Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 107:603610

DOI 10.1007/s00421-009-1154-y

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Energetics of karate (kata and kumite techniques) in top-level

athletes
Christian Doria Arsenio Veicsteinas Eloisa Limonta
Martina A. Maggioni Pierluigi Aschieri
Fabrizio Eusebi Giorgio Fano` Tiziana Pietrangelo

Accepted: 29 July 2009 / Published online: 27 August 2009

Springer-Verlag 2009

Abstract Breath-by-breath O2 uptake (V_O2 , L min-1) and

blood lactate concentration were measured before, during
exercise, and recovery in six kata and six kumite karate
Word Champions performing a simulated competition.
V_O2max ; maximal anaerobic alactic, and lactic power were
also assessed. The total energy cost (VO2TOT ; mL kg-1
above resting) of each simulated competition was calculated and subdivided into aerobic, lactic, and alactic fractions. Results showed that (a) no differences between kata

C. Doria
G. Fano`
T. Pietrangelo (&)

Department of Basic and Applied Medical Sciences,
University G.dAnnunzio Chieti-Pescara,
Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
e-mail: tiziana@unich.it
G. Fano`
e-mail: fano@unich.it
C. Doria
E. Limonta
M. A. Maggioni
F. Eusebi
G. Fano`

T. Pietrangelo
Interuniversity Institute of Myology (IIM),
University G.dAnnunzio Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
A. Veicsteinas
E. Limonta
M. A. Maggioni
Department of Sport Sciences, Nutrition and Health,
University of Milan, Via Colombo 71, 20133 Milan, Italy
P. Aschieri
Federazione Italiana Judo Lotta Karate ed Arti Marziali
(FIJLKAM), Viale Sandolini 79, 00122 Rome, Italy
F. Eusebi
Department of Human Physiology and Pharmacology,
University La Sapienza, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
A. Veicsteinas
Center of Sport Medicine, Don Gnocchi Foundation,
Via Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy

and kumite groups in V_O2max ; height of vertical jump, and

Wingate test were found; (b) VO2TOT were 87.8 6.6 and
82.3 12.3 mL kg-1 in kata male and female with a
performance time of 138 4 and 158 14 s, respectively; 189.0 14.6 mL kg-1 in kumite male and
155.8 38.4 mL kg-1 in kumite female with a predetermined performance time of 240 0 and 180 0 s,
respectively; (c) the metabolic power was significantly
higher in kumite than in kata athletes (p B 0.05 in both
gender); (d) aerobic and anaerobic alactic sources, in percentage of the total, were significantly different between
gender and disciplines (p \ 0.05), while the lactic source
was similar; (e) HR ranged between 174 and 187 b min-1
during simulated competition. In conclusion, kumite
appears to require a much higher metabolic power than
kata, being the energy source with the aerobic contribution
predominant.
Keywords Oxygen consumption
Energy cost

Energy sources
Blood lactate
Kumite
Kata

Karate
Maximal aerobic and anaerobic power

Introduction
Karate is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Islands
(Japan) from indigenous fighting methods and Chinese
kenpo. Athletes use almost all muscles during training and
competition, but the two forms of the sport (kumite and
kata) differ significantly with regards to style and corresponding muscle use.
Kata consists of a predetermined series of movements
that are performed with explosive swiftness against imaginary opponents, whereas kumite involves noncontact
fighting.

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Kata
Kata, which means form, incorporates techniques from
various schools of martial art, and athletes move in several
directions in space. It is not regarded as a symbolic battle to
be performed alone, but rather as a battle against one or
more invisible opponents. Various schools incorporate
different numbers of kata techniques, and refer to them by
distinct names. The basic elements of proper kata technique include kime (a short isometric muscle contraction
performed when a technique is concluded), expressiveness,
and rhythm. During competitions, the athletes perform
fixed kata styles (Shitei) that have a different duration for
every kata performed. Athletes that reach the final must
perform one fixed kata styles (Shitei) and one freestyle kata
(Tokui) that must have minimum and maximum duration of
60 and 80 s and an athlete is penalized for every second
over or under this limit, according to the World Karate
Federation (WKF)-based system styles.
Kumite
The kumite athletes perform ritualistic rather than actual
fights. Although these competitions involve noncontact
fighting and symbolic techniques, the athletes must demonstrate the potential force of their movements and execute
them as if they were real, using control to stop the movements so as not to inflict damage to the opponent. Kumite
competitions last 3 min for athletes in the senior male
division, and 2 min for athletes in the senior female cadet
and junior divisions. In the event of a tie, the competition is
extended for an additional minute and the first athlete who
performs a valid technique wins. If the tie persists, a panel
of judges determines the winner.
A previous study (Francescato et al. 1995) analyzed the
total energy costs and energy sources in eight 23-year-old
male kata practitioners, performing Pinan ni dan kata of the
wado style. The metabolic power (i.e., the energy requirement from the sum of oxygen consumption and the oxygen
equivalent of lactate production) of these athletes was high
and correlated with the duration of their activity. The main
energy source was the anaerobic alactic metabolism, yielding 4690% of total energy during competitions lasting 80
and 10 s, respectively. Another study considered metabolic
costs in ten nationally and internationally ranked males
performing kumite karateka in fights lasting 267 61 s
during a championship. This study measured the aerobic,
anaerobic alactic, and lactic energy sources, and demonstrated that aerobic metabolism was the predominant source
of energy, but with a significant contribution from the
anaerobic alactic metabolism (Beneke et al. 2004).
To date, no studies have compared the total energy cost
and the energy sources between kata and kumite athletes

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(male vs. female of kata, male vs. female of kumite, kata

male vs. kumite male and kata female vs. kumite female).
Thus, the aim of the study was to evaluate the energy cost
and the energy sources of a well-selected group of Italian
top-level kata and kumite athletes, including world champions, together with their physiological characteristic such
as the maximal aerobic and anaerobic powers and the
explosive strength with the purpose to provide support for
athlete training.

Methods
Anthropometric characteristics
Twelve Italian internationally ranked male (M) and female
(F) karate athletes participated in this study. The kata
athletes were gold medalists in the Senior category, except
for two females in the Junior category, and the kumite
athletes were gold, silver, and bronze medalists in the
Senior category, except for two females in the Junior
category, all competing at the European and World
Championships of 20062007.
The physical characteristics of the athletes are shown in
Table 1. All tests were performed at a national gathering of
karate athletes and all subjects had participated in the
European Championships 2 weeks before the study. Before
each test, athletes were informed of the reasons for the
study as well as the risks involved in the test. All subjects
provided written informed consent before participation.
The study conformed to the standards set by the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local Ethics
Committee.
Laboratory test procedures
Before each test, the athletes were familiarized with the
instrumentations and the procedures and when required, a
standardized warm-up was administered.
Aerobic power
Maximum oxygen consumption (V_O2max ; mL kg-1 min-1)
and heart rate (HR, b min-1) were measured during a
conventional graded-cycle ergometer test, using the portable breath-by-breath oxygen uptake telemetric system
K4b2 (COSMED, Rome, Italy) (Hausswirth et al. 1997).
The device was calibrated before each test according to the
manufacturers instructions. Athletes performed a 5-min
warm-up at 50 W, followed by 2 min exercise at 50 W for
F and 75 W for M. Then, the work load was increased by
25 W every 2 min until volitional exhaustion. Few athletes
(2 for each style), not familiar with the cycle ergometer

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 107:603610

605

Table 1 Anthropometric
characteristics and laboratory
data of elite karate athletes

M male, F female, n number of

athletes, V_O2max maximal oxygen
uptake during incremental cycle
ergometer test, SJ squat jump,
CMJ counter movement jump,
PP peak power, MP minimum
power, AP average power, FI
fatigue index (Wingate test)
* p \ 0.05 between genders in
the same discipline

Kata

Kumite

M (n = 3)
(m SD)

F (n = 3)
(m SD)

M (n = 3)
(m SD)

F (n = 3)
(m SD)

Age (years)

30.7 2.1

19.3 0.6

24.0 4.6

21.3 1.5

Body weight (kg)

78.5 3.5

52.5 7.5*

76.3 3.2

55.8 2.8*

Height (m)
V_O2max (mL min-1)

1.76 0.03

1.59 0.04

1.81 0.05

1.59 0.03
2,395 169*

3,739 186

2,222 293*

3,696 430

V_O2max (mL kg-1 min-1)

47.8 4.4

42.4 1.0

48.5 6.0

42.9 1.6

SJ (cm)

38.9 1.1

36.9 1.5

40.1 3.2

37.0 1.1

CMJ (cm)

42.7 4.4

38.3 1.0

42.8 4.2

39.2 2.4

PP (W kg-1)

9.7 0.6*

7.7 0.5

9.6 1.1*

7.8 0.6

MP (W kg-1)

5.7 0.2

5.3 0.5

6.0 0.3

5.0 0.3

7.8 0.2*
40.8 4.2

6.5 0.3
30.8 8.3

7.9 0.6*
36.9 5.7

6.6 0.4
36.5 1.4

-1

AP (W kg )
FI (%)

(personal communication of the coach), interrupted the test

for pain and exhaustion of the lower limb muscles when the
heart rate was lower than the age predicted value (Tanaka
et al. 2001). For these subjects, the V_O2max was extrapolated
to the predicted HRmax.
Maximal anaerobic alactic power
On a separate day, the athletes performed three maximal
squat jumps (SJs) and three maximal counter-movement
jumps (CMJs) of the Bosco test using an Ergojump contact
mat (MAGICA, Rome, Italy), which allows the measurement of the flight time. The highest of the three values of
each jump was taken and the maximal anaerobic (alactic)
power was assessed (Bosco et al. 1983).

(c) the fatigue index (FI), i.e., the amount of the decline in
power during the task. FI is calculated as the percentage of
the differences between PP and MP setting PP to 100%
(Inbar et al. 1996).
Blood lactate concentration was determined (Pyne et al.
2000) using a portable blood lactate analyzer (Lactate Pro
LT-1710; Arkray, Kyoto, Japan). One drop of blood was
obtained from a fingertip before the WAnT session and
every 2 min thereafter for 10 min. The peak lactate concentration was assumed to be the highest value reached
after the WAnT.
Simulated competition study
The athletes were grouped according to their specializations and asked to simulate a competitive event.

Maximal anaerobic lactic power

Kata
The maximal anaerobic power and the total anaerobic
capacity were determined by the Wingate Anaerobic Test
(WAnT) (Bar-Or 1987), carried out using a mechanically
braked cycle ergometer (Ergomedic 894 E; Monark, Varberg, Sweden). Following a standardized warm-up of
5 min at medium intensity cycling, the athletes were
instructed to pedal as fast as possible. Resistance corresponding to 7.5% of body weight was applied after an
unloaded acceleration phase that lasted about 3 s. Athletes
were verbally encouraged to maintain the highest possible
pedaling rate throughout the 30-s test. After the test, athletes remained in a sitting position for 30 min. The test
scores were: (a) the peak power (PP) and the minimum
power (MP) output, respectively, the highest and the lowest
mechanical power observed as a mean of 5-s period exercise interval; (b) the average power (AP), corresponding to
the mean power output throughout the six 5-s periods; and

The male kata athletes performed the fixed kata styles

(Shitei) termed Unsu of the Shotokan style, whereas the
female kata athletes performed the fixed kata styles (Shitei)
named Hanan of the Shito-Ryu style. The corresponding
duration required by the international rules is 140 and
160 s for M and F, respectively.
Kumite
The kumite athletes performed simulated fights against
opponents, consisting of techniques of attack and defense,
lasting without interruption 240 s for M and 180 s for F.
These times represented the longest durations of actual
kumite world championship competitions.
Before each simulated competition, all athletes performed individual warm-up exercises equal to those

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performed in occasion of current competitive event and

consisting of approximately 5 min of running, 10 min of
stretching, and 10 min of sports-specific movements. After
the simulated competition, the athletes remained in sitting
position for 30 min.
Oxygen consumption, as in previous tests, was continuously measured using the same portable breath-by-breath
telemetric system at rest, during warm-up, competition, and
recovery.
Blood lactate levels were measured at rest; immediately before the warm-up exercise; at the end of the
simulated competition; and at the 5th, 7th, and 9th
minute of recovery in a sitting position. The total energy
cost (VO2TOT ) of each task was calculated and then divided into aerobic, lactic, and alactic fractions on the basis
of (a) aerobic energy obtained from the amounts of VO2
above rest during simulated competition (VO2 ); (b) an
energy equivalent of 3 mL O2 kg-1 of body weight for
every 1 mmol L-1 of blood lactate accumulation
(di Prampero 1981) to measure activity of the anaerobic
lactic system (VO2La ); and (c) the amount of O2 above
resting consumed in recovery that was required to
approximately reconstitute the high-energy phosphates
used during the exercise (VO2PCr ). In particular, the energy
contribution of the anaerobic alactic system VO2PCr was
determined by measuring the fast component of excess
postexercise oxygen consumption using a modified
double exponential decay equation (Beneke et al. 2002).
The amplitude and the time constants of the fast
component were derived from the best fit of V_O2
recovery curve using a nonlinear least squares fitting
procedure (Origin, Microcal, Northampton, MA, USA).
Moreover, the replenishment of body O2 stores (lung and
venous blood) was subtracted from the time integral of
the V_O2 fast component (Astrand and Rodahl 1977).
Dividing the VO2TOT for the duration of the performance
in minutes, the metabolic power (V_O2MP ) was calculated.
In addition, the metabolic power (WTOT) in kW and the
percentages of aerobic (WVO2 ), anaerobic alactic (WPCr),
and lactic (WLa) sources were also calculated in relation
to the total metabolic work (WTOT). A caloric equivalent
of 21.131 J mL-1 was used.
Statistical analysis
Results are reported as mean standard deviation
(m SD). Statistical comparisons were calculated using
the nonparametric KruskallWallis Test followed by the
MannWhitney Test on each pair of groups. Statistical
significance was set at p \ 0.05. All the statistical
analyses have been performed with the GraphPad Prism
Software, version 5 (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, CA,
USA).

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Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 107:603610

Results
Anthropometric characteristics and laboratory study
The anthropometric and physiological characteristics of the
athletes are listed in Table 1.
The V_O2max were measured by graded-cycle ergometer
test and expressed in mL min-1 and mL kg-1 min-1.
Significant differences (p \ 0.05) were found between M
and F of both kata and kumite, but no differences were seen
comparing the same gender in the different discipline.
Considering V_O2max referred to the body weight, no differences were found. The corresponding maximal HR values
(b min-1) were: 187 2 and 194 2 for M and F kata
athletes, and 191 4 and 193 2 for M and F kumite
athletes, respectively.
The mean values of SJ and CMJ were similar in all
athletes (Table 1). Wingate test showed that PP and AP
were significantly lower in F than in M athletes in both kata
and kumite (p \ 0.05). The FI was not significantly different between disciplines (Table 1). Peak blood lactate
concentration measured after the WAnT were (mmol L-1)
14.6 1.9 and 13.3 3.0 for M and F kata athletes, and
12.1 1.8 and 12.4 2.2 for M and F kumite athletes,
respectively. No significant differences in blood lactate
accumulation between kata and kumite athletes were found.
Energy cost of simulated karate competition
The durations of the simulated kata performances were
138 4 and 158 14 s in M and F, respectively, and the
corresponding durations in kumite were 240 and 180 s for
M and F, respectively.
Figure 1 depicts an example of breath-by-breath oxygen
uptake of a M and a F kumite athlete performing a simulated competition including warm up and recovery.
After few minutes of resting V_O2 values of about
0.3 L min-1, the O2 consumption oscillated with time
according to the warming up procedure used by each
individual athlete, characterized by personalized tasks and
short recovery intervals. During the actual competition
phase (exercise in the figure) V_O2 increased sharply
reaching an almost steady state value after about 1 min,
followed by an exponential decline in recovery. Similar
pattern of V_O2 changes were observed in all subjects,
irrespective of gender and type of performance.
During recovery, the time constants of the fast component of oxygen uptake were 40.6 4.9 and 46.3 3.1 s
for M and F kata athletes (p [ 0.05) and 47.3 0.6 and
31.5 9.5 s for M and F kumite athletes (p \ 0.05),
respectively. These time constants were significantly different between M of kata with respect to M of kumite and
between F of kata with respect to F of kumite.

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 107:603610

Fig. 1 Oxygen uptake breath-by-breath in kumite simulated competition. Representative plots of oxygen uptake (breath-by-breath) by
male (a) and female (b) kumite athletes. After 5 min sitting (rest in
the figure), the athletes performed typical precompetition warm-up
exercises and then were engaged in 4-min (male) and 3-min (female)
simulated competition (exercise in the figure; see Methods for
more details)

The corresponding VO2PCr were 1,895 438 and

1,192 181 mL for M and F kata athletes and
2,047 520 and 1,575 363 mL for M and F kumite
athletes (p \ 0.05), respectively. The net blood lactate
concentrations (highest postcompetition blood lactate
minus resting) expressed in mmol L-1 were 6.5 1.3 for
M and 3.9 1.7 for F kata, and 7.5 2.4 and 10.6 4.8
for M and F kumite athletes, respectively. From the V_O2 of
Fig. 1, the variables given in Table 2 were calculated. The
same table includes the average duration of the competition
and the corresponding maximal heart rate reached.
In Table 2, the mean values SD of all variables
required to calculate the energy sources and the metabolic
power are reported. Data are given both in oxygen equivalent and in kJ. In kata, similar values of VO2 ; VO2PCr ; VO2La ;
and VO2TOT were found in M and F when expressed as
mL kg-1. When VO2TOT was normalized to performance
time in minutes, the resulting V_O2MP was statistically higher
in M and F kumite athletes with respect to kata athletes
(p \ 0.05). In kumite, again no significant differences in
normalized values were found between genders, even when
the much longer time of performance of M is taken into
account. The VO2 ; VO2PCr ; and VO2La expressed as a fraction
of VO2TOT are shown in Fig. 2.

607

A comparison between kata and kumite disciplines

(Fig. 2) revealed that the aerobic percentage significantly
differed between M and F kumite athletes and between M
athletes of kata and kumite (p \ 0.05). The anaerobic lactic
sources were not significantly different. The anaerobic
alactic sources differed in M and F athletes of each discipline
(p \ 0.05). The aerobic contribution was statistically higher
(p \ 0.05) in M kumite (74 1%) vs. kata (50 6%). Vice
versa in both M and F, the alactic contribution was higher
(p \ 0.05) in kata (28 6% in M; 29 5% in F) than in
kumite (14 3% in M and 18 1% in F).
The VO2TOT (given in Table 2), normalized to the time of
competition and expressed as V_O2MP in mL kg-1 min-1
(also given in Table 2), was compared to the maximum
oxygen uptake above resting. The corresponding ratio is
given in Fig. 3. The metabolic power required to complete
the simulated competition was significantly higher in both
M and F kumite athletes with respect to kata athletes
(p \ 0.05).
Compared to the HRmax measured during the cycle
ergometer tests, the maximal HR of the simulated competition were 94 7 and 90 3% in M and F, respectively, in kata; and 92 2 and 97 6% (M and F,
respectively) in kumite.

Discussion
To our knowledge, physiological differences in energy
production between internationally ranked male and female
kata and kumite athletes have not previously been evaluated. Maximal velocity and explosive strength are the most
important muscular factors required for karate performance. These parameters correlate with the competitive
level of the athletes. Previous studies have shown that the
explosive strength of international karate athletes is about
14% higher than that of national athletes (Ravier et al.
2004). We examined differences in explosive strength
between the two karate disciplines. Vertical jump values
(SJ and CMJ tests) revealed that explosive strength was not
different in kata and kumite athletes. The lack of differences between male and female may be due to the low
number of athletes examined. Unfortunately, we could not
find additional athletes of such top levels, at least in the
Italian team.
The Wingate test has been used to assess lower limb
muscle power in martial arts, particularly in judo exponents
(Sbriccoli et al. 2007). The use of the lower limbs differs in
kata and kumite competitions, and a sports-specific test
does not exist. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to
characterize the muscle power of elite kata and kumite
athletes using the Wingate test. The PP, reflecting the
highest energy-generating capacity of the high-energy

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Table 2 Metabolic responses of kata and kumite athletes during simulated competitions
Kata

Kumite

M (n = 3)
(m SD)

F (n = 3)
(m SD)

M (n = 3)
(m SD)

F (n = 3)
(m SD)

Time (s)

138.0 4.0

158.0 14.0

240.0

180.0

HRmax (b min-1)

176.0 12.0

174.0 4.0

175.0 5.0

187.0 12.0

VO2 (mL kg-1)

43.9 3.9

47.9 8.5#

139.8 12.0#

95.8 18.5*

-1

VO2PCr (mL kg )

24.3 6.1

22.7 1.1

26.7 5.6

28.1 5.6

VO2La (mL kg-1)

19.6 3.3

11.6 5.1

22.5 7.1

31.8 14.3

VO2TOT (mL kg-1)

V_O2MP (mL kg-1 min-1)

87.8 6.6#
38.2 3.8#

82.3 12.3#
31.4 6.0#

189.0 14.6
47.2 3.7

155.8 38.4*
51.9 12.8

WVO2 (kJ)

72.9 7.6#

54.0 16.1#

225.5 20.4

113.4 26.2*

WPCr (kJ)

40.0 9.3

25.2 3.8

43.3 11.0

33.3 7.7

32.4 4.1

WLa (kJ)
WTOT (kJ)
WTOT (kW)

16.2 7.2

36.1 10.4

37.8 18.2

145.3 4.5#

92.3 24.5*

304.8 25.5#

184.6 52.0*

1.05 0.06

0.59 0.19*

1.27 0.11#

1.03 0.29#

Time in seconds, duration of the simulated competition, HRmax heart rate calculated as the mean values of the last 20 s of simulated competitions,
VO2 oxygen consumed above resting during the simulated competition, VO2PCr VO2 equivalent above resting of the fast component of the
postcompetition VO2 , VO2La VO2 equivalent of lactate accumulation during exercise, VO2TOT total energy cost (VO2 VO2PCr VO2La ), V_O2MP
metabolic power, oxygen consumed per minute of simulated competition, WVO2 aerobic energy corresponding to VO2 , WPCr anaerobic alactic
energy corresponding to VO2PCr , WLa anaerobic lactic energy corresponding to VO2La , WTOT total metabolic work (WVO2 ? WPCr ? WLa), WTOT
metabolic power. Only WTOT and VO2MP can be normalized in all the experimental groups and then compared by a statistical procedure (see
Methods for more details)
* p \ 0.05 between genders in the same discipline,

p \ 0.05 between disciplines in the same gender

40

Anaerobic
alactic

#
60

1.0
0.5

Aerobic

20

0
kata

kumite

Fig. 2 Aerobic, anaerobic alactic, and lactic energy sources in kata

and kumite athletes. Values are m SD; n = 3. Relative energy
contributions of aerobic (gray), anaerobic alactic (light gray), and
lactic sources (white) during kata and kumite simulated competitions.
The height of each histogram represents the total oxygen cost (VO2TOT
of Table 2) set = 100%. (M male, F female) (*p \ 0.05 between
genders in the same discipline, #p \ 0.05 between disciplines)

phosphates, and the AP, reflecting the glycolytic capacity,

were found significantly higher in males than in females in
both disciplines, thus showing that females use less power
and place greater emphasis on harmonious movements,
whereas male athletes use higher force to perform explosive movements. The average power is a measure of the
average mechanical power of the 30-s test, which, in turn,
reflects the capacity of leg muscles to perform extremely

1.5

80

123

2.0

Anaerobic
lactic

VO2MP / VO2max

Energy sources (%)

100

M
0.0

kata

kumite

Fig. 3 Metabolic power to maximal aerobic power ratio of kata and

kumite. Values are m SD, n = 3. The metabolic power (V_O2MP )
expressed in relation to the maximal aerobic power (V_O2max above
resting) is shown in male (M) and female (F) kata and kumite athletes.
#
p \ 0.05 between disciplines

powerful movements that require both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic sources (Beneke et al. 2002). The average
power value was lower in females than in males, as previously reported (Gratas-Delamarche et al. 1994; Sands
et al. 2004). Moreover, the FI, i.e., the total capacity to
produce energy via the immediate and the short-term
energy systems, resulted similar in kata and kumite
athletes.
The V_O2max per unit body weight was determined by the
graded-cycle ergometer test and in four athletes (two for

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 107:603610

each discipline) extrapolated to the predicted HRmax (see

Methods). The collected data altogether analyzed were
similar both in the two genders and in the different disciplines (Table 1). When data presented here are compared
with those of male karateka measured by Francescato et al.
(1995), a slightly higher aerobic power has been found in
our athletes, probably as a consequence of the very high
level of athletes enrolled in our study. In contrast, the V_O2max
values reported by Ravier et al. (2006) are higher than ours,
presumably in part due to the different methodology used
to determine V_O2max . In this study, the cycle ergometer was
used, which is known to underestimate of about 810% the
corresponding value assessed by treadmill (Astrand and
Rodahl 1977). In addition, the task was interrupted at relatively low power values (from 150 to 250 W at the most),
for local fatigue or pain in the lower leg muscles.
Moreover, Ravier et al. also showed, after a supramaximal treadmill test, that lactate levels in male karate
athletes were significantly higher in national than in
international athletes. Their study concluded that the higher
concentration of lactate after exhaustive exercise might
reflect a lower level of anaerobic energy supply or a more
efficient removal in international athletes. The athletes of
our study accumulated significantly less lactate after the
WAnT test compared with the athletes of Ravier et al.
(approximately 13 mM, in our athletes vs. about 18 mM,
without any differences between genders and/or disciplines). Considering that the tests carried out were different, it is possible that muscle performance of our athletes
required a lower anaerobic energy than that used by the
athletes tested by Ravier.
The aerobic energy source was predominant in our study
(5074% of the total), with some difference among genders
and disciplines, while the lactic source represents the
lowest percentages (1222%) of energy used, and the
alactic intermediate (1428%). Kata used twice as much
alactic source than kumite athletes. However, kumite performances were more demanding of aerobic energy during
simulated competitions. In a study on energy cost and
sources in karate athletes, Francescato et al. (1995)
examined male athletes performing wado-style kata of
increasing duration (approximately 1080 s). Their study
demonstrated that after 80 s of activity, 41% of the total
energy used was aerobic, 13% was lactic, and 46% was
alactic. The performances in their study were approximately half as long as those of our simulated kata performances. Although style differences must be considered, in
an attempt to compare the data of Francescato et al. with
ours in male kata athletes, it appears that similar contribution of aerobic source was found, while the longer
duration of the performances (about 140 s) of our male
kata athletes increased presumably the lactic source.

609

Comparing the two disciplines in males, a higher aerobic source in kumite (74%) than in kata (50%) was found,
while in kata higher anaerobic sources were observed. The
difference is presumably due to different muscular
recruitment and control required in the two disciplines and
by the time duration of the performances (240 s in kumite
vs. 138 s in kata). In female athletes, probably due to
higher intensity of the explosive swiftness movements, a
difference only in the anaerobic alactic sources between
kata and kumite (about 30 vs. 14%) was seen. When
compared to the maximal aerobic power measured on the
cycle ergometer, the metabolic power, i.e., the total (aerobic and anaerobic) energy expenditure rate of kumite and
kata athletes were well above 1 and slightly below 1,
respectively, in both genders (Fig. 3). This findings are
consistent with the different contribution of the energy
sources and duration of the performances and it is conceivably to assume that they are mainly due to the both
much higher speed and force of each single movement and
to the higher contribution of static contraction required to
keep the body in position when upper limbs movements are
performed.

Conclusion
World champions of kata and kumite have approximately
the same maximal aerobic and anaerobic powers per unit
body weight during conventional laboratory tests. In the
simulated competition, the metabolic power of kumite is
about 1.5 times V_O2max . The total energy cost is paid
approximately by aerobic component (70%), with utilization of alactic energy stores (20%) and lactic acid production (10%). In kata, the metabolic power is lower than
V_O2max and the aerobic and anaerobic (alactic and lactic)
sources are almost equally divided.
It is important to note that the main purpose of this work
is not to provide precise data of the energy cost and sources
involved in karates discipline, as the data presented are
from a very small sample of elite athletes not representative for number and quality of performance of the entire
population practicing this sport. The goal of this experimental study was to associate a metabolic evaluation,
assessed with standard procedures, to the ability to achieve
the very high performance level that the athletes we tested
have shown to possess. Thus, our results can reasonably be
proposed as a table reference for the preparation of the
athletes of a specific discipline not deeply studied as karate.
Acknowledgments We thank Dr. Pierpaolo Iodice and Dr. Fabrizio
Schiazza for technical suggestions that assisted in the performance of the
Wingate test, and Dr. Giampiero Merati and Dr. Luca Agnello for discussing the data. This research was supported by grants of G.F. and A.V.

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Conflict of interest statement
no conflict of interest.

Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 107:603610

The authors declare that they have

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