Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONCRETE.*
B y F. G. THOMAS, B.Sc., B.Sc.(Eng.), Assoc.M.1nst.C.E. (of the Building Research Station).
Ix'1'HOL)rCrrION.
I ~ ( : r l ~ ~A
:~
SD
c lMEAST_-HEJII~:K'r
~:
OF
(XACKS.
TheStrain
From the results of very
Capacity of earlytests of reinforced conConcrete. crete, Considbre(l)' put forward
the hypothesis that the introduction of steel in a concrete member increased
considerably the extension that could be undergone by the concrete before cracking occurred.
This power of extensionwithout cracking is
usually called thestrain-capscity or extensibility of the concrete. I n these tests, Considkre
measured tensile strains in the concret,e up to
two parts in a thousand (2,000 X 10 l ; ) before
any cracks were noticed, whereas in parallel
tests on unreinforced specimens the breaking
strain was only from 0.1 to 0.2 pa.rts in x:
thousand (100 to 200 X 10
These results were not, however, confirmed
by tests carried out by other workers a t about
the same time, e.g. tests carried out for Wayss
and Freytag'Y' in which the strains at the first
crack were not much greater than those given
by Considbre for plain concrete, and in which
the quantityof reinforcement had no important
influence on the strain capacityof the concrete.
Similm results were ohtninetl by Kleinlogel"l',
l;).
--_
__ -- -
...
t?lQ
refmwre*vyiven at thp
papcr.
X
X
10 ti.
10 1;.
139, 92.
46, 31.
25.
24.
J u t / . 1936
=-=---
.----
T H E STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
expansion.
The
greatest
strain
capacity
measured was for a water stored member,
reinforced with ;t steel mesh, the value being
about 370 X 10';.
In all of the tests of the strain capacity that
have been considered, the time factor was not
introduced. Although no data are at present
available as to the maximum strain that can
be obtained in tension in a long time loading
test,it is possible thatthisvalue
will be
decidedly greater than the strain capacityin a
short period test.
In
this
connection, it
should be noted thatat early ages when shrinkage movements are comparativelylarge, the
creep of the concrete is also large,thus increasing the strain capacity a.t, A time when i t is
most necessary.
I n tests carried out at the Building Research
Station, the appearance of the first crack has
generally been noticed when the maximum
tensile strain in the concrete due to loading
reaches a value of from 150-250 X 1 0 f;. I n
some cases, however, the strain capacity has
been little more than 100 X IO ".
Crack
Measurement.
Unt,il it known
is definitely
thatthere is a limitingwidth
of crack belowwhichcorrosion
of thc steeldoes not takeplace,
i t is essential that the accuracy of observing
crack formation anddevelopment should be the
best possible. Commenting on the high values
obtained by Considbre for t,he strain capacity
of reinforced concrete, Bach(;') suggested that
the first. crack was not observed until i t had
developed considerably, owing to insufficiently
accurate ohservation.
Bach himselfclaimed
that with a smooth
whitened surface, using a high powered microscope he could detect a crack of width
l,/ZOO mm. (0.0002 in.).
H a t P used a. dye method for indicating the
development of cracks. A 1 per cent. solution
of methyl violet dye in alcohol was spread on
part of the tension surface of the beam under
test ; after cracks had opened, as indicated by
the sudden increase in strainshown by extensometers on the beam surface, further dye was
added in narrow widths for each increment of
1oa.d. Observations of thepenetration of the
dye on the broken sections aftertestdetermined the loads at which cracks developed.
Hatt found that withstrong concrete the
steel elongated when cracks developed, resultingin an immediate formation of eye-visible
299
3CO
S T R UTEC
HN
TEG
U IRNAELE R
A,"( r
t:.)
= = = = _ - - - = -J u l y ,
and d P
i.e. d P
.S.
dY
dff,.Af. dL<A, . . . . .
2E
-.----*dP.6 , A ,
L
df,.A,.
....
= df(,.A,.
=.
-.
l
2
I + L .E,. A,.8
SOthat from equation ( I ) ,
. .-
i.e. df,. =
- .-
E,.i
......
+ L-
28
From this equation, knowing the shrinkage
creep and elasticproperties of the concrete
used, the shrinkage stresses can be calculated
by successive determinations of the increase
df,.. If the tensile strengthdevelopment
is
also known, a factor of safety against cracking
can be obtainedasafunction
of timeand
comparisons of thisfactor for different reinforced concrete members indicates the relative
resistances against cracking.
Intests
made atthe
BuildingResearch
Station for the ReinforcedConcrete Association it was required to know what effect clay
in the sand had on the crack resistance of a
concrete. A local pitsand was selected containing about 30 per cent. of clay by volume,
equivalent to about 5.8 per cent. by weight,
and a second sample was prepared, bywashing,
in which the clay content was reduced to 6 per
cent. by volume (1.8 per cent. by weight). In
both cases the tests were made on a 1 : 2 : 4
Portland
cement
concrete.
With
the
more
clayey sandthere was about twice as much
shrinkage as with the washed sand, creep was
nearly four times as great and the transverse
strength about six-tenths. Now, for completely
(6) above
restrained
members,
equation
becomesdf,.= &,. (ds - f,.dc) . . . . . . . . ( 7 )
and using this equation, the shrinkage stresses
for the two concretes were calculated, the
following results being obtained :-
July, 1936
~ ST H
RU
ECTU
ER
NAGLI N E E R
301
AGE.
10 days.
Concrete.
-1
30 days.
60 days.
-fl f c
f
fc
f
f
fc
flfc
fc
-flfe
----___-
...
Ditto,
with
washed
sand
...
...
...
...
360
110
110
3.27
5.45
600
300
420
290
640
2.13
440
1.45
390
480
1.13
1.37
660
Concrete.
Cracking i n Reinforced
C 2
T H E STRUCTURAL E N G I N E E R
302
3
AGE
Figure 2.
July, 1936
maintainedundertensileloadsbymeans
of
springs, and these loads were adjusted periodically so that the shrinkagemovements were
entirelybalancedby
the elasticmovements
and creep produced by them. A photograph of
theapparatusafter
failure of a specimen is
shown in Figure 3.
The tests includedconcreteswithclayey
sand and the results for twospecimens,one
with a high percentage of clay in the sand and
the otherwith
washed sand,are
given in
Figure 4. It will be seen that the shrinkage
stresses were somewhat greater with
the washed
sandbut that the increasedtensilestrength
more than compensated for this, the concrete
with
clayey
sand
being less resistant to
cracking. This is a direct confirmation of the
conclusions obtained
earlier
in
this
paper
from computation based on the shrinkage and
creep properties of the concretes.
The effect of rapidity of hardening is striking.
I n Figures 5-7 the results are given for duplicate
testsonordinaryPortland,rapid
hardening
Portland and High Alumina cement concretes,
a 1 : 2 : 4 mix (by weight) with 60 per cent.
of water being used in each
case.
The
shrinkagestresses are initially little different
forthePortland
cementconcretes,
but as
failure is approached with ordinary Portland
cement the development of stress decreases
- WEEKS.
Cracking in ReinforcedConcrete.
July, 1936
ES N
TR
GU
I NCET E
URR
TH
A LE
303
In this section w
l
l
ibe considered only the
conditionwhere the tensile forces producing
cracking are the outcome of directly applied
loading, as in the case of tests in bending or
tension. Since, also, we are primarilyconcerned with theeffects likely to be met with in
practice, consideration need be given only to
such members as beams, in which cracks may
be produced a t working loads.
Previous
Work on
in
T H E STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
304
July, 1936
in the case of the beam in which the reinforcement was covered with mill scale.
(iii) Except at high loads near failure of the
beam and at low loads when there was little
cracking a t all, there was a rough proportionality between the width of acrack and the
averagedistanceaway
of the neighbouring
cracks. At high loads certain cracksdeveloped
more rapidly whilst neighbouring cracks sometimes even decreased in width, and the simple
relationship between crack width and distance
between cracks no longer held.
(iv) It was found thatthe
tensionload
carried by the concretereachedamaximum
value a t the same timeasthe
firstcrack
appeared and then decreased to a practically
constantvalueasthe
bendingmoment wa.s
further increased.
(v) Repetition of loading. caused an increase
in the number and lengths of cracks, although
p801
240
5 mol-
d
OO
Figure 4 .
70
12
A G E -DAYS
Effect of the resistance toshrinkagecracking
of clay in thesand
Portland cement concrete.
/4
16
18
20
J u l y , 1936
T H E STRUCTURAL E N G I N E E R -
General
Factors
Influencing
Crack
Formation.
It appears
from
the
above
that
the
widths of cracks
formed as a result of bending
or puretension in a reinforced
concretemember will depend
upon the following mainfac-
305
Area of concrete = A ,
Distance between consecutive cracks = L
Then the steel stress will have a maximum
value of t, a t the crack,decreasingwith
distance from the crack ; whilst the concrete
stress will increase from zero at the crack to a
maximum value of t, midway between cracks.
The exact developmentof stress will depend on
the way the bond stress changes alongthe bar.
The only experimental evidenceas to thebond
stressdistributionis
that obtained a t the
Building Research Station with a special tube
extensometer. It was found thatin general
the bondstresswasapproximatelyconstant
over the length in which it was acting, though
foraPortlandcementconcretethere
was a
tendency for the bond stress to decrease with
the distance from the crack. No serious error
should be involved by assuming the relations, = s,,,~ ( I
$)
. . . . . . . . (8)
- ~ ) d x = n ~ d s , ,( x
-g:-)
--- T H E
3 06
andthe
corresponding steel.and
stresses will be
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEER
July,
1936
concrete
where m = EJE,.
i.e., t, = t,,,, -
(9)
and t, =
n x d S,, (x
--
Themaximumconcretestress
by-
t,., is given
4x3
--2)
3L
d
Since the steeland
concretestrains
tyre
unequal there will be slip between the concrete
and the steel, the slip E per unit length being
given by :-
where E, and E,
concrete.
= elastic
ACE - D A M
Cracking
in Reinforced Concrete.
T H E ESN
TG
RU
I NCETEURR A L
J u l y , 1936
- 47-8,
47-
3d
3t
so t h a t L = -LE!-- d
307
...........
(13)
r
( ~ + m r )
.....
Substitutingfor
L inside the bracket of
equation (12), we have-
L { t m - ?..l ( l + m r ) } . (14)
E8
8r
Equations (13) and (14) give the distribution
and widths of the cracks in a symmetrically
reinforced member wholly in tension.There
aretwo
effects not included intheabove
analysis :First, the concretestress
is not uniform
across any section and the greatest stress, a t
the steel, w
l
l
i be a times the averagestress
used above. The effect of this is to replace r
in equations (13) and (14) by ar. Thevalue
of a is indeterminate but Emperger(13) states
that for concrete strengths (pri8m) greater
than 225 kg. per sq. cm. (3,150 lb. per sq. in.),
the exposure a t the steel is equal to the outside
It follows therefore that for
crackwidth.
most concretes used in practice the value of a
is not far removed from unity, so that this
does not appreciably affect the accuracy of the
above equations.
Second, the effective elasticityof the concrete
varies with the distance from the crack, the
effective modular ratio m increasing asthe
of m
concrete stress increases. The
value
in
equation
(14) is
therefore
the average
value andmay
be taken approximately as
40,000 dividedby the cube strength of the
concrete. Thevalue midway between cracks
may be 20 or 30 per cent.'above the average
value. However, the term inwhich the modular
retio enters in equation
(14) is usually small
compared with the steelstress t,,,, andany
error inthe value of m willbe
relatively
unimportant.
The form of equation (14) shows that the
crack width is proportional to the increase in
maximum steel stress beyond a certain value.
This value, which is the extrapolatedsteel
stress for zero crack width, is not the stress
a t which cracking commences, since acrack
will on formation have a definite width which
may be considerable, particularly in the case
of beams with low percentages of steel.The
= -
Cracking in ReinforcedConcrete.
E
ST
NR
GU
IN
CE
TE
UR
TH
AL
E
308
W a5
Sb,,,
July, 1936
But if C is thecurvature
section, then-
C =
28,
EA1 - n1)h
a t the cracked
. . . . . . . . . . (22)
so t h a t
Equation (23) indicates that although curvature does affect the cracking it is notso important as the steel stress. It is seen also that it
is an inverse effect, i.e., increased curvature for
a particularsteelstresstends
to distribute
the cracking ratherthan
widen individual
cracks.
Building
Research
Station
Tests.
July, 1936
T H E STRUCTURAL E N Q I N E E R
309
?a25
0.25
r"
Figure 8.
Recovery of cracks.
T H E XTRUCTURAL E N G I N E E R
310
-0
-002
rcMYlMUM
Figure 9.
-001
'906
-008
-010
W STEEL
-012
-014
- INCHES
July, 1936
J u l y , 1936
311
AGE AT 7F.T
00
-010
CRACK WIDrn
- 14 DAn.
e
- wcn
020
underconstantbendingmoment(noshear)
are shown in Figure 11. Theexperimental
pointshave
been omittedforthesake
of
clearness.
The
following points
should
be
noted :(i) The relationship between steel stress and
crack width is not wholly linear. The probable
reason for this is that the slope of the stressstrain curve for the steel is' not, constant for
the high tensile steel tested but decreases a t
high stresses.
(ii) I n general, the extrapolatedstressfor
zero crack width increases asthe percentage of
steeldecreases.Thevaluesfor
this stress
were :Percentageof
Steel
1.38 1.190.980.780.59
SteelStressforZero
Crack Widthlb. per sq. in. ... 5,900 4,600 8,900 10,oOO 13,500
1.381.190.98
3.9
5.2
0.78 0.59
6.4
7.3
8.1
Cracking i n ReinforcedConcrete.
Effect of
An increasewithtime of the
Prolonged widths of cracks mayresult
Loading on fromtwo
effects ; first, the
Cracking. increase in steel stress due t o a
continuousbreakdpwn of the
concrete in tension and to the
creep of the
concrete ; and second, a creep in bond causing
increased slip of the concrete along the steel
away from the crack. The magnitude of this
second effect is unknown, but ithas been shown
by Shank(14)and also by Davis(15)
that creep in
bondexists.Shankcarried
outdirecttests
to measure such creep, but the movement on
a gauge length of 20 in. was only about 200 x
in.afterayear's
sustainedloading.
On
the other hand Davis measured continuous slip
near the ends of loaded reinforced concrete
columnsamountingon
gauge
a
length
of
10 in. to nearly 8,000 X 10 in.inayear
in
the case of a weak concrete used with a high
percentage of steel.
Measurements have been made a t the Building
Research
Station of the increase of
cracking in reinforced concrete beams, and the
resultsforone
series of testsare givenin
Figure 12. High tensile steel was used for two
of the beams (19N and 24N) andordinary
mild steel used in the others. A t an age of
12-13 days the beams were loaded so that
the theoretical
maximum
steel
stress
was
20,000 lb.per sq. in.for the plainbars and
27,000 lb.per
sq. in.forthe
high tensile
bars.Theload
was maintainedfor 6 weeks,
and was then altered so that the theoretical
steelstresses were increasedby 50 per cent.
This load was sustained for a further period of
six weeks before the beams were tested to
destruction. It will be seen from Figure 12
thatthe
crackwidthsincreasedby
about
50 per cent. during the early stages of the test
when the cracks were extending up the sides
312
T H E STRUCTURAL E N G I N E E R
July, 1936
Cracking i n ReinforcedConcrete.
July, 1936
ST H
RU
ECTU
ER
NA
GLI N E E R
* Thia does not apply to Hlgh Alumina cement concretes, in which, however, the creep is m U in any m e .
See Building Research Technical Paper No. 12, '' The
Creep 07 Plow of Concreteunder
Load," by W . H .
Cflanville.
Cracking i n Reinforced Concrete.
313
Beams PT3 and PT4. As above,except
thatthe
proportions were 1 : 24 : 34 by
volume, 1 : 1.10 : 1.09 by weight, water/cement
ratio 0.80 by weight.
The tension bars of beams PT1 and PT4only
were stressed to an initial tension of 40,000 lb.
per sq. in. before placing the concrete, and the
pretensioning apparatus wasleftinposition
until an age of 14days. All specimens were
storedunderdamp
sacks for4daysand
subsequently in air a t 64" F. and 64 per cent.
relativehumidity.
At an age of 14 days the
pretensioning device was removed from the
two beams so that thesteel loadwas transferred
to the concrete. All beams were tested a t a n
age of 28 days by loading a t third points on a
5 f t . span. A very high tensile steel was used,
the failing strength being 120,000 lb. per sq. in.
(based on original area) ; there was no clearly
defined yield point but the stress corresponding
to a permanent deformation of 0.2 per cent.
was 100,000 lb. per sq. in.
In the case of the first pair of beams, the
yield load of the steel was not reached owing
to premature bond failure of the tension bars,
but for the second pair additional anchorage
was provided at theends of the beam fo prevent
this. The failing loadswere :Beam PT3 (without pretension)
Beam PT4 (with pretension)
...
...
2.25 tom
2.33 tone
equivalent to theoretical
steel
stresses
of
104,000 and 108,000 lb.per sq. in.Thepretensioning had thus no effect on the failing
strength of the beam.Thisis
in agreement
with the resultsof previous tests at theBuilding
Research Station on pretensioned beams.
The results of the deflection and crack width
measurements for the second pair of beams are
givenin Figures 13and 14. It willbe seen
that thepretensioning of the steel in beam PT4
markedlyaffected
the deformations of the
beam. Similar results were obtained for beams
PT1andPT2
except that steelfailure
in
tension was not reached. The main results for
allbeams are given in Table 1. At a steel
stress of 25,000 lb. per sq.in.,calculated
according tothe
usual
no-tension
theory,
there were no cracks in thepretensioned beams
but those intheother
beams hadreached
widths of 0.003 and 0.005 in.The deflection
a t this stress was reduced as a result of the
pretension to 6 and $ of the deflection of the
beams without pretension. I n order to obtain
the same deflection and crack widths as those
314
-S TTRHUEC T U R A L
Z-
ENGINEER -
July, 1936
2-16
S"k
g
h4
0
0
I
100
300
400
DEFLECTION AT MID-SPAN.
200
Figure 13.
500
- INCH
X-X
~r4.
Q-Q
PT3
600
700
800
x IOe3
CRA CK
WID
m -/ N c H
T H E STRUCTURAL E N G I N E E R
July, 1936
Table I).
TABLE I.-EFFECT
315
BEAM NO.
PT1*
PT2
PT4*
PT3
0.003
0.005
lb./sq. in.
35,000
17,000
35,000
14,000
55,000
Crack width at steel stress, due to external load, of 25,000 lb. per
inch
sq. in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel stress at whichcracking started
.........
..
inch
. . . . . . . . . . . . lb. -i
. . . . . . . . . . . . Ib./sq. in.
foot
0.019
0.054
48,000
I!
1I
115
4,900 330
14 days
Averagebondstrengthobtained
with a t in.high tensile steel bar
embedded in concrete cylinder, 3 in. diameter, 6 in. long
28 days 320
lb.!sq. in. ;
~_-I
- _~
* With tension steel pretensioned to 40,000 lb. per sq. in. (nominal).
52,000
0.018
0.080
47,-
ll0
3,800
310
350
316
T H E STRUCTURAL E N Q I N E E R
July, 1936
Cracking in ReinforcedConcrete.
July, 1936
T H E STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
317
Cracking in ReinforcedConcrete.
:3 l 8
THE STRUCTURAL E N G I N E E R
- July, 1936
Incidence
The straincapacity of conand
Crete, i.e., the extension that
Measurements can occur without the formaof Cracks. tion of cracks, has been determined by many investigators
with widely different results.
The
lack
of
agreement is probably
due
to two
main
reasons : (i)variationin
the initialstress
conditions inthe members before test,and
(ii) variation in the accuracy of observing the
appearance of cracks.
It appears thatthe effect of reinforcing
steel is normallyt o increase the strain capacity
of the concrete by only a smallamount ; when
reinforced concrete members are stored in air,
tensile stresses are set up in the concrete as a
result of shrinkage, withan adverse effect on the
subsequent strain capacity when the member
is loaded. On the otherhand,the
presence
of the reinforcement may leadto a considerable
increase of the effective strain capacity under
conditions of moist curing.
Cracking in Reinforced Concrete.
July, 1936
--
S T REUNCTG
THIUENREAELR
It islikely thattheapparent
increase in
strain
capacity
due
fo the reinforcement
observed bysome workers was partly the result
of insufficientlyaccurateobservation
of the
appearance of the first crack. I n tests at the
BuildingResearch
Station, withsmooth
a
whitenedsurface it has been found possible
to detectcracks 0.0001 in.inwidthbyeye,
though normally the cracks are a little wider
when theyfirstappear.
Crack widthsare
measured in alltestsonreinforcedconcrete
members, using portable microscopes with eyepiece scales.
Shrinkage
A method
has
been develCracking. oped
whereby
the shrinkage
stresses in restrained concrete
members
can
be
measured
until cracking
occurs. It has been shown that there is a
tendencyfor
the resistance to cracking to
decrease as the rapidity of hardening of the
cement used increases. The type of aggregate
used has an important influence on the likelihood of cracking ; butvariations
of the
cement or watercontentswithinpractical
limitsforreinforcedconcrete
work do not
appear to affect shrinkage cracking appreciably.
Strain
Cracking.
Early
tests
on reinforced
concrete
members
indicated
that reduction of the size of
individualcracks could be effected by using
smaller bars with a high bond resistance. This
isshown to beinagreementwithasimple
theory of crackinggiven in the paper.This
theoryindicated
that, foraparticularbar
size, the crackwidths
would increasewith
steel stress more rapidly for low percentages of
steel andthishas been verified bytestson
beams with high tensile steel reinforcement.
Theincreaseincrackwidth
that would
result from an increase in the working stresses
inthe tensionsteel may proportionately be
considerably
greater
thanthe
increase in
stress, particularly as the percentages of steel
normally used would tend to be reduced. The
adverse effect of the reduced percentage can,
however, be nullified bythe use of smaller
bars.
The
suggestion
put forward by several
investigators that cracksare to some extent
" elastic "-that
is, they recoversomewhat
when the load is removed-has been confirmed,
but it is clear that the term " elastic " is not
very satisfactory. The cracks do recover when
3 19
the load is completely
removed but therecovery
is not proportional to the reduction in load.
I n fact, areduction of one half .of the load may
cause no change a t all in the crackwidths,
owing to the hysteresis due to the change in
direction of the slip mechanism at the steelconcrete interface.
It has been found that there is a considerable
development of cracking in beams submitted
to sustained loading, though a state of equili-,
brium is reached aftera few weeksfrom loading.
Thisdevelopmentisprobably
the combined
effect of the increase in steel stress resulting
from creepof the concrete, and of creep in bond.
PreThe
possibility
of preventing
tensioning. cracking a t working loadsby
pretensioning the reinforcement has frequently been advocated, notably
byFreyssinet.Testsmade
a t the Building
Research Station,in which an initial pretension
of 40,000 lb.persq.in.
was applied to the
tension steel of beams, have shown that the
effect of the elastic and inelastic movementsof
the concrete may reduce
appreciably
the
effectiveness of pretensioning. I n the particular
testscited,thepretensioningapparatus
was
removed a t a n age of 14 days, and the beams
were loaded at anage of 28 days. The effective
pretension had during the intervening period
been reduced by concrete deformation to only
abouttwo-thirds of its originalvalue.This
reduction must be seriously considered when
using pretensioning as a means of preventing
cracking.
Corrosion.
It has been suggested that
there is alimitingwidth
of
crack below which corrosion of the reinforcement will not take place. Although this seems
reasonable, satisfactory evidence on this point
has yet to be obtained. It is felt that the best
way to do this is by actual exposure tests on
loaded reinforced concretebeams, and such
tests have been started at the Building Research Station, measurements being made of
the progressive cracking of the beams. The
usefulness of exposure tests by certain other
investigators has been severely restrictedowing
to the lack of data with regard to the widths
of the cracks.
Healing of
The
autogenous
healing
of
Cracks.
cracks
has
been investigated
by several writers, and a series
of testshas been made a t the BuildingRe-
ES N
TR
GU
I NCETE
URR
TA
HLE
320
229-33; (16)
260-3.
2. Tests for Ways8 und Freytag, A . G. See Morsch,
E., DerEisenbetonbau.
6th edition, 1923, 1,
(l), 109.
3. Kkinlogel, A . Extensibility of plain and rein-
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
July, 1936
beams underoft-repeated
loading. Am. Soc.
T. M. Proc., 1908,8, 454-68.
12. Homann. Experimentson a reinforced concrete
beam. ArmierterBeton,
1909, 2 (4), 153-60:
(5),202-8.
13. Emperger, F. V .
Die
Rissfrage bei hohen
Stahlspannungen und die zulhsige Blosslegung
des Stahlea. Mitt.uber Versuche ausgefuhrt
vom Osterreichischen Eisenbeton Ausschuss.
244-7
; (17)
354-386.
16. Freyssinet, E . See BritishPatent Specificationa
Nos. 338,864, 338,934, 364,621, 393,576and
433,059. Also A Revolution in the Technique
of the Utilisation of Concrete. Struct. Eng.,
1936, 14 (5),242-259.
Mild Steel versusHigh
Tensile
Steel.
Concrete and Constructional Engineering, 1927, 22, (5), 342-4.
Versuche a n Eisenbetonhohlkirrpern
und-balken zur Festatellung der Neigung zur
Riss-und
Rostbildung.Deutscher
Auschuss
fur Eisenbeton. Heft 71. 1933.
19. Rengers, N . J .
MNEMONIC
NOTATION
FOR
ENGINEERING
The above report, which was drawn up in
1918 by theScience Committee of the Concrete
Institute, has now been withdrawn from the
list of publications of theInstitution.
In
BritishStandard Specification No. 560/1934
the standard symbols to be used in structural
16, 1935.
FORMULFE.
25, 26 and
engineering areprintedonpages
27. The few cases where this
Institution
uses symbols or abbreviations which vary
from those contained in the British Standard
Specification, are set out in a note a t the foot
of page 27 of the Specification.
Cracking in Reinforced Concrete.