)N EARLY SUMMER *UNE THERE ARE A LOT OF NUTRIENTS IN THE STEM AND THE
LEAVES OF REED WHICH MAKES IT A NUTRITIOUS AND DELICIOUS FOOD FOR CATTLE
%ARLY SUMMER CUTTING IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAY OF ELIMINATING REED 2EED
CUTTING FOR CATTLE FODDER CARRIED OUT IN -IETOINEN 3OUTHWEST &INLAND
ON TH *UNE  0HOTO +IMMO (RJMKI

$URING A CUT ONLY SMALL QUANTITIES OF NUTRIENTS ARE REMOVED

FROM WATER BODIES ALONG WITH THE REED BIOMASS BECAUSE THE BI
OMASS IS NUTRIENT POOR   OF THE PLANT MASS !SAEDA
  )N YEARLY CUTTED AREAS THE REED REMAINS SMALL BUT CUT
TING HAS NO IMPACT ON NUTRIENT CONTENTS %ARLY SUMMER CUT
TING INCREASES THE LEAKAGE OF NUTRIENTS INTO THE ENVIRONMENT
,ATER ON IN THE GROWING SEASON NO MORE LEAKAGE OCCURS 5H
LENIUS  'SEWELL  +OJO   )NTENSIVE CUTTING IN
*UNE DURING SEVERAL YEARS CAUSED DECLINE OF REED BECAUSE THE
NUTRIENT STORAGES IN ROOT SYSTEM WILL BE EXHAUSTED 2EED CUT
TING ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE WATER RESTRICTS THE GROWTH OF THE
SHOOTS BUT IF YOU WANT TO REMOVE THE REED TOTALLY IT SHOULD
BE CUT BELOW THE SURFACE TO STOP OXYGENATION 4HIS MUST BE
DONE EARLY IN THE SUMMER IF REED IS GROWING IN MUDDY SUB
STRATES .UTRIENT SUPPLIES IN THE RHIZOME ARE AT THEIR LOWEST
  WEEKS AFTER THE START OF SPRING GROWTH IN &INLAND THIS IS
AT THE END OF *ULYBEGINNING OF !UGUST AND CUTTING IS MOST
ADVANTAGEOUS AT THIS TIME 7EISNER  'RANELI  !SAEDA
ET AL   #UTTING IN THE END OF !UGUST WILL HAVE NO IMPACT
ON FUTURE GROWTH BECAUSE THE REED HAS ALREADY STORED ENOUGH
NUTRIENTS IN ROOT SYSTEM FOR THE NEXT GROWING SEASON 7EISNER
 'RANELI     4HE RECESSION OF A REED BED WILL
TAKE   YEARS DEPENDING ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LOCA
TION SUCH AS THE QUALITY OF THE BOTTOM SEDIMENTS 7HEN THE
REED BED RECESSION OCCURS LOOSE STEMS ABOVE THE SURFACE MAY
INCREASE THE NEED TO CLEAN THE SHORE AREAS
4HE EFFECTS OF THE CUTTING ON THE WATER QUALITY ARE ALSO DE
PENDENT ON THE SIZE OF THE CUT AREA THE TOTAL SURFACE AREA OF
THE REED BED AND ITS LOCATION 4HE REMOVAL OF REED BEDS FROM
THE SHORE AREAS OF THE ISLANDS CLOSEST TO THE MAINLAND MUST BE

,ATE SUMMER REED HARVESTING *ULY AND !UGUST IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE
WAY OF REDUCING NUTRIENTS FROM THE SEDIMENT BECAUSE AT THIS TIME OF
THE YEAR MOST OF THE PLANTS NUTRIENTS ARE FOUND IN THE STEM AND LEAVES
4HIS MATERIAL COULD BE SUITABLE FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION CATTLE DOESNT LIKE
IT 2EED CUTTING IN *OROINEN 3OUTHERN 3AVOLAX &INLAND ON TH *ULY
 0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG



3XUH 5HHG
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VIEWED WITH CAUTION BECAUSE REED HAS A POSITIVE IMPACT ON

THE RETENTION OF NUTRIENTS IN SUCH LOCATIONS )N AREAS FAR FROM
MAINLAND THE IMPACT OF REED ON NUTRIENT LEVELS IN WATER IS
PROBABLY LOWER ,INDHOLM  ;AMONGST OTHERS=  BUT THE
ROLE OF THE REED IN NUTRIENT DYNAMICS OF BRACKISH WATERS IS NOT
TOTALLY UNDERSTOOD )F THE LITTORAL ZONE OF OLIGOTROPHIC WATER
BODY IS NARROW AND DEEP THE IMPORTANCE OF REED AND HORSE
TAIL IN RETAINING NUTRIENTS IN THE SEDIMENT IS NOT SIGNIFICANT
.URMINEN    4HE PLANT MASS THAT IS REMOVED SHOULD
BE TAKEN FAR FROM THE SHORELINE IMMEDIATELY AFTER IT HAS BEEN
CUT IN ORDER TO PREVENT TO PREVENT NUTRIENT LEAKAGE BACK TO
THE WATER ECOSYSTEM 0LANT MASS CAN BE COMPOSTED OR USED AS
ANIMAL FODDER +AIRESALO AND 5USI 2AUVA  HAVE NOTED
THAT DEAD HORSETAIL DETRITUS MAY CAUSE A PHOSPHORUS LOAD THAT
IS  TIMES GREATER IN LITTORAL WATER THAN THAT CAUSED BY AC
TIVELY GROWING HORSETAIL &ALSELY MANAGED REED BEDS ARE NOTABLE
SOURCES OF METHANE PARTICULARLY IN SPRING 3ORRELL ET AL  
4HUS THE REMOVAL OF REED BEDS CAN ALSO HAVE NEGATIVE EFFECTS
ON THE EMISSION OF GREENHOUSE GASES IF NOT PROPERLY DONE

4HE CARBON DIOXIDE ORIGINATING FROM PLANT RHIZOME RESPIRA

TION AND SEDIMENT DECOMPOSITION AND METHANE PRODUCED
IN THE SEDIMENT BY INETHANE PRODUCING MICROBES ARE RELEASED
INTO THE ATMOSPHERE ALSO IN WINTER VIA DEAD REED STEMS THAT
STICK OUT FROM ICE COVER 4HE CAPACITY OF REED TO CARRY OXYGEN
IS NOT SUFFICIENT TO HELP WITH THE REED CLEANSING PROCESS IN
WINTERTIME BUT THE AEROBIC METABOLISM OF THE REEDS RHIZOME
IS SUFFICIENT FOR IT TO MAINTAIN ALL OTHER VITAL FUNCTIONS 2EED
CLEANSING IS THEREFORE NOT A VIABLE OPTION IN NORTHERN CLIMATES
IN WINTERTIME THE NUTRIENT RICH WATERS WILL NOT BE CLEANSED
BECAUSE THE REED CANNOT TRANSFER SUFFICIENT OXYGEN FROM THE AT
MOSPHERE INTO THE SEDIMENT 4HE RHIZOSPHERE MADE UP OF THE
REED AND ITS RHIZOME AND ITS SURROUNDINGS INVOLVE PROCESSES
THAT ARE TYPICAL OF OXYGEN FREE ENVIRONMENTS 4HE REED STEMS
ARE AN IMPORTANT ESCAPE ROUTE FOR THE CARBON DIOXIDE THAT IS
GENERATED THROUGH RESPIRATION -ETHANE WHICH IS PRODUCED
BY THE MICROBES THAT OPERATE IN THE SEDIMENT IS RELEASED DI
RECTLY FROM THE ANAEROBIC SEDIMENT )N WINTERTIME THE DEAD
STEMS OF REED FORM A SIGNIFICANT PIPE SYSTEM THROUGH WHICH
THE GASES THAT RESULT FROM METABOLISM ARE CARRIED IN BOTH DI
RECTIONS FROM THE SEDIMENT INTO THE ATMOSPHERE AND IN THE
CASE OF OXYGEN FROM THE ATMOSPHERE THROUGH THE STEM BACK
INTO THE SEDIMENT "RIX    
2EMOVING THE REED IN WINTERTIME INCREASES THE ABOVE SURFACE
BIOMASS IN THE NEXT GROWING SEASON )T ALSO INCREASES THE DEN
SITY OF SHOOTS IN THE NEXT SUMMER /XYGEN TRANSPORT TO ROOTS
AND RHIZOMES IN WINTER IS OBVIOUSLY AN IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF
DEAD SHOOTS (ASLAM  RECOGNISED THAT WINTER CUTTING
INCREASES THE DENSITY OF SHOOTS NOT THEIR SPEED OF GROWTH IN
NEXT SUMMER )N NARROW REED BEDS ICE OFTEN CUTS THE REEDS BUT
THIS HAS NO IMPACT ON THE FOLLOWING SEASONS GROWTH 4HE POSI
TIVE IMPACT OF WINTER CUTTING ON THE FITNESS OF REED BEDS WAS
OBVIOUSLY THE RESULT OF A DECREASE IN THE NUMBER OF HIBERNATING
INSECTS AND AN INCREASE IN THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT AVAILABLE TO THE
EMERGING SHOOTS 4HE REED STEMS WHICH WERE CUT FROM THE ICE
HAVE OFTEN DENSE POPULATION OF WINTERING INSECTS 4HUS THESE
INSECTS WILL NOT GRAZE THE REED AND THE OTHER AQUATIC MACRO
PHYTES IN NEXT GROWING SEASON IF THE REED IS CUT 'RANLI 
  /N THE OTHER HAND THIS WEAKENS THE BIODIVERSITY INVER
TEBRATE POPULATIONS IN REED BED AND WILL ALSO HAVE A NEGATIVE
IMPACT ON THE BIRD POPULATIONS IN REED BED $ITLHOGO ET AL
  )T SEEMS THAT WINTER CUTTING HAS A POSITIVE IMPACT ON
THE VITALITY OF THE REED BED WHICH IN TURN MAY IMPROVE THE
REED BEDS ABILITY TO RETAIN NUTRIENT LOAD FROM CATCHMENT AREA

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3XUH 5HHG
7INTER CUTTING WILL MAKE SUMMER CUTTING EASIER PARTICULARLY
IN SHALLOW WATER AREAS AND MAY BE A COST EFFECTIVE WAY TO START
REED CUTTING

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#HANNEL CUTTING IN LARGE REED AREAS IS BENEFICIAL FOR BIODI
VERSITY %NHANCED MOSAIC VARIATION IN REED BEDS IS KNOWN TO
INCREASE NUMBERS OF FISH PLANTS AND OTHER ORGANISMS LIVING
REED BED 'OC ET AL  !BLE  (AGAN  0OULIN 
,EFEBVRE    #HANNEL CUTTING CLOSE TO THE LAND WA
TER INTERFACE SHOULD BE AVOIDED BECAUSE IT COULD INCREASE THE
RUNOFF OF NUTRIENT RICH WATERS FROM THE CATCHMENT AREA INTO
THE WATER ECOSYSTEM 2EED CUTTING WILL OFTEN INCREASE LIVING
SPACE FOR OTHER AQUATIC MACROPHYTES SUCH AS RUSH AND SUB
MERGED PLANTS EG +OJO   AND SUBMERGED MACROPHYTES
WHICH CAN BE MORE EFFECTIVE IN RETAINING NUTRIENTS THAN REED
%RIKSSON  7EISNER    /N THE OTHER HAND REED
IS NOT ALWAYS SUCH A SIGNIFICANT SOURCE FOR METHANE EMISSION
AS FOR INSTANCE 7ATER ,ILY .UPHAR LUTEA OR 7ATER (ORSETAIL
%QUISETUM FLUVIATILE "ERGSTRM ET AL   
#HANNEL MOVING CAN ENHANCE THE GROWTH OF PHYTOPLANKTON
AND THE EFFECTS OF CHANNEL CUTTING ON THE NUTRIENT LEVELS IN
WATER ECOSYSTEMS MUST BE EVALUATED CAREFULLY )T IS NOT ADVIS
ABLE TO PLAN CHANNEL OR MOSAIC MOVING NEAR AGRICULTURAL AREAS
DITCHES OR RIVER ESTUARIES )T IS ALSO NOT CLEVER TO MOVE NARROW
REED ZONES BETWEEN FIELDS AND WETLAND AREAS 4HESE REED ZONES
ARE KNOWN TO RETAIN NUTRIENTS OF RUNOFF WATERS ORIGINATING
FROM TERRESTRIAL AREAS IN THE SUMMER IE THE BIOMASS OF AQUAT
IC MACROPHYTES CORRELATES POSITIVELY WITH THE NUTRIENT LOAD OF
THE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM -ARISTO  4OIVONEN  (UTTUNEN
 3ALTONSTALL     #HANNEL CUTTING IN LARGE REED
BEDS MAY BE USEFUL IF IT DIVERSIFIES FISH HABITATS AND IF CUTTED
CHANNELS ARE COLONIZED BY SUBMERGED MACROPHYTES )N THIS
WAY BIODIVERSITY IMPROVES AND THE DIVERSIFIED VEGETATION HAS
POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE FISH POPULATION AND THE AMOUNT OF ZOO
PLANKTON WHICH WILL CONTROL THE BIOMASS OF PHYTOPLANKTON

5HHG EXUQLQJ DV UHPRYLQJ PHWKRG

4HERE ARE TWO BENEFITS TO WINTER HARVESTING  THE DECOMPOSING OXY

GEN CONSUMING BIOMASS IS REMOVED WHICH IMPROVES WATER QUALITY AND
 THE REED ITSELF CAN SERVE AS A RAW MATERIAL FOR THATCHING OTHER TYPES
OF CONSTRUCTION BIOENERGY AND AS MULCH IN GARDENS 7ITHOUT WINTER
HARVESTING REED RAFTS DRIFT ASHORE 0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG

)N -ARCH AND !PRIL WHEN THE PREVIOUS YEARS REED BIOMASS

IS DRIEST IT IS POSSIBLE TO REMOVE REED BEDS FROM THE ICE BY
BURNING IT 3HOOTS WILL NOT GET DAMAGED IF THE BURNING IS CAR
RIED OUT EARLY IN THE SPRING FOR EXAMPLE IN -ARCH  BUT SOME
DAMAGE WILL OCCUR IF THE REED IS BURNED IN THE MID !PRIL WHEN


3XUH 5HHG
GROWTH HAS STARTED "URNING SEEMS TO BE AN EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR
REMOVING THE REED IN LATE SUMMER BUT IN WINTER AND IN SPRING IT
SEEMS TO INCREASE THE DENSITY OF REED SHOOTS IN NEXT GROWING SEA
SON #ROSS  &LEMING   2EED BURNING IN THE LATE SUMMER
IN NORTHERN AREAS IS NOT EASY BECAUSE THE WATER CONTENT OF REED
IS HIGH 4HE IMPACT OF THE REED BURNING ON THE WATER QUALITY HAS
NOT BEEN STUDIED 4HE ASH OF REED IS VERY RICH IN SILICON )SOTALO
ET AL  
4HE FIRE HAS SEVERE IMPACT ON THE NEXT SEASONS GROWTH OF REED
ONLY IF IT IMPACTS THE SOIL DEEPLY VAN DER 4OORN  -OOK  
2EED BURNING REDUCES THE AMOUNT OF OXYGEN AND THUS WEAKENS
THE VIABILITY OF REED IF THE WATER LEVEL IS HIGH 4HE DECLINE OF
REED BED WILL OCCUR AFTER BURNING IF THERE IS A FLOOD AFTERWARDS
WHICH WEAKENS THE OXYGEN TRANSPORTATION CAPABILITY OF REED
2OLLETSCHEK ET AL   2EED BURNING IS AN EFFECTIVE MEAN TO
DESTROY REED MASS )T DOES NOT PRODUCE HARMFUL METHANE EMIS
SIONS WHICH WILL HAPPEN IF REED BIOMASS DECOMPOSES IN OXYGEN
POOR CONDITIONS

3TUDENTS MAKING WATER QUALITY MEASUREMENTS IN A CHANNEL IN THE

REED BED AT ,AUKANLAHTI "AY 0ERNI &INLAND 0HOTO %IJA (AGEL
BERG

5HFRPPHQGDWLRQV

SIONS OF GREENHOUSE GASES INTO THE ATMOSPHERE %XTENSIVE

CUTTING OF REED BEDS MAY ALSO INCREASE LIVING SPACE FOR OTHER
AQUATIC MACROPHYTES WHICH CAN INCREASE EMISSIONS MORE
THAN REED 2EED CUTTING IN LARGE AREAS ENHANCES THE GROWTH
OF PHYTOPLANKTON BECAUSE OF THE INCREASED OPEN WATER
AREAS WHICH ARE BENEFICIAL FOR PHYTOPLANKTON AND OF THE
DECREASED COMPETITION WITH AQUATIC MACROPHYTES

4HE REMOVAL OF REED MUST ALWAYS BE CARRIED OUT WITH CARE AND
THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF BURNING ON NUTRIENT LEVELS IN WATER ECOSYS
TEMS AND ON WATER ORGANISMS MUST BE STUDIED ON A CASE BY CASE
BASIS 4HE OVERALL EFFECTS OF REED ON WATER QUALITY CANNOT ALWAYS
BE PREDICTED BECAUSE MANY OF ITS IMPACTS ARE INDIRECT AND THE
CUTTING OF REED CAN FOR INSTANCE INCREASE THE GROWTH OF OTHER
AQUATIC MACROPHYTE SPECIES AND THUS DIVERSIFY THE HABITATS OF
ZOOPLANKTON AND FISH -OSAIC AND CHANNEL CUTTING OF LARGE REED
BEDS IS USEFUL IN GENERAL AND PROBABLY DOESNT INCREASE THE NUTRI
ENT RELEASE FROM THE SEDIMENT )F OTHER AQUATIC MACROPHYTE SPE
CIES COLONIZE CUTTED CHANNELS IT MAY BE BENEFICIAL FOR THE WATER
ECOSYSTEM /THER METHODS OF REMOVAL MAY ALSO BE USED IN CER
TAIN CIRCUMSTANCES )F IT BECOMES NECESSARY TO REMOVE ENTIRE REED
BEDS IT SHOULD BE DONE CAREFULLY 2EED MAY RECOVER FROM EVEN
PERSISTENT ATTEMPTS TO REMOVE IT BECAUSE IT HAS REMARKABLE STORES
OF NUTRIENTS IN ITS UNDERGROUND ROOT SYSTEMS 3HOOT CUTTING
SHOULD ALWAYS BE DONE BELOW THE WATER LEVEL IF THE AIM IS TO STOP
REED GROWTH COMPLETELY )T IS ADVISABLE NOT TO REMOVE REED BEDS
BETWEEN FIELDS AND WETLANDS OR ALONG DITCHES OR RIVER ESTUARIES
2EMOVING REED FROM THESE HABITATS CAN HAVE A NEGATIVE IMPACT
ON WATER ECOSYSTEMS BECAUSE IT CAN INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF NU
TRIENT FLOW INTO WATER ECOSYSTEM AND THUS ENHANCE EUTROPHICA
TION /N IMPORTANT ISSUE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF REED BEDS IS THAT
MOVING OF REED CAN HAVE SUBSTANTIAL EFFECTS ON GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS &ALSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES MAY INCREASE THE EMIS

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2EED BEDS ARE AN IMPORTANT HABITAT FOR MANY BIRD SPECIES

4HE EXPANSION OF REED BEDS RESULTING FROM EUTROPHICATION
CAUSED BY MANS EFFLUENT LAND UPLIFT AND IN PART CLIMATE
CHANGE HAS GENERATED NEW HABITATS FOR REED BED DEPENDENT
BIRD SPECIES 4HE DISTRIBUTION OF MANY TYPES OF REED BED BIRDS
HAS EXPANDED IN THE COURSE OF THE LAST CENTURY AND THE EXISTING
SPECIES HAVE INCREASED IN NUMBERS )N #ENTRAL %UROPE BUILD
ING AND THE DRAINAGE OF LAND FOR AGRICULTURAL USE HAS RESULTED
IN REED BEDS BECOMING MORE SCARCE OF LATE 3EVERAL #ENTRAL
AND 3OUTHERN %UROPEAN BIRD SPECIES TYPICAL OF REED BEDS HAVE
ALMOST BECOME EXTINCT )N MANY COUNTRIES SUCH AS %NGLAND
AND 'ERMANY NEW REED BEDS HAVE BEEN PLANTED TO PROTECT THE
THREATENED BIRD SPECIES OF THE REED BEDS

!T THEIR BEST REED BEDS ARE SHELTERED AND NUTRIENT RICH NEST
ING HABITATS FOR MANY BIRD SPECIES ,USH GRASSY INLETS SUPPORT
VARIED AND ABUNDANT INSECT POPULATIONS AND ARE THEREFORE AN
IMPORTANT BREEDING GROUND FOR MANY SPECIES OF FISH !T ITS
BEST A REED BED INCLUDES A VARIETY OF STRUCTURES INTERSPERSED
WITH WATERWAYS OF DIFFERENT DEPTHS 4HESE CONDITIONS WILL
GUARANTEE A DENSE DIVERSE BIRD POPULATION )F THERE ARE EXTEN
SIVE COASTAL MEADOWS CONNECTED TO THE REED BEDS THE VALUE OF
THE WETLANDS INCREASES EVEN FURTHER $ABBLING $UCKS LIKE TO
FEED IN COASTAL MEADOWS WHICH ALSO ATTRACT NESTING WADERS
$IFFERENT BIRD SPECIES PREFER DIFFERENTLY STRUCTURED REED BEDS
3OME SPECIES SUCH AS THE
"ITTERN "OTAURUS STELLARIS 
REQUIRE EXTENSIVE REED BEDS IN
ORDER TO NEST 3TUDIES SHOW
THAT BITTERN WILL ONLY NEST IN
A REED BED OF MORE THAN 
HECTARES IN SIZE WITH AN OPEN
ZONE CLOSE TO THE WATERS EDGE
WHERE THE BIRD CAN CATCH FISH
4HE MOSAIC SHAPE OF THE REED
BED IS IMPORTANT FOR MANY
OTHER BIRD SPECIES WITH THE
MAJORITY OF BIRDS PREFERRING
THE EDGES OF THE VEGETATION
SUCH AS THE BORDERS BETWEEN
THE REED BED AND OPEN WATER
%UTROPHICATION REDUCES THE
NUMBER OF BIRDS IN AN AREA
AND EVEN DRIVES CERTAIN SPE
CIES AWAY 3OME SPECIES SUCH
AS THE -ARSH (ARRIER #IRCUS
AERUGINOSUS AND "ITTERN LIKE
TO LIVE IN DAMP AND INACCES
SIBLE PARTS OF THE REED BED
4HE MOSAIC SHAPE OF REED BED IS IMPORTANT FOR MANY BIRD SPECIES 0ERNAJA 'AMMELBYVIKEN
0HOTO 4ERO 4APONEN



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7HEN TOO MUCH ROTTING REED
MATERIAL COLLECTS AT THE BOTTOM
OF THE REED BED AND THE AREA BE
COMES EASY FOR PREDATORY MAM
MALS TO ACCESS THE BIRDS WILL
FIND OTHER NESTING PLACES 2AILS
AND COOTS SUCH AS THE 7ATER
2AIL 2ALLUS AQUATICUS AND 3POT
TED #RAKE 0ORZANA PORZANA
RESPOND IN A SIMILAR WAY TO THE
DRYING OF REED BEDS 2EED "UN
TINGS %MBERIZA SCHOENICLUS  ON
THE OTHER HAND CAN NEST EVEN IN
DRY REED BEDS BUT THE NUMBER
OF NESTS WOULD THEN REMAIN CON
SIDERABLY LOWER THAN IN DAMP
INDENTED REED BEDS
-ANY BIRD SPECIES NEST CLOSE
TO OPEN WATER AT THE OUTER EDGES
OF REED BEDS %XAMPLES OF THESE
KINDS OF BIRDS ARE 'REAT #RESTED
4HE 7ATER 2AIL IS RARELY SEEN BUT ITS BELLOWING WHICH RESEMBLES PIG LIKE SQUEALING IS HEARD AT NIGHTS IN DENSE
'REBE 0ODICEPS CRISTATUS  3LA
REED BEDS 0HOTO !NTTI "ELOW
VONIAN 'REBE 0ODICEPS AURITUS
RIER /F THE WATER BIRDS THE FIRST TO DISAPPEAR ARE THE $IVING
AND #OOT &ULICA ATRA  WHICH BUILD THEIR LOW HEAP SHAPED
$UCKS #OMMON 0OCHARDS !YTHYA FERINA AND 4UFTED $UCKS
NESTS OF REED AT THE EDGE OF THE REED BED OR IN A SPARSE REED BED
CAN MANAGE IN LUSH SHALLOW WATERWAYS BUT WITH THE WATER
)F THE REED BAYS HAVE SUITABLE NESTING AREAS THE "LACK HEADED
LEVEL DECREASING FURTHER THEY TOO FIND OTHER PLACES TO NEST /F
'ULL ,ARUS RIDIBUNDUS  WHICH IS RELATIVELY NEW AMONG &IN
THE $ABBLING $UCKS THE -ALLARD AND 4EAL WILL WITHSTAND THE
LANDS BIRD SPECIES MAY ALSO SET UP A NEST THERE 4HE SPECIES
CLOSURE OF OPEN WATERWAYS THE LONGEST 4EALS CAN SOMETIMES BE
EXPERIENCED DRAMATIC GROWTH IN THE S BUT THE NUMBERS
FOUND IN TINY PATCHES OF OPEN WATER IN THE MIDDLE OF A REED
HAVE SINCE DROPPED #OLONIES OF "LACK HEADED 'ULLS OFTEN
BED
NEST IN EUTROPHICATED WETLANDS AND OFFER OTHER BIRDS PROTEC
4HE MAJORITY OF SPECIES REQUIRE AN EXTENSIVE REED BED FOR
TION AGAINST PREDATORS !T THEIR BEST THERE MAY BE THOUSANDS
NESTING 3OME SPECIES CAN MANAGE IN A MORE RESTRICTED SECTION
OF PAIRS OF EYES TO KEEP WATCH FOR THE MOVEMENTS OF PREDATORS
OF THE REED BED !MONG THESE SPECIES ARE THE #OMMON 2EED
THAT ALSO THREATEN THE NESTS OF OTHER SPECIES NESTING AMIDST
"UNTING AND 3EDGE 7ARBLER !CROCEPHALUS SCHOENOBAENUS 
THEIR COLONY SUCH AS 4UFTED $UCKS !YTHYA FULIGULA  #OM
WHICH CAN NEST IN A SHRUB OUTSIDE THE REED BED !MONG THE
MON 2EDSHANKS 4RINGA TOTANUS AND MANY OTHER SPECIES
NEWCOMERS OF THE LAST CENTURY ARE THE 'REAT 2EED 7ARBLER
,ITTLE 'ULLS ,ARUS MINUTUS MAY SETTLE DOWN TO NEST AMIDST
!CROCEPHALUS ARUNDINACEUS AND 2EED 7ARBLER !CROCEPHALUS
COLONIES OF "LACK HEADED 'ULLS IN INLAND REED BAYS BUT MAY
SCIRPACEUS  WHICH REQUIRE REED BEDS THAT ARE MORE EXTENSIVE
ALSO FORM THEIR OWN NESTING COLONIES )N &INLAND THIS SPECIES
AND SUBSTANTIAL 4HE "EARDED 4IT 0ANURUS BIARMICUS  WHICH
RARELY NESTS IN COASTAL BAYS
LANDED IN &INLAND SOME TWENTY YEARS AGO SEEMS TO HAVE SET
7HEN THE WATER LEVEL DROPS AND THE EUTROPHICATION OF REED
TLED IN EXTENSIVE REED BEDS IN &INLAND BUT IN #ENTRAL %UROPE
BEDS REACHES A CERTAIN POINT THE NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES FALLS
IT CAN NEST EVEN IN SMALLER REED BEDS AS LONG AS THERE ARE NEST
QUICKLY )N EXTENSIVE HOMOGENEOUS AND PALUDIFICATED REED
ING PLACES AVAILABLE (OWEVER IN &INLAND "EARDED 4ITS DID NOT
BEDS THE NUMBER OF SPECIES DECREASES AND THE MOST VALUABLE
SETTLE IN THE INLAND REED BEDS BUT INSTEAD ALL THE REED BEDS THEY
SPECIES DISAPPEAR ALTOGETHER 4HE MOST DEMANDING OF THE SPE
USE AS REGULAR NESTING SITES ARE LOCATED IN COASTAL BAYS
CIES NESTING IN REED BEDS ARE THE "ITTERN AND THE -ARSH (AR


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STOP BY TEMPTED BY THE RICH NOURISHMENT AND PROTECTION OF
FERED BY THE REED BED !MONG THE MOST COMMON VISITORS ARE
7ARBLERS SUCH AS 7ILLOW 7ARBLERS 0HYLLOSCOPUS TROCHILUS AND
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)NSECTS AND OTHER INVERTEBRATES WHICH LIVE IN THE WATER AND
ON SEA BEDS OR LAKE BOTTOMS ARE AN IMPORTANT FOOD SOURCE FOR
BOTH WATER BIRDS AND WADERS )N PARTICULAR THE BIOMASS OF
MOSQUITO LARVAE IS VERY LARGE AND SIMILARLY THE LARVAE OF DRAG
ONFLIES AND CADDISFLIES CAN BE VERY PLENTIFUL 7ATER FLEAS WHICH
ARE CRUSTACEANS ARE AN IMPORTANT FOOD SOURCE 7ATER BEETLES
ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOOD FOR BIRDS
)N THE SAME WAY INVERTEBRATES ARE IMPORTANT FOOD SOURCES
FOR FISHES 7ITHOUT AN ABUNDANCE OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS A
SUBSTANTIAL BIRD POPULATION COULD NOT DEVELOP IN REED BED
AREAS %QUALLY IMPORTANT ARE DRAGONFLIES AND MOSQUITOES THAT
HAVE EMERGED FROM THE WATER AND SIMILARLY MANY OTHER FLYING
INSECTS ARE IMPORTANT ESPECIALLY AS FOOD FOR 0ASSERINES
2EED BEDS ATTRACT PLENTY OF FEEDERS FROM THE SURROUNDING
AREA DURING NESTING TIMES 4HE REED BEDS ABUNDANT INSECT
POPULATION ATTRACTS HUNDREDS OF SWALLOWS PARTICULARLY DUR
ING PERIODS OF BAD WEATHER %VEN 3WIFTS !PUS APUS  WHICH
MORE REGULARLY FEED IN HIGH ALTITUDES MAY ALIGHT CLOSE TO A
REED BED IN SEARCH OF FOOD DURING RAINY AND WINDY CONDITIONS
.ORTHERN (OBBIES &ALCO SUBBUTEO  WHICH NEST CLOSE TO THE
REED BAYS CAN BE SEEN ABOVE THE REED BEDS CHASING DRAGONFLIES
DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS
7ATER BIRDS CHANGE ALL THEIR WING FEATHERS AT ONE TIME WHEN
THEY ARE COMPLETELY UNABLE TO FLY FOR A SHORT TIME ,USH REED
BED AREAS ARE IMPORTANT WATER BIRD MOULTING AREAS BECAUSE
THERE IS ABUNDANT FOOD IN A SMALL AREA AND THE REED BED OFFERS
SHELTER FROM PREDATORS 3EVERAL HUNDREDS OR EVEN THOUSANDS OF
MOULTING WATER BIRDS GATHER IN THE BEST REED BED AREAS
'REY (ERONS !RDEA CINEREA FROM NEARBY COLONIES STAY AT THE
FRINGES OF THE REED BED THEY LIKE TO FISH IN THE AREA BETWEEN
THE REED BED AND THE OPEN WATER !LSO FEEDING ON THE FISH IN
THE REED BAY ARE /SPREYS 0ANDION HALIAETUS  WHICH CAN COME
TO FISH FROM SOME DISTANCE AWAY #OMMON 4ERNS 3TERNA
HIRUNDO AND !RCTIC 4ERNS 3TERNA PARADISAEA  AND SOMETIMES
EVEN #ASPIAN 4ERNS 3TERNA CASPIA  FISH IN THE OPEN SECTIONS
OF THE REED BEDS
)N WINTER TIME MANY DIFFERENT SPECIES FEED ON THE SEEDS AND
INSECTS OF THE REED BED "LUE 4ITS 0ARUS CAERULEUS  "EARDED
4ITS AND 2EED "UNTINGS ARE SOME OF THE MOST COMMON SPE

/NLY IN RECENT DECADES HAS THE "EARDED 4IT SPREAD OUT TO NEST IN THE MOST
REPRESENTATIVE REED BED AREAS OF .ORTH %UROPE 0HOTO !NTTI "ELOW

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NEWCOMERS TO &INLAND SUCH AS ,ITTLE 'REBE 4ACHYBAPTUS
RUFICOLLIS  'ADWALL !NAS STREPERA  -ONTAGUS (ARRIER #IRCUS
PYGARGUS AND ,ITTLE #RAKE 0ORZANA PARVA  #ITRINE 7AGTAIL
-OTACILLA CITREOLA NESTS AT THE EDGES OF WETLAND MEADOWS AND
REED BEDS WITH THE NEST OFTEN FOUND INSIDE THE REED BED

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2EED BAYS ARE SIGNIFICANT RESTING AND FEEDING AREAS DURING MI
GRATION PERIODS $URING MIGRATION THOUSANDS OF WATER BIRDS
CAN GATHER IN A REED BED ON THEIR WAY TO THE NORTHERN NEST
ING GROUNDS 4HEY EITHER STOP IN THE REED BAYS TO WAIT FOR THE
WEATHER TO IMPROVE OR TO OBTAIN EXTRA NOURISHMENT FOR THE
NEXT STAGE OF THEIR MIGRATORY JOURNEY -OST WATER BIRDS REQUIRE
EXTENSIVE SHALLOW OR SEMI SHALLOW OPEN WATER AREAS AND HET
EROGENEOUS VEGETATION )N PARTICULAR $ABBLING $UCKS LIKE TO
SLEEP HIDDEN INSIDE THE REED BED WHILST $IVING $UCKS REMAIN
IN THE OPEN WATER SLEEPING IN A DENSE FLOCK
7ADERS DO NOT LIKE DENSE REED BEDS 4HEY ARE ONLY FOUND
IN THE OPEN FRINGE AREAS OF REED BEDS ON SHALLOW SPARSELY
VEGETATED SHORES OR IN COASTAL MEADOWS 3NIPE 'ALLINAGO GALL
INAGO IS THE ONLY WADER THAT MAY STOP IN REED BEDS IN GREATER
NUMBERS
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CIES IN THE REED BED 4HE 'REAT 'REY 3HRIKE ,ANIUS EXCUBITOR
LOOKS FOR PREY FROM A SUITABLE OBSERVATION POINT AND THE ,ESSER
3POTTED 7OODPECKER $ENDROCOPOS MINOR TAPS FOR INSECTS THAT
WINTER INSIDE THE REEDS

%UROPEAN COUNTRIES
3EVERAL LARGE REED BEDS HAVE BEEN INCLUDED IN THE INTERNA
TIONAL WETLANDS PROTECTION AGREEMENT THE SO CALLED 2!-3!2
AGREEMENT  &INNISH PROTECTION SITES HAVE BEEN INCLUDED IN
THE 2!-3!2 PROJECT ONE THIRD OF WHICH ARE COASTAL BAYS OR
LAKES THAT HAVE BEEN OVERTAKEN BY REED )N %STONIA THERE ARE
 2!-3!2 SITES INCLUDING MOSTLY COASTAL WETLANDS BUT ALSO
SEVERAL EXTENSIVE MIRE AREAS

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IN THE RICH BIRD WATERS OF &INLAND ARE -OORHEN 'ALLINULA
CHLOROPUS  "LACK 4ERN #HLIDONIAS NIGER  'REAT 2EED 7ARBLER
AND "LACK HEADED 'ULL /F THESE NEWCOMERS ONLY THE "LACK
HEADED 'ULL HAS DECREASED IN NUMBERS IN RECENT TIMES THE
OTHER SPECIES ARE CONSIDERED THREATENED BECAUSE OF THE SMALL
SIZE OF THEIR POPULATIONS
!NNEX  OF THE %UROPEAN "IRDS $IRECTIVE WHICH LISTS THE
SPECIES FOR WHICH THE MEMBER COUNTRIES MUST ALLOCATE SPECIFIC
PROTECTION AREAS CONTAINS MORE SPECIES RESIDING IN REED BEDS
4HIS IS LARGELY DUE TO THE POOR CONDITION OF REED BEDS IN SOUTH
ERN %UROPE THE "IRDS $IRECTIVE WAS DRAFTED IN  WHEN THE
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BENEFITS ITS BIRD POPULATION #UTTING A REED BED IN A STEPPED

FASHION IN ALTERNATE YEARS DECREASES THE AMOUNT OF PLANT MASS
IN THE AREA AND THEREFORE SLOWS DOWN ITS EUTROPHICATION )N
ORDER TO ENSURE THE DIVERSITY OF THE BIRD POPULATION IT IS ES
SENTIAL TO STOP THE EXPANSION OF THE REED BEDS ONTO THE COASTAL
MEADOWS /N THE OTHER HAND CUTTING THE REED BEDS COM
PLETELY REDUCES THE NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES THAT ARE DEPENDENT
ON REED BEDS BY PREVENTING THEM FROM SETTLING IN THEIR USUAL
AREA IN THE SPRING %VEN THOUGH THE REED BEDS GROW BACK IN THE
SUMMER THE BIRDS WILL HAVE ALREADY MOVED ELSEWHERE IN THE
REMAINING REED BEDS
!CKNOWLEDGEMENT OF THE STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES OF REED BEDS
IN THEIR MAINTENANCE BRINGS DIVERSITY TO BIRD POPULATIONS &OR
INSTANCE THE 2EED 7ARBLER AND 3EDGE 7ARBLER LIKE TALL REED
BEDS AND "EARDED 4ITS PREFER TALL AND THICK REED BEDS 4HE
2EED "UNTING LIKES OPEN ASPECTS PREFERRING TO STAY AT THE EDGE

4HE NUMBER OF REED BEDS HAS INCREASED MAINLY DUE TO EU

TROPHICATION 4HEY HAVE FORMED DENSE REED BEDS AND OVERTAK
EN PREVIOUSLY OPEN COASTAL MEADOWS $UE TO EUTROPHICATION
THE REED BEDS ARE DRYING UP AND SHRUBS AND TREES ARE BEGINNING
TO GROW 4HE WETLAND SPECIES ARE GRADUALLY DISAPPERING 3TUD
IES HAVE SHOWN THAT THE NUMBER OF WETLAND BIRD SPECIES WILL
REMAIN HIGHER IN REED BEDS THAT ARE CUT REGULARLY THAN IN REED
BEDS THAT ARE NEGLECTED "URNING A REED BED ALSO HAS AN IMPACT
ON ITS STRUCTURE AND THEREFORE ON ITS BIRD POPULATION
4HE BIODIVERSITY OF COASTAL REED BEDS MUST BE RETAINED IN
SUCH A WAY THAT AS WELL AS MAINTAINING ORNITHOLOGICALLY IM
PORTANT REED BEDS COASTAL MEADOWS AND WATERWAYS ARE ALSO
KEPT OPEN )T IS POSSIBLE TO UTILISE A REED BED IN A WAY THAT ALSO

!FTER SUMMER CUTTING OF THE REED BED !NSERIFORMES DUCKS GEESE AND SWANS AND 3WALLOWS COME TO FEED ALMOST IMMEDIATELY TO THE AREA WHICH HAS BEEN
CUT 0HOTO %IJA (AGELBERG



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

OF REED BEDS NEAR OPEN WATER 4HE "ITTERN NEEDS WATERY AND
SHALLOW EDGES AND PLENTY OF FISH FOR NOURISHMENT !CCORDING
TO STUDIES CONDUCTED IN %NGLAND THE SIZE OF THE REED BED MUST
BE AS PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED A MINIMUM OF  HECTARES OF
WHICH MORE THAN  MUST BE OPEN WATER 4HERE MUST BE AT
LEAST  METRES OF REED BED EDGE PER HECTARE
! KEY FOR ENSURING A HEALTHY BIRD POPULATION IS TO CHANGE
UNIFORM REED BEDS INTO STRUCTURALLY MORE DIVERSE REED BEDS )N
ASSESSING THE NEED FOR MAINTENANCE THE PRESENCE OF THREATENED
AND DEMANDING BIRD SPECIES MUST BE CONSIDERED SO THAT THEIR
HABITATS ARE NOT DAMAGED BY THE MAINTENANCE MEASURES SE
LECTED 4HE FRINGE AREAS SUCH AS COASTAL MEADOWS AND SHRUBS
MUST ALSO BE CONSIDERED WHEN MAINTAINING REED BEDS THEY CAN
BE USED BY REED BASED BIRDS FOR NESTING OR FEEDING
4HE DIGGING OF PONDS IS AN EFFICIENT METHOD OF INCREASING THE
AREA OF OPEN WATER SUITABLE FOR WATER BIRDS 0ONDS OFFER BOTH
ADULTS AND YOUNG BIRDS FEEDING AND MOULTING AREAS WHICH ARE
SHELTERED FROM PREDATORS 4HE PRODUCTION OF WATER INSECTS IN
THEM IS HIGH AT LEAST AT THE START BECAUSE THE PROPORTION OF
PONDSIDE VEGETATION IS INCREASED 0ONDS INCREASE THE INDENTED
SHAPE AND MARGINAL EFFECTS OF THE REED BEDS WHICH INCREASES
THE DIVERSITY OF THE POPULATIONS OF BOTH WATER BIRDS AND OTHER
WETLAND BIRDS 5NDERWATER AND FLOATING LEAFY VEGETATION DE
VELOPS IN PONDS
4HE MOSAIC SHAPE OF HOMOGENOUS REED BED AREAS CAN ALSO
BE INCREASED BY CUTTING ! REED BED CAN BE MADE TO REGRESS
QUITE QUICKLY BY CUTTING *UST CUTTING FOR TWO TO THREE YEARS
WEAKENS REED BEDS EFFECTIVELY IF THE SHOOTS ARE CUT UNDERNEATH
THE WATER SURFACE 4HE REMOVAL OF ROOTSTOCKS COMBINED WITH
CUTTING SUBSTANTIALLY IMPROVES THE EFFECTS OF MAINTENANCE AND
IS A SUITABLE METHOD IN PLACES WHERE GRAZING CANNOT BE USED AS
AN EFFECTIVE FORM OF MAINTENANCE 4HE MUDDY POOLS PREFERRED
BY WADERS ARE ALSO FORMED IN THIS WAY

9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

%DFN WR WKH PHDGRZ

 UHVWRUDWLRQ RI FRDVWDO PHDGRZV WKDW KDYH EHHQ

RYHUWDNHQ E\ UHHG EHGV LQ WKH /LQWXODKGHW /LIH SURMHFW
,OSR +XROPDQ 6HQLRU ,QVSHFWRU 8XVLPDD (QYLURQPHQW &HQWUH
0DUMR 3ULKD 3URMHFW &RRUGLQDWRU 8XVLPDD (QYLURQPHQW &HQWUH

,INTULAHDET ,IFE "IRD "AYS ,IFE IS A WETLAND RESTORATION

PROJECT FUNDED BY THE %5 ,IFE .ATURE &UND WHICH INCLUDED
THE MANAGEMENT OF  WETLANDS IN 5USIMAA AND 3OUTHWEST
&INLAND 4HESE WETLANDS ARE LOCATED ALONG THE 'ULF OF &INLAND
MIGRATORY FLYWAY AND ARE PART OF THE .ATURA  NETWORK
0ICTURE   4HE KEY AIM OF THE PROJECT WAS TO STRENGTHEN THE
IMPORTANCE OF THE .ATURA  AREAS AS STAGING AREAS PARTICU
LARLY DURING MIGRATORY PERIODS AND TO IMPROVE THE HABITATS OF
THE WETLAND SPECIES MENTIONED IN THE "IRDS $IRECTIVE AND THE
(ABITATS $IRECTIVE
)N   A TOTAL OF  HECTARES OF PALUDIFICATED COAST
AL MEADOWS WERE RESTORED BY THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT !T
THE START OF THE PROJECT MANY OF THE RESTORATION SITES WERE COV
ERED BY AN ALMOST CONTINUOUS REED BED AND WERE SILTED UP TO A
SIGNIFICANT DEGREE 0ICTURE   )N PLACES THE PALUDIFICATION HAD
ADVANCED TO SUCH AN EXTENT THAT A LOT OF WILLOWS AND DECIDUOUS
COPSES HAD STARTED TO GROW )N SOME AREAS THE RESTORATION SITES
WERE INITIALLY FLOOD PLAIN REED BEDS OF THE TRANSITION MIRES AND
QUAKING BOGS BIOTYPE ELSEWHERE THEY WERE "ALTIC BOREAL COASTAL
MEADOWS !T ITS BEST THE VEGETATION CONSISTED OF JUST A THIN
STRIP OF LOW GROWING MEADOW PLANTS AT THE TOP OF A MEADOW
)N THE MAJORITY OF THE RESTORED SITES GRAZING HAD STOPPED DEC
ADES AGO AND THERE WERE HARDLY ANY SIGNS OF IT IN EITHER THE
VEGETATION OR THE FLORA *UDGING BY THE VEGETATION AND DITCHES
SOME OF THE LAND HAD ONCE BEEN CULTIVATED
4HEIR POTENTIAL AS A STAGING AND NESTING AREA FOR MIGRATORY
BIRDS WAS CONSIDERED TO BE THE MAIN FACTOR IN THE SELECTION OF
RESTORATION SITES 4HE MOST IMPORTANT SELECTION CRITERIA WERE
THE FEASIBILITY OF OPENING UP A SUFFICIENTLY EXTENSIVE OPEN
MEADOW THE SURVIVAL OF MEADOW SPECIES IN THE AREA INFORMA
TION ABOUT THE FORMER GRAZING HISTORY OF AN AREA AND ITS LOCA
TION IN RELATION TO CURRENTLY MAINTAINED GRAZING MEADOWS OR
OTHER OPEN HABITATS AND THE OPPORTUNITY TO MOW THE MEADOW
ALL THE WAY TO THE WATERS EDGE 4HE MAJORITY OF THE CHOSEN

0ICTURE  ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT AREAS  3ALTFJRDEN +IRKKONUMMI 

-EDVAST 3TORMOSSEN +IRKKONUMMI  ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO  4UUSULANJRVI
,AKE 4UUSULA AND *RVENP  6ANHANKAUPUNGINLAHTI "AY (ELSINKI 
0ORVOONJOKI 2IVER DELTA 3TENSBLE 0ORVOO  0ERNAJANLAHTI "AY 0ERNAJA
 0YHJRVI ,AKE )ITTI *AALA AND 6ALKEALA  3ALMINLAHTI "AY +OTKA AND
(AMINA  +IRKKOJRVI ,AKE (AMINA  0APPILANSAARI ,UPINLAHTI "AY
(AMINA AND  +IRKON 6ILKKILNTURA 6IROLAHTI

0ICTURE  "EFORE RESTORATION -AARINNIITTY MEADOW IN ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO

CONTAINED A CONTINUOUS REED BED 0HOTO 4ERO 4APONEN



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

&UXVKLQJ D UHHG EHG

RESTORATION SITES ARE LOCATED IN COASTAL BAYS APPROX   CM

ABOVE AVERAGE SEA LEVEL WHICH IS WHY THEY ARE AT TIMES COM
PLETELY COVERED BY WATER DUE TO THE CHANGES IN SEA LEVEL
4HE REED BEDS IN THE COASTAL BAYS OF THE 'ULF OF &INLAND ARE
OFTEN VERY SOFT WHICH CAUSED PARTICULAR CHALLENGES FOR THE RES
TORATION METHODS AND TECHNOLOGIES USED 4HE GROUND AT MANY
OF THE RESTORATION SITES DOES NOT UNDER NORMAL CIRCUMSTANCES
SUPPORT HEAVY WORK MACHINERY )NSTEAD THE RESTORATION RE
QUIRED SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

4HE CRUSHING TECHNOLOGY INVOLVES THE USE OF A CRUSHING BLADE

WHICH IS SIMILAR TO THE BLADES USED FOR CUTTING ROADSIDES 4HE
RESTORATION OF COASTAL MEADOWS CAN BE UNDERTAKEN WITH A
CRUSHER THAT IS FIXED TO A NORMAL AGRICULTURAL TRACTOR OR ON
SOFTER GROUND TO A LORRY THAT HAS CATERPILLAR TRACKS )N DRIER
LOCATIONS THE USE OF A TRACTOR MAY ONLY BE POSSIBLE IF DOUBLE
WHEELS ARE USED 4HE CRUSHER BLADE MAY BE FIXED TO THE FRONT
OF THE TRACTOR OR TO THE BACK )N THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECTS
RESTORATIONS  M  M AND  M WIDE CRUSHER BLADES WERE
USED AND THEY WERE FIXED TO THE FRONT OR BACK OF THE TRACTOR
4HE USE OF THE WIDEST  METRE CRUSHER BLADE REQUIRES A HEAVY
DUTY TRACTOR AND IS ONLY SUITABLE FOR HARD BOTTOMED MEADOWS
4HE NARROWER  M AND  M CRUSHERS CAN BE USED ON THE
FRONT OR BACK OF AN AGRICULTURAL TRACTOR AND IN THE WETTEST
AREAS FIXED TO A LORRY THAT HAS CATERPILLAR TRACKS 0ICTURES  
AND  
4HE CRUSHER IS STRONGER THAN A BEAM OR PLATE HARVESTER AND
THEREFORE IT IS A SUPERIOR PRODUCT "USHES AND EVEN INDIVIDUAL
TREES CAN BE CUT WITHOUT BREAKING THE BLADE 7HEN CUTTING
WITH TRADITIONAL BEAM AND PLATE HARVESTERS THE OPERATOR HAS
TO AVOID INDIVIDUAL TALL TUFTS OF SEDGE AND OTHER UNEVENNESS
IN THE TERRAIN WHICH MEANS THAT THE STUBBLE WILL BE TOO LONG
AND A PART OF THE MEADOW WILL BE LEFT UNCUT 7HEN USING TRA
DITIONAL METHODS THE CUT MATERIAL MUST ALSO BE CLEARED AWAY
WHICH WILL ADD TO THE COSTS CONSIDERABLY AND IN SOFT LOCATIONS
IS EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO DO WITH A MACHINE

5HVWRUDWLRQ RI WKH FRDVWDO PHDGRZV  JRDOV

4HE MAIN GOAL OF THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT WAS TO CREATE
LOW GROWING COASTAL MEADOWS IN AREAS WHERE MOST WADERS AND
WATER BIRDS WERE SUFFERING FROM A SHORTAGE OF SUITABLE HABITATS
WHICH WAS CAUSED BY PALUDIFICATION DURING MIGRATION AND
NESTING PERIODS !NOTHER STATED GOAL WAS TO RESTORE A MORE
DIVERSE AND REPRESENTATIVE FLORA TO THE REED FLOOD PLAINS AND
THE NEAR EXTINCT COASTAL MEADOWS /PEN POOLS WERE DUG IN
SOME OF THE COASTAL MEADOWS TO PROVIDE A BREEDING GROUND FOR
INSECT SPECIES THAT ARE DEPENDENT ON WETLAND CONDITIONS SUCH
AS THE RARE ,ARGE 7HITE FACED $ARTER ,EUCORRHINIA PECTORALIS 

5HVWRUDWLRQ PHWKRGV
4WO MAIN METHODS ARE USED WHEN RESTORING COASTAL MEADOWS
THAT HAVE BEEN OVERTAKEN BY REEDS REED PLANTS CAN BE CRUSHED
WITH A CRUSHER AND THE LAND SURFACE CAN BE ROTOVATED ! NOR
MAL BEAM HARVESTER CAN BE USED FOR CUTTING THE REED BUT IT
WAS FOUND TO BE BADLY SUITED FOR RESTORING AREAS THAT ARE IN
AN ADVANCED STATE OF PALUDIFICATION AND TOO SLOW FOR TREAT
ING EXTENSIVE AREAS IN DIFFICULT CONDITIONS 4HE COLLECTION OF
THE HARVESTED REED ALSO PROVED TO BE EXPENSIVE IN CHALLENGING
CONDITIONS
4HE REED BEDS TENDED TO BE HARVESTED MAINLY IN LATE SUM
MER IN *ULY AND !UGUST 4HE REED BIOMASS IS THEN AT ITS LARGEST
AND THE NESTING OF THE REEDS BIRD POPULATION IS PAST THE MOST
DELICATE STAGE #RUSH HARVESTING WAS ALSO TESTED IN THE WIN
TER BUT THE THICK LAYER OF SNOW THAT ACCUMULATED IN THE REED
BED PRESENTED A PROBLEM IT MEANT THAT A LONG hSTUBBLEv WAS
LEFT BEHIND AFTER THE CUTTING )N WINTER THERE WAS NO POINT IN
CRUSHING THE REED )T WAS BETTER TO CUT IT WHOLE AND COLLECT THE
STEMS TO BE USED AMONG OTHER THINGS AS BUILDING MATERIAL

0ICTURE  4HE WIDER  M CRUSHER ATTACHED TO THE BACK OF A TRACTOR

0HOTO )LPO (UOLMAN



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

0ICTURE  ! NARROW  M CRUSHER ATTACHED TO A LORRY WITH CATERPILLAR TRACKS (GGLUND "6   0HOTO )LPO (UOLMAN

7HEN USING A CRUSHING BLADE THE REED STEM IS CHOPPED

INTO APPROXIMATELY  CENTIMETRE LONG PIECES THAT ARE LEFT ON
THE GROUND 4HERE IS CURRENTLY NO WAY OF COLLECTING THEM EF
FECTIVELY 4HE REED PIECES REMAINING IN THE MEADOW PROBABLY
MAKE THE SOIL SLIGHTLY MORE EUTROPHIC AND MAY EVEN INITIALLY
ACCELERATE THE PALUDIFICATION OF THE LAND 5SERS OF THIS METHOD
MUST BE PREPARED TO REPEAT THE CUT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
TREATMENT FOR AT LEAST   SUMMERS )F GRAZING ANIMALS ARE AL
LOWED IN THE MEADOW STRAIGHT AFTER RESTORATION THERE SEEMS
TO BE NO NEED FOR REPEAT CUTTING IN THE ENTIRE AREA AFTER THE
FIRST YEAR ALTHOUGH A REPEAT CUT MAY STILL BE NEEDED CLOSE TO
THE WATERS EDGE WHERE GRAZING MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE DUE TO
THE PREVAILING CONDITIONS 4HE MAJOR BENEFIT OF THE CRUSH
TECHNIQUE IS ITS COST WHICH IS THE LOWEST OF ALL THE TRADITIONAL
CUTTING METHODS EVEN EXTENSIVE MEADOWS CAN BE CUT RELATIVELY
QUICKLY AND THERE ARE NO COSTS INVOLVED IN COLLECTING THE CUT
TINGS %XPERIENCE GAINED DURING THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT
WOULD SUGGEST THAT ON A MORE SOLID SOIL WHERE THE CRUSHER CAN
BE ATTACHED TO A TRACTOR A WORKMAN CAN CUT APPROXIMATELY

  HA OF MEADOW PER WORKING DAY 4HE WORK IS CLEARLY MUCH

SLOWER IN SOFT TERRAINS THAT REQUIRE SPECIAL CUTTING EQUIPMENT
BUT EVEN THEN SEVERAL HECTARES OF MEADOW CAN BE CUT PER DAY
0ICTURES  AND   4HE NEGATIVE ASPECT OF THE CRUSHING TECH
NIQUE IS THE FACT THAT THE CUT MATERIAL IS LEFT IN THE MEADOW
LEADING TO MORE EUTROPHICATION AND FASTER PALUDIFICATION OF
THE MEADOW 4HIS TECHNIQUE CANNOT BE RECOMMENDED AS A
SINGLE MEASURE WITHOUT PLANNED AFTERCARE THAT INVOLVES EITHER
HARVESTING OR GRAZING )N BOTANICALLY IMPORTANT SITES THE FOL
LOWING MUST BE BORNE IN MIND WHEN THE SEA LEVEL RISES THE
CRUSHED MATERIAL NORMALLY BUILDS UP INTO A THICK WALL AT THE
TOPS OF THE MEADOWS AND THEREFORE MAY COVER THOSE SECTIONS
OF A MEADOW THAT HAVE THE MOST SIGNIFICANT VEGETATION 0IC
TURE   4HIS PROBLEM CAN BE OVERCOME BY THE DEVELOPMENT
OF TECHNIQUES THAT WOULD ENABLE THE CRUSHED MATERIAL TO BE
COLLECTED BY A MACHINE AND REMOVED FROM THE SITE )T SHOULD
BE POSSIBLE TO UTILISE THE CRUSHED MATERIAL FOR INSTANCE AS
BIOENERGY



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

0ICTURE  %QUIPMENT ON CATERPILLAR TRACKS CAN BE USED TO CUT MEADOWS EVEN IN

THE SOFTEST OF TERRAINS 0HOTO )LPO (UOLMAN

0ICTURE  #RUSHED MATERIAL FORMING A THICK BELT AT THE TOPS OF MEADOWS

IN COASTAL BAYS 0HOTO )LPO (UOLMAN

5RWRYDWLQJ VXUIDFH VRLO

4HE OPENING UP OF THE WATERS EDGE IS USUALLY THE MOST

CHALLENGING PART OF MEADOW MAINTENANCE BECAUSE THE
TERRAIN THERE IS USUALLY VERY SOFT AND MAINTENANCE CANNOT
NORMALLY BE UNDERTAKEN WITHOUT SPECIAL EQUIPMENT 4HE
NEED FOR MECHANISED MAINTENANCE IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE

)N RESTORING COASTAL MEADOWS TO PROVIDE A HABITAT FOR WADERS

AND WATER BIRDS IT IS ESSENTIAL TO OPEN A MEADOW ALL THE WAY
TO THE WATERS EDGE THE SO CALLED BLUE MARGIN 0ICTURE  

0ICTURE  )N ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO AN APPROXIMATELY   METRE WIDE BELT OF THE WATERS EDGE WAS ROTOVATED UNTIL SOFT 0HOTO 4ERO 4APONEN



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

GRAZING ANIMALS ALONE CANNOT KEEP THE WATERS EDGE OF THE
MEADOW CLEAR AT LEAST AT THE START OF THE PROJECT
)N THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT TWO SURFACE SOIL TREATMENT
METHODS FOR THE OPENING OF THE WATERS EDGE WERE TESTED )N
AREAS THAT COULD BEAR THE WEIGHT OF HEAVIER MACHINERY THE SUR
FACE SOIL AT THE WATERS EDGE WAS LOOSENED WITH AN AGRICULTURAL
ROTOVATOR WHICH IS NORMALLY USED WHEN CLEARING A FOREST FOR
FIELDS 4HE USE OF A ROTOVATOR IS LIMITED BY THE FACT THAT IT NEEDS
MORE ENGINE POWER THAN A CRUSHER WOULD NEED WHICH IN TURN
MEANS THAT A BIGGER HEAVIER TRACTOR IS NEEDED 4HE METHOD HAS
BEEN TRIED BEFORE ON HARD BOTTOMED COASTAL MEADOWS BUT THIS
WAS PROBABLY THE FIRST TIME ON SOFT BOTTOMED FLOOD PLAINS )TS
USE IN SOFT BOTTOMED SITES WAS MADE POSSIBLE BY THE EXTREME
DROUGHT OF  WHICH TOGETHER WITH THE LOW SEA LEVELS
MEANT THAT EVEN SOFT TERRAINS COULD BEAR HEAVIER WEIGHTS THAN
USUAL )N NORMAL YEARS THE USE OF HEAVY MACHINERY WOULD NOT
BE POSSIBLE IN MOST OF THE COASTAL BAYS OF THE SOUTHERN COAST
4HE SURFACE SOIL IS ROTOVATED IN ORDER TO BREAK THE REED ROOT
STOCKS WHICH WILL HELP TO ACHIEVE A RESULT THAT IS CLEARLY LONGER
TERM THAN THAT ACHIEVED BY ORDINARY CUTTING 4HE ROTOVATOR

CUTS THE ROOTSTOCKS AT A DEPTH OF APPROXIMATELY   CENTI

METRES WHICH IS PROBABLY ENOUGH TO IMPEDE ROOT GROWTH FOR
SEVERAL YEARS )N THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT A  METRE ROTAVA
TOR ATTACHED TO THE TRAILER OF AN AGRICULTURAL TRACTOR WAS TESTED
4HIS ENABLED THE OPERATOR TO ROTOVATE AREAS AT A RATE OF 
HAHOUR !S WELL AS AT THE WATERS EDGE THE ROTOVATOR WAS TESTED
IN THE INDENTATIONS IN THE MEADOW AND AT THE EDGES OF SMALL
PONDS 4HIS WAS DONE IN ORDER TO CREATE A SMALL SCALE OPEN
WATERS EDGE MORE WIDELY IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE MEADOW
4HE OTHER METHOD OF CREATING AN OPEN WATERS EDGE WAS TO
BREAK THE SURFACE SOIL WITH A MACHINE ON CATERPILLAR TRACKS
0ICTURE   4HIS METHOD HAS PREVIOUSLY BEEN USED SUCCESSFULLY
IN 3WEDEN BUT HAS PROBABLY NOT BEEN USED IN &INLAND BEFORE
NOW 4HE METHOD WOULD SEEM IDEALLY SUITED FOR SOFT BOT
TOMED SITES WHERE THE OPERATORS CANNOT REACH THE WATERS EDGE
WITH HEAVIER MACHINERY )N PRACTICE THE SURFACE SOIL IS BROKEN
BY DRIVING THE MACHINE BACK AND FORTH AT THE WATERS EDGE IN
A FIGURE OF EIGHT PATTERN WHEN THE TRACKS GRADUALLY BREAK THE
SURFACE OF THE SOIL 2EED SEEMS TO REACT READILY TO EVEN SLIGHT
BREAKING OF THE SURFACE SOIL

0ICTURE  4HE ROOTSTOCK OF A REED BED GROWING AT THE WATERS EDGE CAN BE BROKEN BY DRIVING OVER IT WITH A LORRY ON CATERPILLAR TRACKS 4HE TRACK MARKS CAN BE SEEN CLEARLY
AT THE WATERS EDGE OF THE %LFVIK MEADOW IN ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO 0HOTO 4ERO 4APONEN



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

.H\ 5HVXOWV
4HE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT WAS SET UP TO MONITOR THE EFFECTS
OF THE RESTORATION OF THE COASTAL MEADOWS ON BOTH MIGRATORY
AND NESTING BIRDS 4HE EFFECTS OF THE RESTORATION ON THE HABI
TATS AND VEGETATION OF THE MEADOWS WERE ALSO MONITORED AS
WERE ITS EFFECTS ON DRAGONFLIES PARTICULARLY THE ,ARGE 7HITE
FACED $ARTER
4HE EFFECTS OF THE RESTORATION OF COASTAL MEADOWS WERE SEEN
IN THE BIRD POPULATION SOON AFTER THE PROJECT STARTED 4HE
NUMBERS OF WADERS AND WATER BIRDS MULTIPLIED PARTICULARLY
AT THE TIME OF MIGRATION WHEN PALUDIFICATED COASTAL MEAD
OWS WERE ONCE AGAIN OPENED UP AND ACCESS TO THE WATERS
EDGE WAS SECURED 4HE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT ACHIEVED
EXCELLENT RESULTS BY RESTORING MEADOWS THAT HAD TURNED INTO
REED BEDS )N SEVERAL SITES THE NUMBERS OF MIGRATORY WADERS
INCREASED SIGNIFICANTLY AS A RESULT OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MAN
AGED MEADOWS 0ICTURES  AND   "EFORE RESTORATION OF THE
COASTAL BAYS OF THE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT THAT HAD TURNED
INTO REED BEDS ONLY OCCASIONAL WADERS VENTURED INTO THESE
MEADOWS BUT AFTER THE RESTORATION THE MEADOWS BECAME
AN IMPORTANT RESTING PLACE FOR SEVERAL SPECIES THROUGHOUT
THE MIGRATORY PERIOD 0ICTURE   4HE RESTORATION OF COASTAL
MEADOWS ENABLED LARGE CONCENTRATIONS OF WATER BIRDS TO GATHER
IN THESE MEADOWS 7ATER BIRDS WHICH REGULARLY FEED IN THESE
COASTAL MEADOWS INCLUDE THE DABBLER DUCKS WHOSE NUMBERS
INCREASED TENFOLD AS A RESULT OF THE RESTORATION 0ICTURE  
0OSITIVE CHANGES HAVE ALSO BEEN OBSERVED IN THE NESTING BIRDS
SPECIES DEPENDENT ON COASTAL MEADOWS THAT HAD DIMINISHED IN
NUMBERS SUCH AS THE ,APWING #OMMON 2EDSHANK -EADOW
0IPIT AND 9ELLOW 7AGTAIL HAVE ONCE AGAIN BECOME ABUNDANT
4HE SPECIES THAT SUFFERED AS A RESULT OF THE RESTORATION WORK
WERE THE 0ASSERIFORMES SUCH AS THE 3EDGE 7ARBLER 2EED 7AR
BLER AND 2EED "UNTING WHOSE NORMAL HABITATS ARE REED BEDS
7ITH GOOD PLANNING HABITATS CAN BE PRESERVED FOR THESE SPE
CIES IN MOST OF THE SITES
)N VEGETATION THE EFFECTS OF THE RESTORATION OF THE COASTAL
MEADOWS CAN BE SEEN EARLY IN THE GRADUAL DECLINE OF REED
PLANTS !S A RESULT OF CUTTING THE REED PLANTS INITIALLY THIN OUT
AND STOP GROWING AS TALL AND STRONG AS THEY USED TO BE !FTER
SEVERAL ANNUAL CUTS GAPS START TO APPEAR IN THE REED BEDS 2EED
IS REMOVED PERMANENTLY FROM A COASTAL MEADOW AFTER  
YEARS OF ACTIVE CUTTING AND GRAZING )T SEEMS THAT LOW GROWING
SPECIES GRADUALLY SPREAD FAR INTO THE DECAYING REED BEDS AND
SIGNIFICANT CHANGES WERE NOT OBSERVED OVER A MONITORING PE
RIOD LASTING A FEW YEARS ! FASTER IMPACT ON VEGETATION CAN BE

ACHIEVED BY ROTOVATING THE SURFACE OF THE SOIL UNTIL IT IS BARE

WHICH WILL REMOVE THE REED COMPLETELY AT LEAST TEMPORARILY
)N AN AREA IN ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO THAT WAS ROTOVATED UNTIL IT
WAS BARE LOW GROWING MEADOW AND SHORE PLANTS EMERGED IN
THE SUMMER FOLLOWING THE ROTOVATION SUCH AS #ELERY LEAVED
"UTTERCUP 2ANUNCULUS SCLERATUS  #OMMON 7ATER PLANTAIN
!LISMA PLANTAGO AQUATICA  3LENDER 3PIKE RUSH %LEOCHARIS
UNIGLUMIS AND -ARSH "EDSTRAW 'ALIUM PALUSTRE  7ITHOUT
CONTINUING MAINTENANCE SUCH AS GRAZING REED WILL ONCE AGAIN
EMERGE ON MEADOWLAND EVEN IN SECTIONS THAT WERE ROTOVATED
AND RECLAIM ITS POSITION FAIRLY QUICKLY
4HE POOLS THAT WERE DUG FOR THE DRAGONFLIES PROVED TO BE A
GOOD METHOD OF MAINTAINING THEIR HABITAT 4HE SMALL POOLS IN
REED BEDS OFFER A GOOD HABITAT FOR INSTANCE FOR THE BREEDING
OF ADULT ,ARGE 7HITE FACED $ARTERS AND EXCELLENT PROTECTION
AGAINST PREDATORY FISH FOR THEIR LARVAE 0ICTURE   )N SITES THAT
HAD AN EXISTING POPULATION OF ,ARGE 7HITE FACED $ARTERS THE
COLONISATION OF NEW POOLS TOOK PLACE FAIRLY SWIFTLY

9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

0ICTURE  4HE NUMBER OF WADERS IN ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO IN AUTUMN  AND

AUTUMN  3INCE THE COASTAL MEADOWS WERE RESTORED THE NUMBER OF WAD
ERS HAS MULTIPLIED SEVERAL TIMES AND THE AREA HAS BEEN VISITED BY SEVERAL SCARCE
BIRD SPECIES SUCH AS "LACK TAILED 'ODWIT ,IMOSA LIMOSA  "AR TAILED 'ODWIT
,IMOSA LAPPONICA  -ARSH 3ANDPIPER 4RINGA STAGNATILIS  2ED NECKED 0HALA
ROPE 0HALAROPUS LOBATUS  "ROAD BILLED 3ANDPIPER ,IMICOLA FALCINELLUS AND
+NOT #ALIDRIS CANUTUS 

0ICTURE  4HE NUMBER OF WADERS IN ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO BEFORE THE ESTABLISH
MENT OF MANAGED MEADOWS IN  AND SINCE THEY WERE ESTABLISHED IN 
$UE TO THE MANAGED MEADOWS THE NUMBER OF WADERS IN ,AAJALAHTI HAS MUL
TIPLIED AND SEVERAL WADER SPECIES VISIT THE AREA

0ICTURE  4HE ,INTULAHDET ,IFE PROJECT FOCUSED ON THE SPECIES IN THE "IRDS
$IRECTIVE !NNEX ) 7OOD 3ANDPIPER 4RINGA GLAREOLA AND 2UFF 0HILOMACHUS
PUGNAX  FOR WHICH RESTING AREAS HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED FOR THE MIGRATION PERI
ODS )N ,AAJALAHTI %SPOO THE NUMBER OF BOTH THESE SPECIES GREW SHARPLY DUE
TO THE RESTORATION OF THE COASTAL MEADOWS "EFORE THE RESTORATION IN  BOTH
SPECIES ONLY VISITED ,AAJALAHTI OCCASIONALLY BUT THE BIRD COUNT IN  SHOWED
THAT THE AREA HAS BECOME AN IMPORTANT RESTING AREA FOR 7OOD 3ANDPIPER AND
2UFF PARTICULARLY IN THE AUTUMN MIGRATION PERIOD

0ICTURE  3INCE THE RESTORATION OF COASTAL MEADOWS ,AAJALAHTI IN %SPOO HAS
BECOME ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT RESTING AREAS FOR DABBLER DUCKS ON &INLANDS
SOUTH COAST &OR 'ADWALL !NAS STREPERA  ,AAJALAHTI IS PROBABLY THE MOST IM
PORTANT COLLECTION POINT ON THE SOUTH COAST



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

0ICTURE  !T ,AKE 0YHJRVI )ITTI A GROUP OF SMALL POOLS WAS DUG TO PROVIDE A BREEDING GROUND FOR THE ,ARGE 7HITE FACED $ARTER 0HOTO 4ERO 4APONEN



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

5HHG EHG ELRGLYHUVLW\

%|UMH (NVWDP 3K' 6HQLRU /HFWXUHU .DOPDU 8QLYHUVLW\ 6FKRRO RI 3XUH DQG $SSOLHG 1DWXUDO 6FLHQFH
4HE NUMBER OF SPECIES PRESENT IS A FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTY OF
ALL HABITATS AND ECOSYSTEMS $IVERSITY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR
ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS HAVE THEREFORE RE
CEIVED ATTENTION FROM BIOLOGISTS FOR A LONG TIME 0IELOU 
7ILSON  4ILMAN  AND 6ERHOEVEN ET AL   )N
RECENT YEARS AFTER THE 5. #ONFERENCE ON %NVIRONMENT AND
$EVELOPMENT IN 2IO DE *ANEIRO  THE PRESERVATION OF BIO
DIVERSITY HAS BEEN RAISED TO AN ISSUE OF GLOBAL CONCERN
4HE TERM BIODIVERSITY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE VARIATION OF LIFE
AT ALL LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION INCLUDING INDIVIDUALS
POPULATIONS AND COMMUNITIES 5SUALLY IT REFERS TO THE NUMBER
OF SPECIES WITHIN A SPECIFIED ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY SUCH AS
REED BEDS OR IN A GEOGRAPHICAL AREA 3PECIES POOL IS OFTEN USED

SYNONYMOUSLY WITH BIODIVERSITY ! HUGE VARIETY OF SPECIES OF

MICROBES PLANTS INVERTEBRATES FISH AMPHIBIANS REPTILES
BIRDS AND MAMMALS CAN BE PART OF AN ECOLOGICAL COMMU
NITY &OR PRACTICAL REASONS IN RESEARCH ONLY CERTAIN GROUPS OF
SPECIES SUCH AS PLANTS OR BIRDS ARE SAMPLED AND ANALYZED AT
THE SAME TIME 4HE NUMBER OF SPECIES OCCURRING IN A SAMPLE
FROM A LOCAL REED BED OR ANY LOCAL BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY IS
CALLED SPECIES RICHNESS OR SPECIES DENSITY /FTEN DIVERSITY IS
USED SYNONYMOUSLY -ORE PRECISELY DIVERSITY INCLUDES THE
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SPECIES TAKING INTO ACCOUNT NOT ONLY
THE NUMBER OF SPECIES BUT ALSO THE NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS PER
SPECIES 'ENETIC DIVERSITY IS ANOTHER ASPECT OF BIODIVERSITY )T
REFERS TO THE VARIATION OF GENES THAT ARE REPRESENTED AMONG

0AINTING %LEN !PSALON



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

INDIVIDUALS OF A SPECIES
"EFORE WE START TO DISCUSS THE BIODIVERSITY OF REED BEDS WE
SHOULD NOTE THAT @REED BED IS NOT A STRICTLY DEFINED BIOLOGICAL
COMMUNITY 4HE TERM MAY NOT HAVE THE SAME MEANING FOR
DIFFERENT USERS )N A WIDE SENSE REED BEDS INCLUDE ALL STANDS OF
TALL GRASS LIKE EMERGENT VEGETATION IN SHALLOW WATER INCLUDING
#OMMON 2EED 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS  "ULRUSHES 4YPHA SPP 
2EED 3WEET GRASS 'LYCERIA MAXIMA AND #OMMON #LUB RUSH
3CHOENOPLECTUS LACUSTRIS IN NORTHERN %UROPE %KSTAM ET AL
  -ORE RESTRICTED REED BEDS REFER TO VEGETATION TYPES
THAT ARE DOMINATED BY 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS )T IS IN THE LATTER
MORE RESTRICTED SENSE THE TERM WILL BE USED IN THIS CHAPTER
4HE OPINION AMONG BIOLOGISTS AND LANDSCAPE MANAGERS WITH
RESPECT TO THE VALUE OF REED BEDS FOR BIODIVERSITY DIFFERS EG
!ILSTOCK ET AL  3ILLIMAN  "ERTNESS  "RIX  AND
'RAVELAND   !T A DISTANCE REED BEDS DO NOT APPEAR TO BE
PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR BIODIVERSITY 4YPICALLY ONE SINGLE
PLANTS SPECIES DOMINATE LARGE AREAS OF SHALLOW WATERS COM
PLETELY .OT SURPRISINGLY THE INVASIVE AND DOMINANT CHARACTERS
OF 0HRAGMITES POPULATIONS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE A PROBLEM FOR
MAINTENANCE OF PLANT SPECIES RICHNESS IN WETLANDS 4HEREFORE
SEVERAL METHODS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED FOR CONTROLLING THIS
SPECIES INCLUDING BIOLOGICAL HYDROLOGICAL CHEMICAL AND ME
CHANICAL PROCEDURES /N THE OTHER HAND A HABITAT WITH FEW
SPECIES OF VASCULAR PLANTS DOES NOT NECESSARILY IMPLY FEW SPE
CIES OF OTHER ORGANISMS 0LANT SPECIES RICHNESS MAY SIMPLY BE
A POOR PREDICTOR OF THE HABITAT SPECIES POOL THE TOTAL NUMBER
OF SPECIES THAT OCCUR IN THE REED BEDS OF A REGION &URTHER A
SPECIES POOR HABITAT MAY BE INHABITED BY REGIONALLY RARE SPECIES
THAT ARE RESTRICTED TO THE HABITAT DURING PARTS OF THE LIFE CYCLE
#ONTROL MEASURES OF SUCH HABITATS MAY THEREFORE RESULT IN A
DECLINE OF RARE POPULATIONS AT A REGIONAL SCALE )F AN INCREASE OF
LOCAL DIVERSITY IS ACHIEVED BY COLONIZATION OF REGIONALLY COMMON
SPECIES AT THE EXPENSE OF LOCAL EXTINCTION OF RARE ONES THEN THE
CONSERVATIONISTS HAVE WON A 0YRRHIC VICTORY
)N THIS CHAPTER WE WILL HAVE A CLOSER LOOK ON VARIOUS ASPECTS
OF BIODIVERSITY OF REED BEDS 7E BEGIN WITH AN OVERVIEW OF THE
GENETIC DIVERSITY OF THE 0HRAGMITES POPULATIONS AND CONTINUE
WITH THE SPECIES RICHNESS OF PLANTS INVERTEBRATES AND BIRDS IN
REED BEDS

FOUND IN %UROPE 7ITHIN THE SPECIES LARGE VARIATION WITH

RESPECT TO SHOOT MORPHOLOGY AND DENSITY OCCUR 4HESE VARIA
TIONS ARE CAUSED BY BOTH GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
/NE APPARENT GENETIC DIFFERENCE IS THE VARIATION IN CHROMO
SOME NUMBERS CAUSED BY CHROMOSOME DOUBLING SO CALLED
PLOIDY LEVELS #LEVERING  ,ISSNER   4HE MOST COMMON
PLOIDY LEVEL IN THE "ALTIC REGION APPEARS TO HAVE FOUR COMPLETE
SETS OF CHROMOSOMES IN THE NUCLEI X TETRAPLOIDS  )T HAS
MOST LIKELY ORIGINATED FROM HYBRIDIZATION GENETIC MIX OF
TWO DIPLOID ANCESTRAL POPULATIONS X X  4HE ANCESTRAL
POPULATIONS ARE PROBABLY EXTINCT OUT COMPETED BY THE MORE
VIGOROUSLY GROWING TETRAPLOID HYBRIDS 4HE RANGE OF PLOIDY
LEVELS FOUND AROUND THE "ALTIC 3EA SPANS FROM TRIPLOIDS TO
OCTOPLOIDS X X X X #LEVERING  ,ISSNER   !L
THOUGH THE PLOIDY LEVEL CAN EXPLAIN SOME VARIATION IT IS NOT
THAT SIMPLE THAT CHROMOSOME DOUBLING ALWAYS RESULTS IN TALLER
AND LARGER PLANTS
#ONTRARY TO COMMON BELIEF GENETICALLY DIFFERENT CLONES
CANNOT EASILY BE IDENTIFIED BY MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES -O
LECULAR METHODS HAVE REVEALED THAT MORPHOLOGICALLY SIMILAR
REED BEDS MIGHT BE POLYCLONAL IE ORIGINATE FROM GENETICALLY
DIFFERENT SEXUALLY PRODUCED SEEDS +OPPITZ ET AL  AND
+OPPITZ   &URTHER DIFFERENT CLONES MAY INTERMINGLE OR
CO EXIST NEXT TO EACH OTHER IN ONE REED BED !T OTHER SITES ONE
SINGLE CLONE MAY COVER SEVERAL THOUSAND SQUARE METERS
2ECRUITMENT FROM SEEDS CONTRIBUTES TO THE PRESERVATION OF
GENETIC DIVERSITY 0OLLINATION EXPERIMENTS SHOW THAT THE FLOW
ERS ARE AT LEAST PARTIALLY SELF INCOMPATIBLE 4HIS MEANS THAT A
CLONE IS MORE OR LESS UNABLE TO FERTILIZE ITSELF 4HEREFORE EACH
SEED HAVE A UNIQUE COMBINATION OF GENES "JRK  AND
)SHII  +ADONO   (OWEVER DUE TO LARGE CLONE SIZE SEED
SET IN MONOCLONAL REED BEDS IS LIKELY TO BE LIMITED BY SHORTAGE
OF COMPATIBLE POLLEN 4HIS AS WE SHALL SEE LATER IS AN IMPOR
TANT REED BED QUALITY ASPECT FOR SEEDEATERS SUCH AS BIRDS
,ARGER CLONAL DIVERSITY IS SHOWN TO OCCUR AT THE LANDSIDE
COMPARED TO THE LAKESIDE PART OF THE REED BED 4HIS IS AN EX
PECTED PATTERN BECAUSE COLONIZATION OF SEEDLINGS ONLY OCCURS
ON MOIST SOILS ON EXPOSED LAKE SEDIMENTS DURING DROUGHT
SITUATIONS OR IN THE UPPER LITTORAL %KSTAM  7EINER 
AND !MSBERRY ET AL   3EEDS ARE SIMPLY NOT ABLE TO GROW
AND ESTABLISH WHEN SUBMERGED IN WATER !FTER EPISODES OF
RECRUITMENT SELECTION FOR AND LOCAL ADAPTION TO DEEP WATER
MAY OCCUR 3EEDS OF BOTH TETRAPLOIDS AND OCTOPLOIDS ARE BOTH
HIGHLY GERMINABLE 4HE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SEEDS RESTRICT GER
MINATION TO GAPS ON SOILS EXPOSED TO AIR %KSTAM ET AL 
AND %KSTAM  &ORSEBY  

*HQHWLF GLYHUVLW\ RI 3KUDJPLWHV DXVWUDOLV

0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS IS THE MOST SUCCESSFUL AND WIDESPREAD OF
THE FOUR SPECIES THAT ARE IDENTIFIED IN ITS GENUS #LAYTON 
AND "JRK   &URTHER IT IS THE ONLY 0HRAGMITES SPECIES


9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

3ODQW VSHFLHV ULFKQHVV

GUA ,YCOPUS EUROPAEUS AND #AREX PSEUDOCYPERUS OCCUR IN GAPS

AND ALONG THE EDGES OF DENSE REED STANDS 4HIS IS ONE OF THE
REASONS WHY LENGTH OF EDGES IS A QUALITY ASPECT AFFECTING THE
LOCAL BIODIVERSITY OF A REED BED
.O MATTER IF LIGHT AVAILABILITY IS LOW BIOFILMS OF PHOTOSYN
THETIC MICRO ALGAE AND OTHER MICROBES ARE ALWAYS PRESENT IN
THE WATER 4HE MICROBIAL BIOFILMS COVER ALL SURFACES OF STEMS
AND PLANT LITTER 4HE DIVERSITY OF MICROBIAL LIFE FORMS CONTRIB
UTES TO AN ARRAY OF IMPORTANT ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES SUCH AS
DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER AND RETENTION OF NUTRIENTS
FILTERING EFFECTS  4HE MICROBIAL SPECIES POOL IN REED BEDS IS
NOT WELL KNOWN -OST OF THE MICRO ALGAE IN THE REED BEDS
ARE EPIPHYTIC 4HE EPIPHYTES PRIMARILY INCLUDE A VARIETY OF
DIATOMS ENCLOSED IN SPECTACULAR WALLS OF SILICA &IG   4HE
BIOMASS OF PLANKTONIC FORMS IS SMALL COMPARED TO THE BIOFILMS
%KSTAM ET AL A AND 2IBER ET AL   WHICH PROVIDE
IMPORTANT NUTRIENT RESOURCES FOR GRAZING INVERTEBRATES AND THE
LITTORAL FOOD CHAIN

2EED BEDS DOMINATED BY 0HRAGMITES ARE POOR HABITATS FOR

OTHER PLANT SPECIES 3PECIES RICHNESS IN THE VEGETATION APPEARS
TO BE INVERSELY RELATED TO THE DEGREE OF DOMINANCE BY REED
7HEELER  'ILLER  AND 7HEELER  3HAW   &UR
THER THE NUMBER OF RARE FEN PLANT SPECIES IS SHOWN TO DECREASE
WITH INCREASING COVER OF 0HRAGMITES 4HIS PHENOMENON IS NOT
SPECIFIC TO DOMINANCE OF 0HRAGMITES )T IS A GENERAL PATTERN
FOR TALL AND COMPETITIVE PLANT SPECIES AT NUTRIENT RICH SITES
!T HIGH PRODUCTIVITY OR SMALL LOSSES OF BIOMASS ONE OR A FEW
PLANT SPECIES ARE ABLE TO ABSORB THE LIGHT RESOURCES AND THEREBY
COMPETITIVELY EXCLUDE OTHER PLANTS 4HE CANOPY OF 0HRAGMITES CAN
GREATLY REDUCE THE AVAILABILITY OF LIGHT IN A REED BED &IG   )N
DENSE STANDS THE LIGHT PENETRATION TO THE WATER SURFACE CAN
BE LESS THAN  OF INCIPIENT LIGHT ON THE STAND %KSTAM ET
AL A  /NLY A FEW SHADE TOLERANT SPECIES LIKE 5TRICULARIA
VULGARIS ARE ABLE TO PERSIST IN SUCH LOW LIGHT LEVELS /THER REED
BED HERBS LIKE #ICUTA VIROSA 3IUM LATIFOLIUM 2ANUNCULUS LIN

&IG  3%- PICTURES OF TWO EPIPHYTIC DIATOMS

!CHNANTHES SP ABOVE AND #OCCONEIS PLACENTULA
BELOW  0HOTO !UTHOR

&IG  ,IGHT PROFILE IN A DENSE REED BED DURING *ULY  OF PHOTOSYTHETI

CALLY ACTIVE RADIATION ABOVE THE REED CANOPY 2EDRAWN FROM %KSTAM ET
AL A



9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

0DQ\ DTXDWLF LQYHUWHEUDWHV
)N GENERAL PLANT MATERIAL IS POOR QUALITY FOOD 4HE TISSUES OF
0HRAGMITES ARE NO EXCEPTION &OR HERBIVORES AND DETRITIVORES
THE CARBON TO NITROGEN RATIO IS FAR FROM BEING NUTRITIONALLY
BALANCED )T CONTAINS TOO MUCH OF CARBON IN DURABLE CELLULOSE
AND SHORTAGE OF NITROGENOUS PROTEINS )N ADDITION SHOOTS OF
0HRAGMITES ARE MECHANICALLY SUPPORTED AND PROTECTED BY SILI
CATE IN THE EPIDERMAL TISSUE ,AU ET AL   #ONSEQUENTLY
THE DEAD STEMS ARE NOT FAVOURED FOOD BY DETRIVOROUS INVER
TEBRATES SUCH AS !SELLUS AQUATICUS 4HIS IN TURN IS PROBABLY
THE MAIN REASON WHY THE DECOMPOSITION RATES ARE EXCEEDINGLY
SLOW %XPERIMENTS SUGGEST THAT IN .ORDIC CLIMATES DECOMPO
SITION RATES OF 0HRAGMITES STEMS MEASURED AS THE TIME FOR 
PERCENT LOSS OF DRY WEIGHT RANGE BETWEEN   YEARS %KSTAM ET
AL A AND !NDERSEN  
0ERSISTENT LITTER SMALL BIOMASS OF PLANKTONIC ALGAE AND LIGHT
LIMITED PRODUCTIVITY OF THE EPIPHYTIC ALGAE DO NOT APPEAR TO
PROVIDE THE BEST SUPPORT FOR SPECIES RICH MACRO INVERTEBRATE
COMMUNITIES
.EVERTHELESS THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES
FOUND IN REED BEDS 7ILLIAMS  &ELTMATE   -ANY ARE
ACTIVELY MOVING AROUND FORAGING AND HAVE A LARGE BODY SIZE
"OTH THE NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS AND THE SPECIES RICHNESS ARE
ASTONISHING &IG     3OME ABUNDANT AND ACTIVELY FORAG
ING GROUPS ARE THE LARVAE OF THE PHANTOM MIDGE #HAOBORUS
SPP  CRUSTACEANS OSTRACODS AND !SELLUS AQUATICUS AND THE
AQUATIC HETEROPTERA .OTONECTA SPP AND CORIXIDS  !QUATIC
&IG  !QUATIC INVERTEBRATES IN A REED BED )LL 'UNNAR "JRKMAN
BEETLES #OLEOPTERA ARE BOTH REPRESENTED
BY MANY SPECIES AND BY MANY INDIVIDUALS
%KSTAM ET AL B 
7HY THEN ARE REED HABITATS SO FAVOUR
ABLE FOR FREE LIVING MACRO INVERTEBRATES
&OOD RESOURCES ARE NOT THE ONLY FACTOR
DETERMINING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES
!NOTHER FACTOR IS THE PERMANENCE OF THE
HABITAT &OR REED BEDS THIS INVOKES THE
HYDROPERIOD ,ARGE INVERTEBRATES USUALLY
HAVE A LARVAL STAGE AND A LIFE CYCLE THAT
IS LONGER THAN ONE YEAR .OT ALL OF THEM
ARE ABLE TO MIGRATE OR SURVIVE DURING A
DROUGHT 2EED BEDS STANDING IN WATER ARE
THEREFORE PREFERRED HABITATS FOR LONG LIVED
MACRO INVERTEBRATES 4HE DISTRIBUTION OF
VERTEBRATE PREDATORS IS ALSO IMPORTANT &IG  .UMBER OF SPECIES BLACK BARS AND A RELATIVE ABUNDANCE INDEX WHITE BARS OF AQUATIC INVERTE
7ELLBORN ET AL   &ISH ESPECIALLY BRATE TAXA IN A REEDSTAND OF ,AKE 4KERN 3WEDEN 2EDRAWN FROM %KSTAM ET AL B


9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

CYPRINIDS ARE EFFICIENT PREDATORS THAT ARE ABLE TO REDUCE THE
ABUNDANCE OF LARGE AND ACTIVELY FORAGING INVERTEBRATES !N
DERSSON  (ARGERBY ET AL  AND 7AGNER  (ANSSON
  4HE MAIN REASON FOR THIS IS THAT MOST FISH GROW LARGE
COMPARED TO THEIR INVERTEBRATE PREY 4HE PREY IS NEITHER LARGE
NOR FAST ENOUGH TO AVOID PREDATION &URTHER WHEN DIFFERENT
PREY SIZES ARE AVAILABLE THE FISH SELECTS LARGE PREY THAT IS EASY
TO CATCH AND TO HANDLE )N A REED BED THE SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF
STEMS AND LITTER MAKE IT IMPOSSIBLE FOR LARGER FISHES TO FIND AND
CATCH THE LARGE PREY ITEMS 4HEREFORE THE REED BED FUNCTION AS
A PREDATOR FREE REFUGE FOR MACRO INVERTEBRATES IN WATERBODIES
INHABITED BY FISH 4HIS IS ALSO OF IMPORTANCE FOR THE BIRDS THAT
ARE COMPETITORS WITH FISH "UT BEFORE WE GO INTO THE REALM OF
THE BIRDS WE MUST HAVE A LOOK ON THE INVERTEBRATES IN THE REED
ITSELF

&INALLY WE SHOULD PAY ATTENTION TO AN APHID (YALOPTERUS

PRUNII THAT INVADES THE REED BED DURING THE SUMMER 4HE MAIN
HOSTS ARE TREES OF 0RUNUS PLUM TREES ETC 4HE OCCURRENCES IN
THE REED BED COINCIDE WITH A PERIOD OF INTENSIVE FORAGING OF
YOUNG AND PRE MIGRATING WARBLERS !GAIN EDGES OF THE HABITAT
APPEAR TO BE IMPORTANT 3HOOTS ARE MORE FREQUENTLY ATTACKED
BY THE APHIDS AT THE EDGES THAN INSIDE THE REED BED 4SCHARN
TKE  

)LYH H[FOXVLYH UHHG ELUG VSHFLHV

(ABITAT QUALITY FOR INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES IN REED BEDS
IS CRITICALLY RELATED TO THE PRESENCE OF OLD STANDING STEMS
-ANAGEMENT BY MOWING OR BURNING REDUCE OVER WINTERING
ANIMAL POPULATIONS ON OR INSIDE THE REED 5NFORTUNATELY THIS
ALSO AFFECTS BIRDS IN THE REED BED .ILSSON ET AL   &ROM A
BIRD POINT OF VIEW THE REED BED IS A NESTING AND FORAGING SITE
ENDOWED WITH USEFUL BUILDING MATERIAL AND FOOD RESOURCES FOR
BOTH BREEDING AND NON BREEDING SPECIES 4HE BEST SUPPORT FOR
NEST CONSTRUCTIONS IS PROVIDED BY THE REED WITH STANDING DEAD
STEMS FROM PREVIOUS YEARS 4HE OLD REED IS USED BY BIRDS TO
PLACE NESTS ABOVE THE HIGHEST WATER LEVEL &URTHER THE DENSE
SHOOT STRUCTURE OFFERS PROTECTION AGAINST BOTH PREDATORS AND
SEVERE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS DURING ALL PHASES OF THE LIFE
CYCLE 3TARLINGS 3TURNUS VULGARIS AND A FEW OTHER SPECIES USE
REED BEDS PRIMARILY AS ROOSTING SITES DURING MIGRATION )N THE
WINTER TERRESTRIAL PASSERINES FEED ON OVER WINTERING INSECTS IN
REED BEDS 4HE WINTER INHABITANTS INCLUDE "LUE 4IT 2EDPOLL
AND 7REN 0ARUS CAERULEUS !CANTHIS FLAMMEA 4ROGLODYTES
TROGLODYTES  !DDITIONALLY AUTUMN AND WINTER ROOSTERS ATTRACT
BIRDS OF PRAY SUCH AS -ERLIN (EN (ARRIER AND 3PARROWHAWK
&ALCO COLUMBARIUS #IRCUS CYANEUS !CCIPITER NISUS 
$URING THE BREEDING SEASON THE PROTECTIVE FUNCTION AP
PEARS TO BE MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE PROVISION OF FOOD FOR
MOST OF THE BIRD SPECIES &IG   )N NORTHERN %UROPE A CORE
GROUP OF FIVE SPECIES ARE COMPLETELY DEPENDENT ON THE REED
BEDS FOR BOTH NESTING AND FORAGING IE BITTERN "EARDED 4IT
2EED 7ARBLER 'REAT 2EED 7ARBLER AND 7ATER 2AIL "OTAURUS
STELLARIS 0ANURUS BIARMICUS !CROCEPHALUS SCIRPACEUS ! ARUNDI
NACEUS 2ALLUS AQUATICUS  4HE "EARDED 4IT MAY REMAIN IN THE
SAME REED BED DURING ITS ENTIRE LIFE 4HIS IS MADE POSSIBLE BY
A SEASONAL SHIFT OF FOOD SOURCE FROM FEEDING ON INVERTEBRATES
IN SPRING AND SUMMER TO A SEED DIET IN WINTER 4HE OTHER FOUR
SPECIES MIGRATE AWAY FROM THE REED BEDS BEFORE WINTER AND
FREEZING RESULTS IN POOR AVAILABILITY OF FOOD
7ATER 2AIL "ITTERN AND THE WATERFOWLS FIND ALL THEIR FOOD

 DQG IHZHU EXW PRUH XQLTXH DHULDO LQYHUWHEUDWHV

)N COMPARISON WITH OTHER GRASSES 0HRAGMITES SUPPORTS MANY
INSECT SPECIES 4SCHARNTKE  AND   !T LEAST  PLANT
EATING INVERTEBRATE SPECIES HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS MONOPHA
GOUS ON 0HRAGMITES IE COMPLETELY DEPENDENT ON THIS SPECIES
3OME ARE STEM BORERS WHOSE LARVAE EAT PLANT MATERIAL INSIDE
THE SHOOT /NE OF THEM THE MOTH !RCHANARA GEMIPUNCTATA
FUNCTIONS AS A KEYSTONE SPECIES THAT AFFECTS BOTH THE STRUCTURE
OF THE REED BED AND THE COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT COMMU
NITY
4HE LARVAE OF ! GEMIPUNCTATA KILLS THE MAIN SHOOT DURING
ITS FEEDING DOWNWARDS IN THE STEM VAN DER 4OORN  -OOK
  4HE DAMAGE BREAKS THE APICAL DOMINANCE OF THE MAIN
SHOOT AND INITIATES GROWTH OF SIDE SHOOTS BENEATH THE LOWEST
DAMAGED NODE 7HEN THE LARVAE HAVE EATEN OUT A FEW INTER
NODES FROM THE INSIDE IT MOVES TO A NEW MAIN SHOOT WHERE IT
RESUMES FEEDING DOWNWARDS FROM THE HIGHEST INTERNODE 4HE
LARVAE NEED ABOUT THREE SHOOTS TO PUPATE AND OVERWINTER IN
SIDE A STEM OF A MAIN SHOOT $URING LARVAE OUTBREAKS NEARLY
ALL MAIN SHOOTS CAN BE DAMAGED AND REPLACED BY A LOT OF THIN
SIDE SHOOTS 4HE SIDE SHOOTS ARE NOT LARGE ENOUGH FOR FEED
ING 4HEREFORE OVEREXPLOITATION OF SHOOTS RESULTS IN MORTALITY
AMONG THE LARVAE
3EVERAL INSECT SPECIES TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THIS PROCESS 3OME
SPECIES LIVE BETWEEN THE WILTING LEAVES OF THE DAMAGED SHOOTS
! SECOND GROUP ATTACK THE NEWLY PRODUCED SIDE SHOOTS
3APROPHAGOUS INSECTS FEEDING ON THE DROPPINGS FROM !RCH
ANARA CONSTITUTES A THIRD GROUP !ND FINALLY BEES AND WASPS
BUILD NESTS IN THE BROKEN SHOOTS


9RLFHV LQ WKH 5HHG %HG

IN THE WATER "UT AQUATIC INSECTS ARE ALSO AN
IMPORTANT AND EASILY AVAILABLE FOOD SOURCE
WHEN THE JUVENILE STAGES EMERGE AS ADULTS
ABOVE THE WATER )NDEED FIELD STUDIES SUP
PORT THE IMPORTANCE OF HYDROPERIOD AND
FOOD AVAILABILITY FOR OVERALL ABUNDANCE OF
PASSERINES 0OULIN ET AL   )N CONCLU
SION BOTH THE ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF
BIRD SPECIES CAN BE EXPECTED TO BE HIGHEST
AT THE EDGES OF FLOODED REED BEDS %SPECIALLY
EDGES TOWARDS OPEN WATER

&IG  5SAGE OF REED BEDS BY BIRD SPECIES )LL .ILS &ORSHED

5HIHUHQFHV
!ILSTOCK -3 .ORMAN #-  "USHMANN 0*  #OMMON
2EED 0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS #ONTROL AND EFFECTS UPON BIODIVERSITY
IN FRESHWATER NONTIDAL WETLANDS 2ESTORATION %COLOGY   P
 
!MSBERRY , ET AL  #LONAL INTEGRATION AND THE EXPANSION OF
0HRAGMITES AUSTRALIS %COLOGICAL !PPLICATIONS   P 

!NDERSEN &/  %FFECTS OF NUTRIENT LEVEL ON THE DECOMPOSI
TION OF 0HRAGMITES COMMUNIS 4RIN !RCHIW FR (YDROBIOLOGIE
 P  
!NDERSSON '  &ISKARS INVERKAN P SJFGEL OCH FGELSJAR
!NSER  P  
"JRK 3  %COLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF 0HRAGMITES COMMUNIS
&OLIA ,IMNOLOGICA 3CANDINAVICA 6OL  
"RIX (  4HE %UROPEAN RESEARCH PROJECT ON REED DIE BACK
AND PROGRESSION %52%%$  ,IMNOLOGICA   P  
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