S PA I N : H i s t o r y

Prehistorical Times

The oldest historical findings made in Spain date of about 30000 to 50000 b.C. Among the most
important remains of this period are the caves Cova Negra (Játiva) and Piñar (Granada).

The Celt-Iberian Spain

The Iberian population probably arrived to the peninsula from the north of Africa. Tartessos,
probably an iberian tribe, founded an important kingdom of high culture in the valley of
Guadalquivir river, in the south of Spain. By 1200 b.C. Celtic tribes entered the peninsula from the
north, mixing up with Iberians and so generating the celt-iberian race. The origin of the bask race
living in the north of the country is uncertain, but many historians suppose that it goes back to a
pre-iberian population.

Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians

By 1100 b.C. Phoenicians arrived to the peninsula and founded colonies, the most important of
which was Gadir (today's Cadiz). Also Greeks founded colonies in southern Spain and along the
Mediterranean coast.
During the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthago Carthaginians invaded Spain and conquered
large parts of it. Their most important colonies were the island Ibiza and Cartagena, the "new
Carthago".

Romans and Goths

After Rome had defeated Carthago definitely, Romans also invaded the colonies in Spain, and
ended up conquering the entire peninsula. The province Hispania became part and parcel of
Roman empire and acquired great importance, even two Roman emperors, Traian and Hadrian,
were born there. Spaniards absorbed completely the Roman culture as still today is very evident in
their language.
In 409, when the Roman empire started to fall, Gothic tribes invaded the peninsula and
established their kingdom in 419.

Moorish Epoch and Reconquista

Gothic dominance lasted until 711, when Muslim armies crossed the Straight of Gibraltar and
defeated Roderic, the last Visigoth king. Specially the southern parts of Spain, called al-Andalus,
were prospering in the Moorish epoch, thanks to new sciences and agricultural technics. The
Moors conquered major parts of the country until they were defeated for the first time by Visigoth
king Pelayo at Covadonga in northern Spain, 722.
Though the small Christian kingdoms in the north were a nucleus of resistence, the Arabian culture
was prospering in the rest of the country. The Muslim Spain by the time got politically independent
of the Arabian empire, and in 10th century Abderraman III. made Al-Andalus his own caliphate. In
this epoch Cordoba was the indisputable cultural center of this area of the world. Decadence
started in 11th century, when the various Arabian noble families were more and more at variance
among themselves, and al-Andalus broke into numerous small caliphates. The Christian kingdoms
in the north started then the reconquest of Spain. The marriage between Isabel of Castilia and
Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, uniting the two most important among them, was the turning point of
the Reconquista. From now on Muslims rapidly lost territory, until they were definitely expelled
when they lost their last remaining caliphate, Granada, in 1492.
The Catholic Monarchs

Isabel and Ferdinand succeeded in uniting the whole country under their crown, and their effort to
"re-christianize" Spain resulted in the Spanish Inquisition, when thousands of Jews and Moors who
didn't want to convert to Christianism were expelled or killed.
After the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 tons of gold and silver were
brought in from the new continent, and Spain became one of the most powerful nations of this
epoch called the Golden Age.

Habsburg and Borbon Kings

After Isabel died in 1504, her daughter Joan who was married with the German emperor's son
Philip succeeded to the throne. Charles I., at the same time Austrian king and German emperor
united in 1517 one of the largest empires in history. Anyhow after his retirement in 1556 it was split
between the Spanish and the Austrian line of Habsburg family.
Spain was prospering economically under the Habsburg crown thanks to the trade with its
American colonies, but on the hand involved in wars with France, the Netherlands and England,
culminating in the disastrous defeat of the "Invincible Armada" in 1588.
When the last Habsburg King Charles II. died without descendant, the nephew of French King
Louis XIV., Philip of Borbon, successed to the throne. As a consequence of the French Revolution,
Spain declared war on the new republic but was defeated. Napoleon took the power in France and
sent his troops against Spain in 1808. He established his brother Joseph as Spanish king, but
Spaniards fought a 5-year Independence War against the French. After Napoleon's definite defeat
at Waterloo in 1815, Ferdinand VII. was restored to the Spanish throne and reigned with rigid
absolutism. When he changed the law of succession to the throne and his daughter Isabel was
established as queen, his brother Charles rebelled against it and the War of Seven Years broke
out. Economical recession and political instability were the consequences, Spain lost its colonies
with the exceptions of Puerto Rico, Cuba and Philippines. The revolution of 1868 forced Isabel II.
to renounce to the throne, and the First Republic was proclaimed. Anyhow, it lasted for just about
one year. After a coup d'état Isabel's son, Alphonse XII., restored the kingdom. The rebellion of
Cuba in 1895 resulted in a war against United States, with disastrous results for Spain. It lost its
last overseas possessions.

20th Century

The economical crisis of the early 1920s led the country to the brink of civil war, and General
Primo de Ribera established a military dictature until 1930. Elections in 1931 saw a triumph for the
political left, and Alphonse XIII. left the country. Increasing conflicts between the Republican
government and the Nationalist opposition led to the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). The
Nationalists, led by General Franco, received extensive support from Nazi-Germany and fascist
Italy and succeeded against the Republican block which was officially supported only by Russia,
although many intellectuals (as Ernest Hemingway) and politically committed from other countries
fought in the International Brigades. The nationalists succeeded.
Although Franco kept Spain neutral during World War II, his military dictature led to political and
economical isolation. During the 1950s and 60s every effort was taken to improve international
relations, and the country's economy recovered. In 1969 Franco proclaimed Juan Carlos de Borbon,
the grandson of Alphonse XIII., his successor with the title of king.
Franco died in 1975, and a constitutional monarchy was established. President Adolfo Suarez
introduced important political reforms. When he surprisingly dismissed in 1981, a group of militars
tried to take the power with a coup, but failed. In 1982 the socialist party won the elections and
Felipe Gonzalez became president of the government. Spain became member of the NATO in 1985
and entered the European Community in 1986. In 1992 it appeared impressively at the world stage:
Barcelona hosted the Olympic Games, Seville the world exposition EXPO'92, and Madrid was
 declared European Cultural Capital.

B R I E F H I S T O R Y O F S PA I N

One of the characteristic features of the early history of Spain is the succesive waves of different
peoples who spread all over the Peninsula. The first to appear were the Iberians, a Libyan people, who
came from the south. Later came the Celts, a typically Aryan people, and from the merging of the two
there arose a new race, the Celtiberians, who, divided into several tribes (Cantabrians, Asturians,
Lusitanians) gave their name to their respective homelands. The next to arrive, attracted by mining
wealth, were the Phoenicians, who founded a number of trading posts along the coast, the most
important being that of Cadiz. After this came Greek settlers, who founded several towns, including
Rosas, Ampurias and Sagunto. The Phoenicians, in their struggle against the Greeks, called on the
Carthaginians, who, under the orders of Hamilcar Barca, took possession of most of Spain. It was at
this time that Rome raised a border dispute in defense of the areas of Greek influence, and thus
beguan in the Peninsula the Second Punic War, which decided the fate of the world at that time.

After the Roman victory, Publius Cornelius Scipio, Africanus, began the conquest of Spain, which was
to be under Roman rule for six centuries. Once the Peninsula had been completely subdued, it was
Romanized to such an extent that it produced writers of the stature of Seneca and Lucan and such
eminent emperors as Trajan and Hadrian.

Rome left in Spain four powerful social elements: the Latin language, Roman law, the municipality and
the Christian religion. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Suevi, Vandals and Alans entered Spain,
but they were defeated by the Visigoths who, by the end of the 6th century, has occupied virtually the
whole of the Peninsula.

At the beginning of the 8th century the Arabs entered from the south. They conquered the country
swiftly except for a small bulwark in the North which would become the initial springboard for the
Reconquest, which was not completed until eight centuries later. The period of Muslim sway is divided
into three periods: the Emirate (711 to 756), the Caliphate (756-1031) and the Reinos de Taifas (small
independent kingdoms) (1031 to 1492).

In 1469, the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, prepared
the way for the union of the two kigdoms and marked the opening of a period of growing success for
Spain, since during their reign, Granada, the last stronghold of the Arabs in Spain, was conquered and,
at the same time, in the same historic year of 1492, the caravels sent by the Crown of Castile under
the command of Christopher Columbus discovered America.

The Canary Islands became part of Spanish territory (1495), the hegemony of Spain in the
Mediterranean, to the detriment of France, was affirmed with the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples,
and Navarre was incorporated into the Kingdom.

The next two centuries, the 16th and the 17th, witnessed the construction and apogee of the Spanish
Empire as a result of which the country, under the aegis of the Austrias, became the world's foremost
power, and European politics hinged upon it.

The War of Succession to the Spanish Crown (1701-1714) marked the end of the dynasty of the
Habsburgs and the coming of the Bourbons. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formalized the British
occupation of the Rock of Gibraltar, giving rise to an anachronistic colonial situation which still persists
today and constitutes the only dispute between Spain and the United Kingdom.
In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte was installed on the Spanish throne, following the Napoleonic invasion,
although the fierce resistance of the Spanish people culminated in the restoration of the Bourbons in
the person of Fernando VII. In 1873, the brief reign of Amadeo of Savoy ended with his abdication, and
the First Republic was proclaimed. However, a military pronunciamiento in 1875, restored the
monarchy and Alfonso XII was proclaimed King of Spain. He was succeeded in 1886 by his son
Alfonso XIII, although his mother Queen Maria Cristina of Habsburg acted as regent until 1902, when
he was crowned king.

Prior to this, a brief war with the United States resulted in the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the
Philippines, in 1898, thus completing the dissolution of the Spanish overseas empire.

In the municipal elections of April 12th, 1931, it became clear that in all the large towns of Spain the
candidates who supported the Monarchy had been heavily defeated. The size of the Republican's vote
in cities such as Madrid and Barcelona was enormous. In the country districs the Monarchy gained
enough seats to secure for them a majority in the nation as a whole. But it was well known that in the
country the 'caciques' were still powerful enough to prevent a fair vote. By the evening of the day
following the elections, great crowds were gathering in the streets of Madrid. The king's most trusted
friends advised him to leave the capital without delay, to prevent bloodshed. As a result, Alfonso XIII
left Spain and the Second Republic was established in April 14th. During its five-year lifetime, it was
ridden with all kind of political, economic and social conflicts, which inexorably split opinions into two
irreconcilable sides. The climate of growing violence culminated on July 18th 1936 in a military rising
which turned into a tragic civil war which did not end until three years later.

On October 1st, 1936, General Franco took over as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the
Armed Forces. The Spanish State embarked on a period of forty years' dictatorship, during which the
political life of the country was characterized by the illegality of all the political parties with the
exception of the National Movement. Franco died in 1975, bringing to an end a period of Spanish
history and opening the way to the restoration of the monarchy with the rise to the Throne of the
present King of Spain, Juan Carlos I de Borbon y Borbon.

The young monarch soon established himself as a resolute motor for change to a western-style
democracy by means of a cautious process of political reform which took as its starting point the
Francoist legal structure. Adolfo Suarez, the prime minister of the second Monarchy Government (july
1976) carried out with determination and skill though helped, certainly, by a broad social consensus the
socalled transition to democracy which, after going through several stages (recognition of basic
liberties, political parties, including the communist party, the trade unions, an amnesty for political
offences, etc.), culminated in the first democratic parliamentary elections in 41 years, on June 15th,
1977. The Cortes formed as a result decided to start a constituent process which concluded with the
adoption of a new Constitution, ratified by universal suffrage, on December 6th, 1978.

Between 1980 and 1982, the regions of Catalonia, the Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia
approved statutes for their own self-government and elected their respective parliaments. In January
1981, the prime minister, Adolfo Suarez, resigned and was succeeded by Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo. On
August 27th, 1982, Calvo-Sotelo presented to the King a decree for the dissolution of Parliament and
the calling of a general election to be held on October 28th.

Victory of the polls went to the Spanish Socialist Worker Party (PSOE) and its secretary general, Felipe
Gonzalez. The socialists obtained 202 seats out of the 350 of which the Lower House consists and
approximately 48% of the popular vote. Felipe Gonzalez was elected prime minister (December 2nd)
after the parliamentary vote of investiture. The major losers were the Union of the Democratic Centre
-which has split up following the defection of a number of its members- and the Spanish Communist
Party (PCE). The Popular Alliance, whose chairman was Manuel Fraga Iribarne, made considerable
gains (106 seats and approximately 26% of the vote).
The subsequent general elections of 1986, 1989 and 1993 were also won by the Spanish Socialist
Party and consolidated the the position of the Popular Party, led by Jose Maria Aznar, as the second
largest political force in the country.

Political and Economic System in Spain

This page has a summary of the political and economic systems in Spain.

Government

Type: Constitutional monarchy (Juan Carlos I proclaimed King November 22, 1975).
Constitution: 1978.
Branches: Executive--president of government nominated by monarch, subject to approval by
democratically elected Congress of Deputies. Legislative--bicameral Cortes: a 350-seat Congress of
Deputies (elected by the d'Hondt system of proportional representation) and a Senate. Four senators
are elected in each of 47 peninsular provinces, 16 are elected from the three island provinces, and
Ceuta and Melilla elect two each; this accounts for 208 senators. The parliaments of the 17
autonomous regions also elect one senator as well as one additional senator for every 1 million
inhabitants within their territory (about 20 senators). Judicial--Constitutional Tribunal has jurisdiction
over constitutional issues. Supreme Tribunal heads system comprising territorial, provincial, regional,
and municipal courts.
Subdivisions: 47 peninsular and three island provinces; two enclaves on the Mediterranean coast of
Morocco (Ceuta and Melilla) and three island groups along that coast--Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de
la Gomera, and the Chafarinas Islands.

Political parties: Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), Popular Party (PP), and the United Left (IU)
coalition. Key regional parties are the Convergence and Union (CIU) in Catalonia and the Basque
Nationalist Party (PNV) in the Basque country.

Economy

GDP (2004): $955.1 billion in current prices (seventh-largest Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development--OECD--economy).
Annual growth rate: 2.5%.
Per capita GDP: $22,421.
Natural resources: Coal, lignite, iron ore, uranium, mercury, pyrites, fluorspar, gypsum, zinc, lead,
tungsten, copper, kaolin, hydroelectric power.
Agriculture and fisheries (2.9% of GDP, 2004 est.): Products--grains, vegetables, citrus and deciduous
fruits, wine, olives and olive oil, sunflowers, livestock.
Industry (17.3% of GDP, 2004 est.): Types--processed foods, textiles, footwear, petrochemicals, steel,
automobiles, consumer goods, electronics.
Trade (2003): Exports--$137.8 billion: automobiles, fruits, minerals, metals, clothing, footwear, textiles.
Major markets--EU 71.8%, U.S. 4.12%. Imports--$184.1 billion: petroleum, oilseeds, aircraft, grains,
chemicals, machinery, transportation equipment, fish, consumer goods. Major sources--EU 63.9%,
U.S. 3.7%.
Average exchange rate (first semester 2004): 0.815 euros=U.S.$1.

People

Spain's population density, lower than that of most European countries, is roughly equivalent to New
England's. In recent years, following a longstanding pattern in the rest of Europe, rural populations are
moving to cities.
Spain has no official religion. The constitution of 1978 disestablished the Roman Catholic Church as
the official state religion, while recognizing the role it plays in Spanish society. More than 90% of the
population are at least nominally Catholic.

Educational System

About 70% of Spain's student population attends public schools or universities. The remainder attend
private schools or universities, the great majority of which are operated by the Catholic Church.
Compulsory education begins with primary school or general basic education for ages 6-14. It is free in
public schools and in many private schools, most of which receive government subsidies. Following
graduation, students attend either a secondary school offering a general high school diploma or a
school of professional education (corresponding to grades 9-12 in the United States) offering a
vocational training program. The Spanish university system offers degree and post-graduate programs
in all fields--law, sciences, humanities, and medicine--and the superior technical schools offer
programs in engineering and architecture.

Maps of Spain

Maps GPS Info.com- Useful information about maps and GPS including resources for those planning
travel to Spain.

History

Spain’s Iberian Peninsula has been settled for millennia. In fact, some of Europe's most impressive
Palaeolithic cultural sites are located in Spain, including the famous caves at Altamira that contain
spectacular paintings dating from about 15,000 to 25,000 years ago. The Basques, Europe’s oldest
surviving group, are also the first identifiable people of the peninsula.
Beginning in the ninth century BC, Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Celts entered the Iberian
Peninsula. The Romans followed in the second century BC and laid the groundwork for Spain's
present language, religion, and laws. Although the Visigoths arrived in the fifth century AD, the last
Roman strongholds along the southern coast did not fall until the seventh century AD. In 711, North
African Moors sailed across the straits, swept into Andalusia, and within a few years, pushed the
Visigoths up the peninsula to the Cantabrian Mountains. The Reconquest—efforts to drive out the
Moors—lasted until 1492. By 1512, the unification of present-day Spain was complete.

During the 16th century, Spain became the most powerful nation in Europe, due to the immense wealth
derived from its presence in the Americas. But a series of long, costly wars and revolts, capped by the
defeat by the English of the “Invincible Armada” in 1588, began a steady decline of Spanish power in
Europe. Controversy over succession to the throne consumed the country during the 18th century,
leading to an occupation by France during the Napoleonic era in the early 1800s, and led to a series of
armed conflicts throughout much of the 19th century.

The 19th century saw the revolt and independence of most of Spain's colonies in the Western
Hemisphere: three wars over the succession issue; the brief ousting of the monarchy and
establishment of the First Republic (1873-74); and, finally, the Spanish-American War (1898), in which
Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. A period of dictatorial rule
(1923-31) ended with the establishment of the Second Republic. It was dominated by increasing
political polarization, culminating in the leftist Popular Front electoral victory in 1936. Pressures from all
sides, coupled with growing and unchecked violence, led to the outbreak of the

Spanish Civil War in July 1936.

Following the victory of his nationalist forces in 1939, General Francisco Franco ruled a nation
exhausted politically and economically. Spain was officially neutral during World War II but followed a
pro-Axis policy. Therefore, the victorious Allies isolated Spain at the beginning of the post-war period,
and the country did not join the United Nations until 1955. In 1959, under an International Monetary
Fund stabilization plan, the country began liberalizing trade and capital flows, particularly foreign direct
investment.
Despite the success of economic liberalization, Spain remained the most closed economy in Western
Europe—judged by the small measure of foreign trade to economic activity—and the pace of reform
slackened during the 1960s as the state remained committed to “guiding” the economy. Nevertheless,
in the 1960s and 1970s, Spain was transformed into a modern industrial economy with a thriving
tourism sector. Its economic expansion led to improved income distribution and helped develop a large
middle class. Social changes brought about by economic prosperity and the inflow of new ideas helped
set the stage for Spain's transition to democracy during the latter half of the 1970s.

Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Franco's personally designated heir Prince Juan
Carlos de Borbon y Borbon assumed the titles of king and chief of state. Dissatisfied with the slow
pace of post-Franco liberalization, he replaced Franco's last Prime Minister with Adolfo Suarez in July
1976. Suarez entered office promising that elections would be held within one year, and his
government moved to enact a series of laws to liberalize the new regime. Spain's first elections since
1936 to the Cortes (Parliament) were held on June 15, 1977. Prime Minister Suarez's Union of the
Democratic Centre (UCD), a moderate centre-right coalition, won 34% of the vote and the largest bloc
of seats in the Cortes.

Under Suarez, the new Cortes set about drafting a democratic constitution that was overwhelmingly
approved by voters in a national referendum in December 1978.

Government And Political Conditions

Parliamentary democracy was restored following the death of General Franco in 1975, who had ruled
since the end of the civil war in 1939. The 1978 constitution established Spain as a parliamentary
monarchy, with the prime minister responsible to the bicameral Cortes (Congress of Deputies and
Senate) elected every 4 years. On February 23, 1981, rebel elements among the security forces
seized the Cortes and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the
military forces remained loyal to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority to put down the
bloodless coup attempt.

In October 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), led by Felipe Gonzalez, swept both the
Congress of Deputies and Senate, winning an absolute majority. Gonzalez and the PSOE ruled for the
next 13 years. During that period, Spain joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the
European Community.

In March 1996, Jose Maria Aznar's Popular Party (PP) won a plurality of votes. Aznar moved to
decentralize powers to the regions and liberalize the economy, with a program of privatisation, labour
market reform, and measures designed to increase competition in selected markets. During Aznar's
first term, Spain fully integrated into European institutions, qualifying for the European Monetary Union.
During this period, Spain participated, along with the United States and other NATO allies, in military
operations in the former Yugoslavia. President Aznar and the PP won re-election in March 2000,
obtaining absolute majorities in both houses of parliament.

After the terrorist attacks on the U.S. on September 11, 2001, President Aznar became a key ally in the
fight against terrorism. Spain backed the military action against the Taliban in Afghanistan and took a
leadership role within the European Union (EU) in pushing for increased international cooperation on
terrorism. The Aznar government, with a rotating seat on the UN Security Council, supported the
intervention in Iraq.
Spanish parliamentary elections on March 14, 2004 came only three days after a devastating terrorist
attack on Madrid commuter rail lines that killed 191 and wounded over 1,400. With large voter turnout,
PSOE won the election and its leader, Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero, took office on April 17, 2004.
The Zapatero government has supported coalition efforts in Afghanistan, including maintaining troop
support for 2004 elections, supported reconstruction efforts in Haiti, and cooperated on counter
terrorism issues. Carrying out campaign promises, it immediately withdrew Spanish forces from Iraq
but has continued to support Iraq reconstruction efforts.

Local Government

The 1978 constitution authorized the creation of regional autonomous governments. By 1985, 17
regions covering all of peninsular Spain, the Canaries, and the Balearic Islands had negotiated
autonomy statutes with the central government. In 1979, the first autonomous elections were held in
the Basque and Catalan regions, which have the strongest regional traditions by virtue of their history
and separate languages. Since then, autonomous governments have been created in the remainder of
the 17 regions. The central government continues to devolve powers to the regional governments,
which will eventually have full responsibility for health care and education, as well as other social
programs.

Economy

Spain's accession to the European Community--now European Union (EU)--in January 1986 required
the country to open its economy, modernize its industrial base, improve infrastructure, and revise
economic legislation to conform to EU guidelines. In doing so, Spain increased gross domestic product
(GDP) growth, reduced the public debt to GDP ratio, reduced unemployment from 23% to 15% in 3
years, and reduced inflation to under 3%. The fundamental challenges remaining for Spain include
reducing the public sector deficit, decreasing unemployment further, reforming labour laws and
investment regulations, lowering inflation, and raising per capita GDP.
Following peak growth years in the late 1980s, the Spanish economy entered into recession in mid-
1992. The economy recovered during the first Aznar administration (1996-2000), driven by a return of
consumer confidence and increased private consumption, although growth has slowed in recent years.
Unemployment remains a problem at 10.5% (2004 est.), but this still represents a significant
improvement from previous levels. Devaluations of the peseta during the 1990s made Spanish exports
more competitive, but the strength of the euro since its adoption has raised recent concerns that
Spanish exports are being priced out of the range of foreign buyers. However, this has been offset by
the facilitation of trade among the euro nations.

Foreign Relations

After the return of democracy following the death of General Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy
priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic
relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.
As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a major participant in multilateral
international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign
policy. Even on many international issues beyond Western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its
efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanism.

With the normalization of diplomatic relations with Israel and Albania in 1986, Spain virtually completed
the process of universalising its diplomatic relations. The only country with which it now does not have
diplomatic relations is North Korea.

Spain has maintained its special identification with Latin America. Its policy emphasizes the concept of
Hispanidad, a mixture of linguistic, religious, ethnic, cultural, and historical ties binding Spanish-
speaking America to Spain. Spain has been an effective example of transition from authoritarianism to
democracy, as shown in the many trips that Spain's King and Prime Ministers have made to the region.
Spain maintains economic and technical cooperation programs and cultural exchanges with Latin
America, both bilaterally and within the EU.

Spain also continues to focus attention on North Africa, especially on Morocco. This concern is dictated
by geographic proximity and long historical contacts, as well as by the two Spanish enclave cities of
Ceuta and Melilla on the northern coast of Africa. While Spain's departure from its former colony of
Western Sahara ended direct Spanish participation in Morocco, it maintains an interest in the peaceful
resolution of the conflict brought about there by decolonisation. These issues were highlighted by a
crisis in 2002, when Spanish forces evicted a small contingent of Moroccans from a tiny islet off
Morocco’s coast following that nation’s attempt to assert sovereignty over the island.

Meanwhile, Spain has gradually begun to broaden its contacts with Sub-Saharan Africa. It has a
particular interest in its former colony of Equatorial Guinea, where it maintains a large aid program.
In relations with the Arab world, Spain has sought to promote European-Mediterranean dialogue. Spain
strongly supports the EU’s “Barcelona Process” which seeks to expand dialogue and trade between
Europe and the nations of North Africa and the Middle East, including Israel.

Spain has been successful in managing its relations with its two European neighbours, France and
Portugal. The accession of Spain and Portugal to the EU has helped ease some of their periodic trade
frictions by putting these into an EU context. Franco-Spanish bilateral cooperation is enhanced by joint
action against Basque ETA terrorism. Ties with the United Kingdom are generally good, although the
question of Gibraltar remains a sensitive issue.

L I S T O F P O L I T I C A L PA R T I E S I N S PA I N

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Political parties in Spain lists political parties in Spain.

Spain has a system similar to a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political
parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other
party. Regional parties can be strong in the autonomous communities like Catalonia and the Basque
Country and are essential for government coalitions, which makes the party system a multi-party
system.

Contents
• 1 The parties
o 1.1 Registered parties
o 1.2 Major parties
 1.2.1 Parties only in regional parliaments
o 1.3 Coalitions
o 1.4 European Parliament election lists
o 1.5 Minor parties
o 1.6 Illegalized parties
o 1.7 Defunct major parties
The parties

Registered parties

For a complete listing of all parties registered at the Ministry of Interior, see List of registered political
parties in Spain.

Major parties

The two major parties of Spain are:

• Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español). It has a federal
structure with a federation in each autonomous community, such as:
o Socialist Party of the Basque Country (Partido Socialista de Euskadi) in the Basque
Country
 Euskadiko Ezkerra also in the Basque Country joined the PSE in 1991.
o Socialists' Party of Galicia (Partido dos Socialistas de Galicia) in Galicia.
o Socialist Party of the Valencian Country (Partit Socialista del País Valencià) in
Valencia.
o Socialists' Party of the Balearic Islands (Partit dels Socialistes de les Illes Balears) in
the Balearic Islands.

It does not have a federation in Catalonia, but an association with the Socialists' Party of
Catalonia (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya).

• People's Party (Partido Popular), formerly People's Coalition (Coalición Popular), a coalition
of People's Alliance (Alianza Popular), Democratic People's Party (Partido Demócrata
Popular) and Liberal Party (Partido Liberal)

Other parties with current representation in the Congress of Deputies, the Senate or in the European
Parliament:

• Convergence and Union (Convergència i Unió), coalition of:

o Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya)
o Democratic Union of Catalonia (Unió Democràtica de Catalunya)
• Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco), Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea in Basque.
• Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya)
• United Left (Izquierda Unida), a coalition of parties around Communist Party of Spain
(Partido Comunista de España). It has a federal structure with a federation in each autonomous
community but the Basque Autonomous Community and Catalonia, where it has an
association with.
o Ezker Batua in the Basque Country.
o Esquerra Unida i Alternativa in Catalonia.

Esquerra Unida i Alternativa usually runs in coalition with Initiative for Catalonia Greens
(Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds).

• Galician Nationalist Bloc (Bloque Nacionalista Galego)

• Canarian Coalition (Coalición Canaria)
• Union, Progress and Democracy (Unión Progreso y Democracia)
• Nafarroa Bai (Navarre Yes)
• Navarrese People's Union
• Aragonese Party (Partido Aragonés). Only in the Senate.
• PSM - Nationalist Agreement (PSM - Entesa Nacionalista). Only in the Senate.
[edit] Parties only in regional parliaments

Evolution of popular vote in the Spanish General Elections from the democratic transition until 2008.
Voter turnout is usually high.

Parties with current representation only in any of the regional parliaments:

• Aragonese Council (Chunta Aragonesista)

• Eusko Alkartasuna (Basque Socialdemocracy)
• Cantabrian Regionalist Party (Partido Regionalista de Cantabria)
• Majorcan Union (Unió Mallorquina)
• Citizens - Citizenship Party (Ciutadans - Partit de la Ciutadania)
• Valencian Nationalist Bloc (Bloc Nacionalista Valencià)
• Initiative of the Valencian People (Iniciativa del Poble Valencià)
• Aralar Party (Aralar)
• Coalition for Melilla (Coalición por Melilla)
• Democratic Ceutan Union (Unión Demócrata Ceutí)
• Navarrese People's Union (Unión del Pueblo Navarro)
• Batzarre
• Democrats Convergence of Navarre (Convergencia de Demócratas de Navarra)
• Riojan Party (Partido Riojano)
• Leonese People's Union (Unión del Pueblo Leonés)
• Independent Popular Council of Formentera (Agrupació Independent Popular de
Formentera)
• Bloc per Mallorca.
• Eivissa pel Canvi.

[edit] Coalitions

• Nafarroa Bai, coalition of Eusko Alkartasuna, Aralar, Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) and
Batzarre, only for the constituency of Navarre.
• Bloc per Mallorca, coalition at the regional and local elections of United Left, Majorca Socialist
Party, Greens and Catalonia Republican Left for the island of Majorca.
• Eivissa pel Canvi, coalition similar to the Bloc per Mallorca but for the island of Ibiza.

[edit] European Parliament election lists

• Europe of the Peoples (Europa de los Pueblos), coalition at the European elections of centre-
left, regional parties: ERC, Eusko Alkartasuna, CHA, PSA and CNC.
• GalEusCa - Pueblos de Europa, coalition at the European elections.
• European Coalition (Coalición Europea), coalition for European elections of centre-right,
regional parties such as CC, PAR, PA, UV, CDN and UM

[edit] Minor parties

Parties currently without representation in the parliament:

• Alianza para el Desarrollo y la Naturaleza
• Alianza por la Unidad Nacional
• Aragonese Party (Partido Aragonés)
• Andecha Astur
• Batzarre
• Bloque por Asturies
• Candidatura d'Unitat Popular
• Coalición Asturiana
• Ciudadanos Agobiados y Cabreados
• Ciudadanos En Blanco
• Coalición Europea
• Coalición Liberal - European Liberal, Democrat and Reform Party
• Coalición Galega
• Comunión Tradicionalista
• Conceju Nacionaliegu Cántabru
• Democracia Nacional
• España 2000
• Estat Català
• Extremadura Unida
• Falange Auténtica
• Falange Española de las JONS
• Frente Popular Galega
• Frente Nacional (National Front)
• Herritarren Zerrenda (legal in France, but not in Spain due to links with Batasuna / Herri
Batasuna)
• Republican Left (Izquierda Republicana)
• Iniciativa Socialista de Izquierdas
• Izquierda Asturiana
• Izquierda Castellana
• La Falange
• Los Parados
• Los Verdes
• Los Verdes de la Comunidad de Madrid
• Los Verdes Ecopacifistas
• Lucha Internacionalista
• Movimiento Social Republicano
• Nós-Unidade Popular (Us-People Unity)
• Nueva Izquierda Verde
• Otra Democracia Es Posible
• Partido Andalucista
• Partido Antitaurino Contra el Maltrato Animal (PACMA)
• Partido Carlista, see Carlism
• Partido Cannabis
• Partido Comunista de los Pueblos de España (PCPE)
• Partido de Acción Socialista (PASOC)
• Partido de los Autónomos Jubilados y Viudas
• Partido del Bierzo
• Partido del Karma Democrático
• Partido Demócrata Español
• Partido Familia y Vida
• Partido Humanista
• Partido Galeguista
• Partido Mutuo Apoyo Romántico
• Partido Obrero Socialista Internacionalista
• Partido Regionalista del País Leonés (Regionalist Party of the Leonese Country)
Salamanca, Zamora, León PREPAL
• Partíu Asturianista
 • Por un Mundo más Justo
• Por una Europa de los Trabajadores y los Pueblos - No a la Constitucion Europea -
coalition of PCPE and LI-LIT.CI
• Prepal
• Tierra Comunera - partido nacionalista Castellano, Castilian nationalist party
• Unidad Cántabra
• Unidad Regionalista Asturiana
• Unidad Regionalista de Castilla y León
• Unión Centrista Liberal
• Unión del Pueblo Salmantino, Salamanca
• Unió Valenciana
• Unificación Comunista de España
• Zornotza Eginez (local)
• Zutik

[edit] Illegalized parties

• ANV (EAE - ANV)

• Communist Party of the Basque Homelands (Partido Comunista de las Tierras Vascas)
PCTV - EHAK
• Euskal Herritarrok has been made illegal by the Spanish Supreme Court of Justice (Tribunal
Supremo), which regards it as part of the terrorist organisation, ETA.
• Herri Batasuna/Batasuna (the political branch of ETA)

(* Note: Batasuna is legal in France; it is however an association and not a political party)

Batasuna is in the list of terrorist organisations of US and EU.

• Herritarren Zerrenda

[edit] Defunct major parties

• Unión de Centro Democrático, refounded as Centro Democrático y Social (also defunct)

(merged into Partido Popular)
• Alianza Popular, refounded as Partido Popular
• Partido Demócrata Popular, absorbed into Coalición Popular (Partido Popular)
• Partido Liberal, absorbed into Coalición Popular (Partido Popular)
• Partit Socialista de Mallorca, absorbed into PSM - Nationalist Entity
• Euskadiko Ezkerra, absorbed into Partido Socialista de Euskadi
• Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas the leading right-wing party of the
Second Spanish Republic
• Partido Reformista Democrático
• Partido Socialista Popular
• Radical Republican Party

STRUCTURE OF SPAIN

Communities, Provinces and Municipios?

As with the UK, Spain is broken up into a variety of increasingly smaller areas to ease — although
sometimes it seems as if the point is to increase — the burden of administration and to ensure that the
wildly different areas and styles of living within the country are catered for at a local, as well as a
national, level.

Spanish Administrative Districts

There are three main Administrative Levels within Spain, along with a fourth historical but little referred
to level.

Autonomous Community

The broadest level is that of the Autonomous Communities, which are regions with the ability to set
their own taxes and that have their own governments. The Canary Islands is the Community into which
Lanzarote falls.

There are 18 Autonomous Communities, including Ceuta and Melilla, although these two cities which
are nestled on the northern coast of Africa, are more properly classed as two seperate autonomous
cities, rather than as a combined community.

Province

At the next level we have the 52 Provinces, which are roughly equal to British Counties. Each province
is allocated a number which — along with other things — forms the basis of the Spanish Post Code
system.

Lanzarote is in Las Palmas Province, along with the islands of Fuerteventura and Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria. The ID for this province is 35, hence all post codes in Las Palmas start with this number, ie
35550 for San Bartolomé.

The other province in The Canary Islands is Tenerife, which contains the islands of Tenerife, La
Gomera, El Hierro and La Palma.

Municipio

The smallest level of administrative control is the Municipio, which manages the everyday functions
such as maintenance of local amenities, provision of local policing and refuse collection; much as a
district council would in the UK.

These local districts are normally named after the most prominent town within them, although the
further south you go in Spain, you find that generally the Municipios get smaller and in fact only include
one town.

Comarca

There is an additional, slightly obscure, level of administrative district in Spain known as a Comarca.
This falls roughly between the province and municipio level. Basically it is a co-operative of local
municipios and these days is not used much, other than for some commercial activities.

Islands

To further complicate matters, individual islands are treated separately for adminsitrative reasons and
statistics are available on a per-island basis as well.
Resources

You can visit our Municipios of Lanzarote page for an introduction to each of the seven areas of the
island.

The Spanish National Statistics Institute website has been very useful in preparing the information
for this page, especially with reference to Population figures, which are taken at 1st January 2004.

IX. Structure of the civil law Systems

Modern European Constitutionalism, the last of the Sub-Traditions that I have mentioned,
represents my view of the Future of the Civil Law Tradition. It is mostly a post-Second World
war constitutional phenomenon.

Constitutional Schizophrenia? Or Careful Balancing?

Nation vs. Regions

Spanish vs. Catal·n, Basque, etc.

De Facto powers: Military and the Church

Spanish Constitutional Court

Final jurisdiction on Constitutional matters

Must defer to the Supreme Court on matters of interpretation of other laws.

Located in Madrid, nationwide jurisdiction.

Spanish Constitutional Court: Membership

12 justices formally, but only nominally, appointed by the King.

Four elected by Congress by 3/5 majority.

Four by the Senate, by 3/5,

Two by the Government, and

Two by the General Council of the Judiciary.

Justices: lawyers w/15-years experience.

9-yr. terms, one third will be replaced every 3 years.

Constitutional Court Jurisdiction

1) Appeals against unconstitutional laws.

 2) Appeals for protection by citizens against actions by the government.

3) Official Appeals (Abstract norm control).

JUDICIAL REVIEW:

Constitutional court under Article IX of the Constitution and Article 1 of the Spanish civil code,
has supreme authority to interpret and apply the laws. Its decisions have stare decisis effect
and are binding generally.

The Regions of Spain

Constitutional Schizophrenia? Or Careful Balancing?

Art. 2: The Spanish nation is indissoluble, but it recognizes the ìright of the nationalities and
regions of Spain to autonomy.î [590].

Art. 3: Language: main official language is Castellano (castillian spanish), but regional
languages are recognized as co-official languages. [586].

Regions

Fast-Track or Slow-Track

Federalism?

Article 148: institutions of self-government; town-planning; housing; public works; forestry;

environmental protection; museums; libraries; cultural affairs; the regional languages; tourism;
sport and leisure; social welfare; health and hygiene; and non-commercial ports and airports.

Spanish Court System

Spanish Court Structure

Supreme Court: Located in Madrid, nationwide jurisdiction.

Superior Justice Courts: (17, one for each autonomous region); 3-judge panels.

Provincial Courts of Justice (51 provinces) Audiencias Provinciales

Courts of First Instance: One judge, sits in both criminal and civil cases.

Justice of the Peace Courts (Juzgados de Paz)

National Court of Justice (Audiencia Nacional)

Ordinary Courts: Subject-Matter Jurisdiction

Civil
 Criminal

Administrative

Labor (Social)

Military

-- While the majority of the traditional courts have Civil, Penal, Administrative and Social
chambers, military matters only appear at the Supreme Court Level.

Supreme Court: Civil Chamber

(1) Civil Appeals in cassation;

(2) Certain regular appeals and

(3) Extraordinary appeals.

(4) Some first instance jurisdiction: Enforcement of foreign judgments, Civil liability claims
against high executive or judicial officials.

Supreme Court: Criminal Chamber

Hears Criminal Appeals.

Administrative Chamber,

(1) Original trial as to cases against high public bodies such as the Council of the Judiciary or
Council of Ministers;

(2)ÝCassation appeals from judicial-administrative decisions of the superior justice courts;

(3) Cassation appeals from decisions by the National Court of Justice;

(4)Ýappeals as provided by law.

Supreme Court: Labor/Social Chamber

(1) Cassation appeals;

(2)Ýrevision appeals

(3)Ýextraordinary appeals.
Superior Justice Courts: General

17, one for each autonomous region

3-judge panels.

(1) Act as Regional supreme courts, provided that the regional organic law, their constitutional
charter, so allows;

(2) Original jurisdiction in cases involving regional high officials.

NO appeals from Provincial Cts.

Superior Justice Courts: Criminal

(1) Criminal proceedings as provided in autonomy statute;

(2)Ýcases against judges or prosecutors;

(3)Ýconflicts of jurisdiction in courts in their region. NO appeals from Provincial Cts.

Superior Justice Court: Administrative

(1) Original jurisdiction in acts of regional legislative assembly;

(2) appeals from lower administrative courts in their region;

(3) conflicts of jurisdiction matters;

(4) appeals of election results.

Superior Justice Court: Social/Labor

(1) Original jurisdiction over labor matters affecting more than one district within the region;

(2)Ýappeals from lower labor courts; conflicts of jurisdiction cases.

Provincial Courts of Justice (51Audiencias Provinciales)

Generally split into two chambers that hear criminal cases as court of first instance, and certain
civil appeals. 3 judges.

Provincial Courts of Justice (51Audiencias Provinciales)

Civil:
 o (1) Appeals from decisions of courts of first instance within the province,
o (2) conflict of jurisdiction matters and recusal.

Criminal

o (1) Try serious felony cases;

o (2) Hear appeals from lower criminal courts.

Penal Supervision Courts

In each province, execute sentences, control prison discipline and protect rights or prisoners

Courts of First Instance: Civil

One judge, sits in both criminal and civil cases. Where the docket so requires, you can have
them separate.

(1) All civil cases,

(2) ex-parte matters not under another courtís jurisdiction,

(3) appeals from Justice of the Peace courts. Juzgados de primera instancia

Courts of First Instance: Criminal

(1) try certain felony and misdemeanor cases (up to 6-yr. sentence);

(2) investigate cases to be tried by Provincial courts;

(3) hear appeals from lower courts. Juzgados de instrucciÛn, New Criminal Courts, ë88,
Province.

Lower Courts

Lower Administrative Courts

Lower Labor Courts

Justice of the Peace Courts Juzgados de Paz.

Certain minor civil matters.

Criminal:

--misdemeanors.

--Minors courts: Juveniles

National Court of Justice Audiencia Nacional

(Only one, in Madrid) Not involved in civil matters. Few cases as a criminal trial court; app. to
the Supreme Court.
 Chambers:

o Penal
o Administrative Litigation
o Social

Central Criminal Courts

Investigate cases to be heard by the National Ct.of Justice.

Has some original jurisdiction. Original jurisdiction over judicial-administrative matters issued by
ministers or secretaries of state. Original jurisdiction in cases of collective bargaining
agreement effective in more than one region.

Spanish Constitutional Court Jurisdiction

Nationwide jurisdiction,

Located in Madrid.

Final jurisdiction on Constitutional matters, but must defer to the Supreme Court on matters of
interpretation of other laws. Pantoja case.

Language Problems [597]

Castillian vs. Basque

Constitution of Spain: 3, 14, 23

Vizcaya vs. DiputaciÛn Foral de Vizcaya

D. Comparative Litigation and Crime rates, 599-602

Civil:

We have more attorneys in private practice than almost anyone else in the world. How might
this affect litigation rates?

D. Comparative Litigation and Crime rates, 599-602

Crime:

In the crime area, I pointed to the higher levers of violent crime here in the US, relative to
Western-European nations. Yes, I know that everyone was just dying to get into a debate about
the levels of violent crime in America and guns and all those fun things. Sorry. It is an
interesting subject, but not for this class.
Culture of Honor?

Richard Nisbett, Dov Cohen (Contributor), Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the
South (New Directions in Social Psychology) (Westview Press 1996).

o Studied homicide rates in the US and blames Southern men, who have a much higher
incidence of killing someone they know, especially if they live in cities of less than
200,000 people, for increased violence in America. The book is not new, it just got
recent press because professor Nisbett has reported the results of studies he has been
conducting.

Excerpt

The report of Prof. Nisbett's work is excerpted in the web site. It came from: Psychology Today,
September 19, 1997, SECTION: No. 5, Vol. 30; Pg. 34; BY Jones, Marian M., Unconventional
wisdom: a report from the ninth annual Convention of the American Psychological Society.

P O L I T I C S O F S PA I N

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The Politics of Spain take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic
constitutional monarchy, whereby the Monarch is the Head of State and the President of the
Government is the head of government in a multi-party system. Executive power is vested in the
government. Central legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament. The Judiciary is
independent of the executive and the legislature.

Political developments

Evolution of popular vote in the Spanish General Elections from the democratic transition until 2008.
Voter turnout is usually high.

Parliamentary democracy was restored following the death of General Franco in 1975, who had
ruled since the end of the civil war in 1939. The 1978 constitution established Spain as a
parliamentary monarchy, with the President of the Government (equivalent to Prime Minister)
responsible to the bicameral Cortes Generales (Cortes) elected every 4 years. On 23 February 1981,
in an event known as "23-F", rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to
impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal
to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal and constitutional authority as Commander-in-Chief of
the Armed Forces, to put down the bloodless coup attempt.

In October 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), led by Felipe González Márquez,
swept both the Congress of Deputies and Senate, winning an absolute majority. González and the
PSOE ruled for the next 13 years. During that period, Spain joined NATO and the European
Community. Spain also created new social laws and large scale infrastructural building, as well as
programmes in Education, Health and Work. Liberalization policies were heavily contested by trade
unions but largely implemented. The country was massively modernized in this period, becoming an
economically developed, culturally shifted, contemporary open society.

In March 1996, José María Aznar's People's Party (PP) received more votes than any other party,
winning almost half the seats in the Congress. Aznar moved to further liberalize the economy, with a
program of privatizations, labor market reform, and measures designed to increase competition in
selected markets, principally telecommunications. During Aznar's first term, Spain qualified for the
Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union. During this period, Spain participated,
along with the United States and other NATO allies, in military operations in the former Yugoslavia.
Spanish planes took part in the air war against Serbia in 1999 and Spanish armed forces and police
personnel are included in the international peacekeeping forces in Bosnia (IFOR, SFOR) and
Kosovo (KFOR).

Prime Minister Aznar and the PP won reelection in March 2000, obtaining absolute majorities in both
houses of parliament. This mandate allowed Aznar to form a government unencumbered by the
coalition building that had characterized his earlier administration. As Prime Minister, Aznar was a
staunch supporter of transatlantic relations and the War on Terrorism. For the March 2004 elections
the PP named First Vice President Mariano Rajoy to replace him as the People's Party candidate.

However, in the aftermath of the March 11 terrorist bomb attacks in Madrid, the PP lost the 2004
elections to the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and its leader José Luis Rodríguez
Zapatero. Rodríguez Zapatero was appointed Prime Minister after having secured the support of a few
minor parties. He nominated the first Spanish government ever to have the same number of male and
female ministers. In this period the Spanish economy continued expanding, while new social and
cultural laws were passed, and a more pan-European way was adopted in foreign politics.

In the 2008 general elections, Prime Minister Zapatero and the PSOE got reelected by a plurality, short
of a majority. He was elected Prime Minister April 11 by 169 votes to 158, with 23 abstaining. The
Economic crisis of 2008 took a heavy toll on economy in the following months.

[edit] The Crown

File:Su Majestad el Rey, durante su intervención en el Ayuntamiento de París.jpg
King Juan Carlos I

Article 1.3. of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that "the political form of the Spanish
State is that of a Parliamentary Monarchy".[1]

Art. 56 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that:

• 1. The King is the Head of State and Supreme Commander in Chief of the armed forces, the
symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular working of the
institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations,
especially with those nations belonging to the same historic community, and performs the
functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the law.

• 2. His title is King of Spain, and he may use the other titles appertaining to the Crown.

• 3. The person of the King is inviolable and shall not be held accountable. His acts shall always
be countersigned in the manner established in Article 64. Without such countersignature they
shall not be valid, except as provided under Article 65,2.

Art. 57 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that:

 • 1. The Crown of Spain shall be inherited by the successors of H.M. Juan Carlos I de Borbon,
the legitimate heir of the historic dynasty. Succession to the throne shall follow the regular order
of primogeniture and representation, in the following order of precedence: the earlier shall
precede the more distant; within the same degree, the male shall precede the female; and for
the same sex, the older shall precede the younger.

Art. 62 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that it is incumbent upon the King:

• a) to sanction the laws and promulgate them;

• b) to summon and dissolve the Cortes Generales and to call elections;

• c) to call a referendum;

• d) to propose a candidate for President of the Government and, as the case may be, appoint
him or remove him from office;

• e) to appoint and dismiss members of the Government;

• f) to issue the decrees agreed upon by the Council of Ministers, to confer civil and military
employments and award honours and distinctions;

• g) to keep himself informed regarding affairs of State and, for this purpose, to preside over the
meetings of the Council of Ministers whenever he deems opportune;

• h) to exercise supreme command of the Armed Forces;

• i) to exercise the right to grant pardons;

• j) to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies.

Art. 63 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 lays down that:

• 1. The King accredits ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives. Foreign

representatives in Spain are accredited to him.

• 2. It is incumbent on the King to express the State's assent to the entering into of international
commitments through treaties.

• 3. It is incumbent on the King, after authorization by the Cortes Generales, to declare war and
to make peace.

[edit] Executive power

José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Spanish prime minister

Executive power in Spain lies with the Council of Ministers (Spanish Consejo de Ministros). It is
headed by the President of the Government (Prime Minister) who is nominated by the King,
confirmed by a vote of the lower house of parliament and then appointed by the king. After a candidate
has been nominated he must win a majority of the votes of the lower house, failing which, a second
vote will be held where he only needs a plurality of votes. The Prime Minister designates the rest of the
members of the Council who are then appointed by the king. He directs the activities of the government
as a whole. The President of the Government can also designate various vice presidents (although it is
not mandatory). There is also a Council of State that is the supreme consultative organ of the
government.

[edit] Legislative branch

On the national level, Spain directly elects a legislature, the Cortes Generales (literally: General
Courts), which consists of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) and
the Senate (Senado). The Congress and Senate serve concurrent terms that run for a maximum of
four years.

There are two essential differences between the two houses. The first is by way of electoral practice.
Both are elected on a provincial basis. The number of seats in Congress is allocated in proportion to
population. However, this is only done after each province (with the exception of Ceuta and Melilla)
has been given two members. The result of this is a slight over-representation for the smaller
provinces. For example the smallest province, Soria, with an electorate of 78,531, elected 2 members
of congress (or 1 for every 39,265 voters) while Madrid, the largest, with 4,458,540 voters, elected 35
members of congress (or 1 for every 127,387 voters). In the Senate the members are elected on a
provincial basis [2]. The electoral system used is different with proportional party closed lists being used
for Congress and the Senate elected by partial bloc voting. Additionally some senators are designated
by the Autonomous legislatures. The second difference is in legislative power. With few exceptions,
every law is approved with the votes of Congress. The Senate can make changes or refuse laws but
the Congress can ignore these amendments.

[edit] Political parties and elections

For other political parties see List of political parties in Spain. An overview on elections and election
results is included in Elections in Spain.
Main article: Spanish legislative election, 2008

e • d Summary of the 9 March 2008 Congress of Deputies election results

Parties and alliances Contested

Provinces (out Votes % Change Seats Change
of 50)

Spanish Socialist Workers' Party

50 11,288,698 43.87 +1.28 169 +5
(Partido Socialista Obrero Español)

People's Party (Partido Popular) 50 10,277,809 39.94 +2.22 154 +6

United Left (Izquierda Unida) 42 969,871 3.77 -1.19 2 -3

4 779,425 3.03 –0.20 10 ±0

Convergence and Union
(Convergència i Unió)

• Democratic Convergence of
Catalonia (Convergència
Democràtica de Catalunya)
 • Democratic Union of
Catalonia (Unió Democràtica
de Catalunya)
Basque Nationalist Party (Partido
Nacionalista Vasco/Euzko Alderdi 3 306,128 1.19 –0.44 6 –1
Jeltzalea)
Union, Progress and Democracy
48 306,078 1.19 — 1 +1
(Unión, Progreso y Democracia)
Republican Left of Catalonia
4 298,139 1.16 –1.36 3 –5
(Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya)
Galician Nationalist Bloc (Bloque 3 212,543 0.83 +0.02 2 ±0
Nacionalista Galego)

• Union of the Galician People

(Unión do Povo Galego)
• Nationalist Left (Esquerda
Nacionalista)
• Galician Unity (Unidade
Galega)
• Socialist Collective (Colectivo
Socialista)
• Inzar

• Galician Nationalist Party–

Galeguista Party (Partido
Nacionalista Galego–Partido
Galeguista)
Canarian Coalition (Coalición
2 174,629 0.68 –0.23 2 –1
Canaria)
Navarre Yes (Nafarroa Bai) 4 62,398 0.24 ±0.0 1 ±0

• Basque Solidarity (Eusko

Alkartasuna)
• Aralar
• Batzarre

• Basque Nationalist Party

(Partido Nacionalista
Vasco/Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea)
Basque Solidarity (Eusko
2 50,371 0.20 –0.12 0 –1
Alkartasuna)
Aragonese Union (Chunta
3 38,202 0.15 –0.22 0
Aragonesista)
Communist Party of the Peoples of
Spain (Partido Comunista de los
Pueblos de 16 20,030 0.08 +0.03 0 +0

España)
Ciudadanos en Blanco 29 14,193 0.06 -0.10 0 +0
Falange Española de las JONS 10 14,023 0.06 +0.01 0 +0
Democracia Nacional 15 12,836 0.05 -0.01 0 +0
Els Verds-L'Alternativa Ecologista 31 12,561 0.05 -0.07 0 +0
Family and Life (Familia y Vida) 7 9,882 0.04 -0.03 0 +0
Humanist Party (Partido Humanista) 24 9,056 0.04 -0.05 0 +0
Partido de Almeria 1 8,451 0.03 - 0 +0
Els Verdes-Los Verdes 38 7,824 0.03 - 0 +0
Representacion Cannabica Navarra 1 7,769 0.03 - 0 +0
Partido Obrero Socialista
8 7,386 0.03 -0.00 0 +0
Internacionalista
Alternativa Española 20 7,300 0.03 - 0 +0
España 2000 11 6,906 0.03 +0.01 0 +0
Partit Republica Catala 3 6,746 0.03 - 0 +0
Coalicio Valenciana 3 5,424 0.02 - 0 +0
Escons Insubmisos-Alternativa dels
10 5,035 0.02 - 0 +0
Democrates Descontents
Tierra Comunera 5 4,796 0.02 - 0 +0
Authentic Falange (Falange
8 4,607 0.02 +0.00 0 +0
Auténtica)
Leonese People's Union (Unión del
3 4,509 0.02 -0.04 0 +0
Pueblo Leonés)
Solidaridad y Autogestión
14 3,885 0.02 - 0 +0
Internacionalista
Alternativa Motor y Deportes 17 3,829 0.01 - 0 +0
Partido de los Pensionistas en
9 3,050 0.01 - 0 +0
Acción
Izquierda Republicana (Republican
4 2,899 0.01 -0.06 0 +0
Left)
Partido Riojano 1 2,837 0.01 - 0 +0
Alianza Nacional 7 2,737 0.01 - 0 +0
Alternativa en Blanco 12 2,460 0.01 - 0 +0
Extremadura Unida 2 2,346 0.01 -0.01 0 +0
Els Verds-Alternativa Verda 22 2,028 0.01 +0.00 0 +0
Partido Carlista 4 1,956 0.01 +0.00 0 +0
Partit per Catalunya 4 1,919 0.01 - 0 +0
Partido de los No-Fumadores 7 1,616 0.01 - 0 +0
Union por Leganes 1 1,566 0.01 - 0 +0
Frente Español 6 1,539 0.01 - 0 +0
Centro Democratico Liberal 21 1,503 0.01 - 0 +0
Opcio Nacionalista Valenciana 3 1,490 0.01 - 0 +0
Centro Democratico Social 17 1,362 0.01 - 0 +0
Andecha Astur 1 1,299 0.01 -0.0 0 +0
Partido Regionalista del País
1 1,278 0.0 - 0 +0
Leonés
Centro Democratico Español 4 1,047 0.0 - 0 +0
Alternativa Nacionalista Canaria 2 1,017 0.0 - 0 +0
Partido de las Libertades Civiles 2 888 0.0 - 0 +0
Unida 1 848 0.0 - 0 +0
Partido Liberal del Empleo y la
7 786 0.0 - 0 +0
Vivienda Estatal
Lucha Internacionalista 10 722 0.0 +0.0 0 +0
Unidad del Pueblo 3 699 0.0 - 0 +0
Per la Republica Valenciana 3 645 0.0 - 0 +0
Partido Centristas 1 509 0.0 - 0 +0
Movimiento por la Unidad del
2 497 0.0 - 0 +0
Pueblo Canario
Partido Ciudadanos Unidos de
3 475 0.0 - 0 +0
Aragon
Union Ciudadana Progresistas
2 464 0.0 - 0 +0
Independientes de Can
Identitat Regne de Valencia 3 449 0.0 - 0 +0
Unidad Regionalista de Castilla y
9 423 0.0 - 0 +0
Leon
Partido Unionista Estado de España 6 414 0.0 - 0 +0
Gentes de El Bierzo 1 385 0.0 - 0 +0
Partit Illenc de Ses Illes Balears 1 360 0.0 - 0 +0
Partido Positivista Cristiano 8 300 0.0 -0.0 0 +0
Comunion Tradicionalista Carlista 1 218 0.0 - 0 +0
Convergencia Democratica
1 216 0.0 - 0 +0
Asturiana
Iniciativa Merindades de Castilla 14 202 0.0 - 0 +0
Unidad Castellana 15 198 0.0 -0.0 0 +0
Partido de Alianza Iberoamericana
3 174 0.0 - 0 +0
Europea
Coalicio Treballadors per la
2 159 0.0 -0.0 0 +0
Democracia
Partido Regionalista de Guadalajara 1 152 0.0 -0.0 0 +0
Aliança Balear 1 145 0.0 - 0 +0
Asamblea de Votacion Electronica 4 144 0.0 - 0 +0
Union Centrista Liberal 7 124 0.0 -0.0 0 +0
Alianza por Burgos 1 123 0.0 - 0 +0
Iniciativa Ciudadana Burgalesa 1 109 0.0 - 0 +0
Nosaltres Som 6 105 0.0 - 0 +0
Independentes por Cuenca 1 100 0.0 - 0 +0
Agrupacion Ciudadana 2 79 0.0 - 0 +0
Movimiento Falangista de España 1 69 0.0 - 0 +0
Total (turnout 64.6%) 350 0[3]
Source: Spanish Interior Ministry election results database

e • d Summary of the 9 March 2008 Senate of Spain election results

Parties and alliances Seats Change

People's Party (Partido Popular) 101 –1

Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español) 88 +7

12 ±0
Entesa Catalana de Progrés

• Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya)

• Socialists' Party of Catalonia (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya)
• Initiative for Catalonia Greens (Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds)

• United and Alternative Left (Esquerra Unida i Alternativa)

Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco/Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea) 2 –4
Convergence and Union (Convergència i Unió) 4 ±0

• Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (Convergència Democràtica de

 Catalunya)

• Democratic Union of Catalonia (Unió Democràtica de Catalunya)

Canarian Coalition (Coalición Canaria) 1 –2
Members appointed by the regional legislatures 56 +5[4]
Total (turnout %) 264 +5
Source: Spanish Interior Ministry election results database

Spaniards started voting in the Spanish general election, 2008 on March 9, 2008, after a divisive
campaign dominated by a cooling economy and concerns over immigration but jolted by a last-
minute killing by suspected Basque separatists (ETA).[1]

[edit] Judiciary

The Spanish Judiciary is exercised by professional judges and magistrates and composed of different
courts depending on The Jurisdictional Order and what is to be judged, the highest ranking court of the
judicial structure in Spain is the Supreme Court. The role of the judiciary is governed by the General
Council Of the Judiciary Power of Spain whose Chairperson is also the Chairperson of the Supreme
Court. See also Audiencia Nacional.

[edit] Administrative divisions

Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (comunidades autónomas, singular - comunidad

autónoma); Andalucía (Andalusia), Aragón, Asturias, Illes Balears (Balearic Islands), Canarias
(Canary Islands), Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, Catalunya (Catalonia), Comunidad
Valenciana (Valencian Community), Extremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra
(Navarre) and País Vasco (Basque Country).
Note: There are five places of sovereignty near Morocco: Ceuta and Melilla are administered as
autonomous cities, with more powers than cities but fewer than autonomous communities; Islas
Chafarinas, Peñón de Alhucemas, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera are under direct Spanish
administrations.

[edit] Regional

The 1978 constitution authorised the creation of regional autonomous governments. By 1985, 17
regions covering all of peninsular Spain, the Canaries and the Balearic Islands had passed a Charter
of Autonomy. In 1979, the first autonomous elections were held in the Basque and Catalan regions,
which have the strongest nationalist movements. Since then, autonomous governments have been
created in the remainder of the 17 regions.

The central government continues to devolve powers to the regional governments, which might
eventually have full responsibility for health care and education, as well as other social programs. This
process is limited by the exclusive powers of the state in article 149 of the Spanish Constitution.

All autonomous communities are ruled by a government elected by a unicameral legislature.

Spain is, at present, what is called a State of Autonomies, formally unitary but, in fact, functioning
almost as a Federation of Autonomous Communities, each one with different powers (for instance,
some have their own educational and health systems co-ordinated by the Central government, co-
official language and particular cultural identity) and laws. There are some irregularities within this
system, since power has been devolved from the centre to the periphery asymmetrically, with some
autonomous governments (especially those dominated by nationalist parties) seeking a more federalist
kind of relationship with Spain. This system of asymmetrical devolution has been described as
coconstitutionalism and has similarities to the devolution process adopted by the United Kingdom
since 1997. At the same time, Spain's further integration into the European Union causes it to cede
powers from the State to the Union's institutions.

[edit] Provincial

In the communities with more than one province the government is held by the diputación provincial
(literally Provincial Deputation). With the creation of Autonomous Communities, deputations have lost
much of their power except for those single-province communities, where deputations have been
absorbed by the Autonomous power, and in the Basque Autonomous Community where the power
of deputations remains very strong. The members of provincial deputations are indirectly elected by
citizens according to the results of municipal elections, and all of their members must be councillors of
a town or city in the province, except in the Basque Provinces where direct elections take place. Some
Spanish politicians have called for the abolition of provincial deputations.

Provincial Deputations are considered by law as Local Administrations and are regulated by the
Regulating Act of the Bases of the Local regime of 1985.

[edit] Municipal

Spanish municipal administration is highly homogeneous, most of the municipalities having the same
powers, such as municipal police, traffic enforcement, urban planning and development, social
services, municipal taxes and civil defence, and the same rules of membership and leadership.

Most Spanish municipalities are ruled in a parliamentary style, where citizens elect the municipal
council, that acts as a sort of legislative body, that is responsible for electing the mayor who can
appoint a board of governors out of councillors of his party or coalition as an executive. The only
exception for this rule is in municipalities of under 50 inhabitants, which act as an open council, with a
directly elected mayor and an assembly of neighbours as control and legislative body.

Membership of Municipal councils in Spain is chosen in municipal elections held every four years at the
same time over Spain, and councillors are allotted using the D'Hondt method for proportional
representation, with the exception of municipalities of under 100 inhabitants where bloc
voting[disambiguation needed] is used. The number of Councillors is determined by the population of the
municipality, the smallest municipalities having 5 and Madrid (the biggest) 55.

[edit] The nationality debate

Main article: Nationalities in Spain

In order to understand the political forces and debates in Spain two dimensions have to be considered:
the Right vs. Left dimension and the Nation State vs. Plurinational State dimension. The political
parties' agendas and the individual citizens' opinions can only be understood when looked at on both
dimensions. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Spain states that 1) it is a Nation and 2) that it is
formed by Nationalities and Regions. This statement is a contradiction (since Nationality and Nation
essentially mean the same thing in political theory), but it was an agreement that struck a balance
between the political parties advocating the nation state and those advocating the plurinational state.
The territorial organization of Spain into Autonomous Communities of Spain is the administrative
realization of this constitutional balancing act.

Historically, parties advocating the Nation State claim that there is only one nation and favour a state
with a highly-powered government (with some degree of regional decentralization). Nationalist Catalan,
Basque and Galician political parties claim to represent their respective 'nations', different from the
'Spanish nation'. These political parties share the belief that the Kingdom of Spain is a state formed by
four 'nations', namely the Catalan nation, the Basque nation, the Galician nation and what might be
called the Castilian-Spanish nation (for lack of better word, since they would simply call it Spain).
Some of these parties often mention Switzerland as a model of Plurinational State shared by German,
French, and Italian nationalities, while others advocate independence. Notice that these
nations/nationalities are related to, but different from the current administrative borders of the
Autonomous Communities of Spain.

The current situation can be understood as the sum of two historical failures: 1) the Nation State
parties were unable to build a unified Nation State such as France, the model that the political and
territorial organization of Spain has followed, while 2) the "national resistance" movements (specially
Catalans and Basques) were also unable to break free from the Spanish state.

[edit] ETA & GRAPO

The Government of Spain has been involved in a long-running campaign against Basque Fatherland
and Liberty (ETA), an armed secessionist organization founded in 1959 in opposition to Franco and
dedicated to promoting Basque independence through violent means, though originally violence was
not a part of their method. They consider themselves a guerrilla organization and are considered
internationally as a terrorist organisation. Although the Basque Autonomous government does not
condone any kind of violence, their different approaches to the separatist movement are a source of
tension between the Central and Basque governments.

Initially ETA targeted primarily Spanish security forces, military personnel and Spanish Government
officials. As the security forces and prominent politicians improved their own security, ETA increasingly
focused its attacks on the tourist seasons (scaring tourists was seen as a way of putting pressure on
the government, given the sector's importance to the economy) and local government officials in the
Basque Country. The group carried out numerous bombings against Spanish Government facilities and
economic targets, including a car bomb assassination attempt on then-opposition leader Aznar in
1995, in which his armored car was destroyed but he was unhurt. The Spanish Government attributes
over 800 deaths to ETA during its campaign of terrorism.

On 17 May 2005, all the parties in the Congress of Deputies, except the PP, passed the Central
Government's motion giving approval to the beginning of peace talks with ETA, without making political
concessions and with the requirement that it give up its weapons. PSOE, CiU, ERC, PNV, IU-ICV, CC
and the mixed group —BNG, CHA, EA and NB— supported it with a total of 192 votes, while the 147
PP parliamentarians objected. ETA declared a "permanent cease-fire" that came into force on March
24, 2006 and was broken by Barajas T4 International Airport Bombings on December 30, 2006. In the
years leading up to the permanent cease-fire, the government had had more success in controlling
ETA, due in part to increased security cooperation with French authorities.

Spain has also contended with a Marxist resistance group, commonly known as GRAPO. GRAPO is
an urban guerrilla group that seeks to overthrow the Spanish Government and establish a Marxist
state. It opposes Spanish participation in NATO and U.S. presence in Spain and has a long history of
assassinations, bombings, bank robberies and kidnappings mostly against Spanish interests during the
1970s and 1980s.

In a June 2000 communiqué following the explosions of two small devices in Barcelona, GRAPO
claimed responsibility for several attacks throughout Spain during the past year. These attacks
included two failed armored car robberies, one in which two security officers died, and four bombings
of political party offices during the 1999-2000 election campaign. In 2002, Spanish authorities were
successful in hampering the organization's activities through sweeping arrests, including some of the
group's leadership. GRAPO is not capable of maintaining the degree of operational capability that they
once enjoyed. Most members of the groups are either in jail or abroad.
[edit] Armed Islamic fundamentalism in Spain

Al Qaeda has been known to operate cells in Spain, both logistically to support operations in other
countries and with the potential to mount attacks within Spain itself. Spanish investigative services and
the judicial system have aggressively sought to arrest and prosecute their members, with the most
notable raid occurring in Barcelona in January 2003. In that effort, Spanish authorities arrested 16
suspected terrorists and seized explosives and other chemicals. Spain also actively cooperates with
foreign governments to diminish the transnational terrorist threat.

Spain suffered a shocking terrorist attack, the March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks on its capital's
commuter train network, killing 191 persons. Al-Qaeda has been blamed for this attack. Some have
attributed the fall of the Aznar government to this attack, which took place just four days before the
2004 elections. At first the Government and media accused ETA for the bombing. As the facts about its
organisation by Islamic fundamentalism were appearing many voters lashed out at the public media
and Aznar's government, believing the two had colluded to deceive the public since the Spanish
government's support of the war in Iraq might be blamed as the trigger for the attack, a war which a
considerable number of Spaniards had opposed, and therefore, many Spaniards believed Aznar's
government had tried to deceive the public because of the elections.

One of the first moves of Prime Minister Zapatero was to pull all Spanish troops out of Iraq, but at the
same time he increased the amount of soldiers in Afghanistan, believing that the nation represented a
clear terrorist threat.

[edit] Political pressure groups

• Business and landowning interests (CEOE, CEPYME);

• Free labour unions (authorised in April 1977, which meant the legalisation of previous
clandestine unions and the creation of new ones). The most powerful unions are the Workers'
Commissions or CC.OO. and the Socialist General Union of Workers or UGT. There are many
others, in which workers unionise according to their trade or their ideology: Workers Syndical
Union or USO, Solidarity of Basque Workers (ELA, Basque), Galician Inter-Unions
Confederation (CIG, Galician).
• Catholic Church and other religious organisations (such as Opus Dei)) campaign to influence
governments' policies.
• Armed rebellion: Basque Country and Liberty or ETA and the First of October Anti-Fascist
Resistance Group or GRAPO use violence to oppose the government. They are considered
terrorists by the state and most of the population.

[edit] International organization participation

Spain is member of AfDh, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC,
EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC,
IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAIA
(observer), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD,
UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee

[edit] References

1. ^ Article 1.3. of the Spanish Constitution of 1.978 lays down that "the political form of the
Spanish State is that of a Parliamentary Monarchy"
2. ^ General Aspects of the Electoral System
3. ^ Even though the total number of seats is fixed at 350 by the Spanish electoral law (LOREG),
demographic changes since 2004 mean that eight provinces have gained or lost a seat. See
Spanish Congress of Deputies.
 4. ^ Each Autonomous Community appoints one Senator per million inhabitants in its territory.
For the 9th term, the population growth in Andalusia, the Balearic Islands, the Canary
Islands, Catalonia and Madrid has granted each of them a new seat.

The Politics of Spain

The political organization of Spain can be described by the word the Spanish themselves
favor : "organic".
The present Government uses this word to mean that the system derives its character and make-up
directly from the organic character of the Spanish people and institutions; i.e., the family, the local
municipality and the Syndicate [associations of labor and management).
"Organic", however, also means something that is in a state of flux, or change, and this is certainly one
facet of Spain's politics.
The country is, by declaration of its constitution, an hereditary monarchy. Currently there is no king,
though Juan Carlos de Borbon was designated future monarch on July 22, 1969.

The Head of State

Though the trend of change has been to very gradually decrease the power of the Head of
State, this office still carries great power.
There is no law which specifically regulates this office. Articles nine and ten of the "Organic Law"
require either the authorization of the "Cortes" [parliament] - or sanction of an existing law for his
actions, thus somewhat limiting his power.
Nevertheless, he exercises the political and administrative command of Spain. He sanctions and
promulgates the laws, and enforces them. He is in command of all the armed forces; he confers
important political posts, such as President of the Cortes, all cabinet ministers, all provincial governors,
all Heads of Syndicates, all armed forces commanders, and has power of veto over Church Bishops
appointed by the Vatican. He is also primarily responsible for Spanish foreign policy.
The Head of the State is also the head of the National Movement, which is the nearest thing to a
political party in Spain, and is the main principal-making body of the country, represented primarily by
the National Council.

Head of the Government

The Head of Government is an office created to somewhat weaken the powers of the Head of
State by dividing its functions. While the division is by no means equal between the two "Heads",
this secondary office does have much to say in legislative matters.

The Cortes

Spain's parliamentary body was created in 1942 and has undergone considerable change since,
the tendency having been to increase its responsibilities.
The work of the Cortes consists in "preparation and elaboration" of laws. Since the "Organic Law" of
1966 the Cortes also approbate the laws - a significant addition.
In fact, the Cortes are still under the very watchful eye of the Head of State, by virtue of his ability to
nominates the President of the Cortes, who sets the agenda, convenes and adjourns the meetings at
swill.
The representation in the Cortes is an attempt to realize the "organic government". The 600-member
body is composed of a large number of Syndicate representatives, two representatives [generally
elected] from each province, representatives of the municipalities, representatives appointed by the
Head of State [the number of these has now decreased from fifty to twenty-five], and all members of
the National Council.
It will be seen that the Head of State also has a large say in the make-up of the Cortes, since he
appoints the provincial heads and heads of syndicates, bodies represented in the Cortes.
Each representative has a term of three years.
Council of the Realm

This body is charged with aiding the Head of State. Its members include: the Senior Prelate in the
Cortes, the Senior Officer of the Armed Forces, the Chief of Staff, the President of the Supreme Court
of Justice, the President of the Council of State, the President of the Institute of Spain, ten Cortes
Members, the Sneaker of the Cortes and one member representing each body : the heads of families,
the Syndicates, the municipalities and the National Movement. Several officers of the state are also
members.
The Council of the Realm intervenes in designation of the Head of Government, presidents of various
councils, the twenty-five designated Cotes Members, President of the Cortes and successor to the
Head of State.
The Read of State cannot veto a Cortes law without consent of the Council of the Realm.
Though the Council's real powers are moot, its advisory business is considerable.

E C O N O M I C S Y S T E M O F S PA I N

General Characteristics of Agriculture, Industrial, and Information Age Economic Systems

Agricultural Age:

Feudal economic systems and earlier ancient empire economic systems based on slavery

Industrial Age:

Rise of capitalist economic systems and then socialist economic systems (as a critque of
capitalism)

Information Age:

Both capitalist and socialist economic systems are being greatly restructured as they become
part of a global economy; no pure systems, hybrids instead, though also privatization trends
world wide--including in former socialist countries.

Information/Data on Economic System of Spain

Although Spain was traditionally one of the poorest countries in Western Europe, conditions improved
substantially after it joined the European Union in 1986. Spain's Human Development Index (0.888)
ranks it 23rd out of 173 nations. Real gross national product per capita is $12,670, which has more
than doubled in the last generation. These figures indicate that economic opportunities are now
available to the bulk of the population. Most people earn a decent income. Unemployment (about 20
percent), however, represents a major problem for the economy. Still, inflation is low and growth is
stable. Spain's modern economic institutions are well suited to European integration. Agricultural
products include grains, citrus and other fruits, vegetables, and wine grapes. The country exports some
food as well as live animals. Spain is a world leader in the production of wine. Tourism is increasingly
important to economic development, especially in the coastal regions. Tourists enjoy visiting Spain for
its climate, and it is a popular destination for many other Europeans. The currency in Spain is the
peseta (Pta).

Conclusions
Spain's economic system has reached the Information Age.
 P O L I T I C A L S Y S T E M O F S PA I N

General Characteristics of Agriculture, Industrial, and Information Age Political Systems

Agricultural Age:

Pre-democratic political systems of various kinds, in feudal systems and ancient empires

Industrial Age:

Representative democracy and a multiparty political system for the rising middle class in West,
with democracy based on an informed, educated middle class; democratic centralism in
socialist countries, with population also educated

Information Age:

Global democratization trends, in former communist and South countries today, with modern
information technologies making control of information to citizens by dictators difficult. Social-
political change on important issues initiated by direct, grassroots, participatory democracy
involving media coverage, electronic networking on Internet, FAXs, and other forms of
"electronic democracy." Increasing numbers of issues (arms control; free trade; AIDS; pollution;
and terrorism) require global cooperation and/or local action, not just national policies, to solve
them.

Information/Data on Political System of Spain

Spain is a parliamentary monarchy. Although King Juan Carlos I is the chief of state, the prime minister
is head of government. The prime minister is Felipe Gonzalez Marquez from the Socialist party. There
is a bicameral legislature (Cortes Generales), consisting of a 255-seat Senate and a 350-seat
Congress of Deputies, the latter having the greater power. The voting age is 18. The primary political
parties are the Spanish Socialist Workers Party and the Popular Party. Spain is divided into 17
autonomous communities (regions). Each region has its own rights, elected officials, and justice
system.

Conclusions
Article 1 of the 1978 Constitution lays downs that Spain is hereby established as a social and
democratic State, subject to the rule of law, and advocating as higher values of the legal order
freedom, justice, equality and political pluralism. National sovereignty is vested in the Spanish people,
from whom emanate the powers of the State. The political form of the Spanish State is that of a
Parliamentary Monarchy. Spain's political system has entered the Information Age.

Ty p e o f E c o n o m i c S y s t e m

Three types of economic systems exist, each with their own drawbacks and benefits; the
Market Economy, the Planned Economy and the Mixed Economy.

An economic system is loosely defined as country’s plan for its services, goods produced, and the
exact way in which its economic plan is carried out. In general, there are three major types of economic
systems prevailing around the world.

Market Economy
In a market economy, national and state governments play a minor role. Instead, consumers and their
buying decisions drive the economy. In this type of economic system, the assumptions of the market
play a major role in deciding the right path for a country’s economic development.

Market economies aim to reduce or eliminate entirely subsidies for a particular industry, the pre-
determination of prices for different commodities, and the amount of regulation controlling different
industrial sectors.

The absence of central planning is one of the major features of this economic system. Market
decisions are mainly dominated by supply and demand. The role of the government in a market
economy is to simply make sure that the market is stable enough to carry out its economic activities
properly.

Planned Economy
A planned economy is also sometimes called a command economy. The most important aspect of this
type of economy is that all major decisions related to the production, distribution, commodity and
service prices, are all made by the government.

The planned economy is government directed, and market forces have very little say in such an
economy. This type of economy lacks the kind of flexibility that is present a market economy, and
because of this, the planned economy reacts slower to changes in consumer needs and fluctuating
patterns of supply and demand.

On the other hand, a planned economy aims at using all available resources for developing production
instead of allotting the resources for advertising or marketing.

Mixed Economy
A mixed economy combines elements of both the planned and the market economies in one cohesive
system. This means that certain features from both market and planned economic systems are taken
to form this type of economy. This system prevails in many countries where neither the government nor
the business entities control the economic activities of that country - both sectors play an important role
in the economic decision-making of the country. In a mixed economy there is flexibility in some areas
and government control in others. Mixed economies include both capitalist and socialist economic
policies and often arise in societies that seek to balance a wide range of political and economic views.