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TOPIC FOUR

ASTROPHYSICS
Contextual Outline
The wonders of the Universe are revealed through technological advances based on tested
principles of physics. Our understanding of the cosmos draws upon models, theories and laws
in our endeavour to seek explanations for the myriad of observations made by various
instruments at many different wavelengths. Techniques, such as imaging, photometry,
astrometry and spectroscopy, allow us to determine many of the properties and characteristics
of celestial objects. Continual technical advancement has resulted in a range of devices
extending from optical and radio-telescopes on Earth to orbiting telescopes, such as Hipparcos,
Chandra and HST.
Explanations for events in our spectacular Universe, based on our understandings of the
electromagnetic spectrum, allow for insights into the relationships between star formation and
evolution (supernovae), and extreme events, such as high gravity environments of a neutron
star or black hole.
This module increases students understanding of the nature and practice of physics and the
implications of physics for society and the environment.
Note stars are all in a state of equilibrium with gravity pushing inwards and radiation and
gas pressure pushing out

Section One
Our understanding of celestial objects depend upon observations made
from earth or from space near the earth

Discuss Galileos use of the telescope to identify features of the moon

Galileo was the first person to point a telescope into the night sky after refining the design. He
built the refracting telescope that produced an upright image and masked out the edge of the
front lens of his telescope to overcome spherical aberration. As a result, he was able to make
systematic astronomical observations and deductions of the features of the moon.
Galileo made the following qualitative observations of the moon:

The moon was rough like the earth

Had vast plains (mare), high mountains and deep valleys

Quantitative:

Calculating the height of a mountain from a measurement of its shadow when they were
near the edge of the shadow and directly facing the earth, estimated they were at least
several kilometres high

Other important observations

Moons of Jupiter

Phases of Venus

Sunspots on the sun

Thousands of new stars that were not visible by the naked eye

Implications:

These observations provided evidence that challenged the prevailing Aristotelian view that
was endorsed by Church of Rome where the heavens were perfect and unchanging, where
earth was the centre of the universe (heliocentric model)

These observations were evidence for the Copernicus geocentric model as the moons of
Jupiter were as predicted in the Copernican system

The phases of Venus showed that Venus must orbit the sun as Copernicus had suggested

Galileos contributions would fundamentally challenge the way in which science regarded
space and astronomical bodies

This was a result of an advance in technology where the telescope allowed distant objects
to be seen closer

Discuss why some wavebands can be more easily detected from


space

Information on the cosmos comes entirely from the analysis of the electromagnetic radiation.
However, the Earths atmosphere and ionosphere prevent certain EM waves from either
completely or partially reaching the earths surface. As a result, ground based astronomy is

restricted to wavebands (part of electromagnetic spectrum covering a specific range of


wavelengths) primarily to visible light and radio waves.
Problems associated with the detection of EM waves from the atmosphere:

Selective absorption
o

The highly energetic gamma rays and x-rays ionise molecules making up the
atmosphere and are therefore strongly absorbed in the
upper atmosphere

Some bands of UV radiation are strongly absorbed by the


ozone layer of the atmosphere while others penetrate to
the ground

Infrared wavelengths are partially absorbed

*Long wavelength radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere

The electromagnetic
spectrum is loosely divided
into bands because the
range of the wavelength is
vast. It is divided based on
wavelengths and on how the
radiation can be produced
and detected

Implications:

The atmosphere does not scatter or absorb the visible and radio band very much,
consequently, optical telescopes can be effectively used at ground level e.g. AngloAustralian Telescope or radio telescopes e.g. Parkes

In order to be able to study and analyse these absorbed wavebands/study the cosmos;
o

Telescopes must be placed in space above the Earths atmosphere

E.g. Hubble space telescopes are used to make observations of every region

Instead of the expensive procedure of placing them into space, infrared sensitive
telescopes may be placed on mountains tops

This means less light pollution and temperature fluctuations experienced by the
instruments are less. This minimises the time to stabilise expansion or contraction
initiated shake in the telescope lens and mounting

For:

To be able to study the electromagnetic spectrum

Improve our knowledge of the universe e.g. the discovery of a quasar

Define the terms resolution and sensitivity of telescopes

Sensitivity this is the measure of its light gathering power


A telescope with high sensitivity means that I can collect large amounts of light, hence allowing
very faint objects to be observed
Sensitivity is directly proportional to the diameter of the lens/mirror
Resolution - this is the ability of a telescope to clearly distinguish between two very close
objects
Resolution is usually described in terms of the smallest angle of separation between two points
of light such a two stars close together. Resolution depends on the diameter of the objective

lens and the wavelength of the light. A telescope with low resolution will see closely positioned
stars as fuzzy and blurred.
Theoretical resolution = 2.1 x10^5 x
D

Discuss the problems associated with ground-base astronomy in


terms of resolution and absorption of radiation and atmospheric
distortion

Atmospheric distortion and resolution:


Ground-based astronomy is beneath a constantly changing sea of air, water vapour,
other gases and dusts. This means that there will be variations in temperature and
pressure and thus will alter the density of the atmosphere. This causes corresponding
changes in the refractive index which causes stars to twinkle (exhibiting rapid variations in
colour and intensity). As a result, this atmospheric distortion causes images to shimmer and
go in and out of focus, thus lowering the overall theoretical resolution of the
telescope
Seeing is the distortion of the image of a distant light source by the earths atmosphere

Aberrations caused by impurities in the medium (air) as the radiation passes through it. This
has the effect of reducing the ability to clearly resolve detail in distant objects by scattering the
EM wave.
The true colour of images is altered because at ground level the variations in
absorption with wavelength mean that we are not seeing an accurate reproduction of
the intensity of the spectrum. All these affects are accentuated if the object being observed
is lower in the sky because the path length the light has to travel through the atmosphere is
greater. E.g. the reason why a blue sky is seen is because the atmosphere scatters light
Absorption of radiation:
Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, infrared and parts of the radio region of the
electromagnetic spectrum are absorbed and scattered to different extents by the
atmosphere. Ground-based astronomy in these wavebands is very difficult because of
the low intensity of radiation reaching the ground. So much light from the violet end of
the visible waveband is scattered, making the daytime sky bright blue, that optical astronomy
is virtually impossible other than at night.

Other:
The atmosphere also scatters extraneous light into the telescope from unwanted
sources such as nearby houses, cars and towns. This light pollution is increasingly
becoming a major problem for astronomers.

Outline methods by which the resolution and/or sensitivity of


ground-based systems can be improved including:
o Adaptive optics
o Interferometry
o Active optics

Adaptive Optics:
This uses a system of electronically controlled thrusters (actuators) of supports
which adjust the shape or angle of the telescope mirror to correct the effects of
atmospheric turbulence. It uses a fast feed back system as sensors quickly detect
atmospheric distortion (such as absorption and scattering) which is analysed by a computer.
Thrusters are then used to bend the flexible mirror into the shape that produces the best
possible image in order to improve resolution. These corrections are made up to 1000 times
per second and can be as small as 0.02 microns to minimise loss of scattered photons.
The success of adaptive optics relies on the detection and correction taking place
every quickly compared to the length of time over which the distortion lasts. The
image correction relies on the presence of a bright point source or star in the field to be
imaged. Where such a star does not exist, a laser beam is fired into the atmosphere to provide
an artificial star.
Active Optics:
Active optics systems are designed to correct changes in the surface shape of large
primary mirrors that occur as the telescope tilts or the mirror temperature changes
or due to gravity. It uses a slow feedback system to correct the sagging or deformities in
order to retain the sensitivity of the telescope. By slowing monitoring the reflection of the
wavefront off it, its possible to apply pressure to various parts of the primary and
correct the deforming effects by using actuators to ensure a sustains its original
resolution
When light leaves the primary mirror, it is slowly sampled by a wavefront sensor. This can
detect how incoming light has been altered, and by sampling slowly, changes observed n
the wavefront is due to deformities in the primary mirror, rather than uncontrollable
atmospheric effects. Therefore it must be done slowly in order to eliminate the effect of
atmospheric turbulence.
Interferometry:

The speed is the major


difference between adaptive
optics and active optics

Interferometry is a technique used to study optical or radio-wave interferences (it is more


effective with radio waves). Interferometry works by the superposition of
signals/wavefronts in order to create a sharper image and thus improve the
resolution and sensitivity.
It is based on the principle of a large diameter mirror that gives a sharper image because the
reflections of the wavefront at various points across the diameter add via the law of
superposition. The resolution of such an instrument is similar to that of a telescope with a
diameter equal to the separation of the two antennae.
It is used to unblur images from large optical telescopes and process information about the
source of the radio wave e.g. size and separation of stars. Very Large Array (VLA) is an
example of interferometry

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform an
investigation to demonstrate why it is desirable for telescopes to have a large
diameter objective lens or mirror in terms of both sensitivity and resolution

The telescope is a device used for helps to overcome the limitations of the human eyes for
astronomical studies. There are 2 types of telescopes: refracting and reflecting
Reflecting telescope
This applies the principle of refraction to obtain images. It consists of 2 lens:

Object lens used to gather/collect light

Eyepiece lens used to magnify the image

Disadvantages

Light must pass through the objective lens for an image to be obtained

The lens can only be supported at the edge

Large, heavy lens will deform under its own gravity and heat. The deformity of the
objective lens cause a distortion to the image obtained

Reflecting telescope
This applies the principle of reflection of light to obtain images
Advantage this is that it reflects rather than reflects, hence can be fully supported
Disadvantage a large objective mirror also deforms to an extent
Possible Solutions

Many small mirrors appropriately connected to form a large objective mirror. This reduces
the deformities

Using active optics as explained previously

Larger telescopes with lens/mirrors of larger diameter will have a higher sensitivity and
resolution. This can be investigated by placing a black iris in front of the objective lens of a
small telescope. Use the telescope to bring a page of writing on a wall some distance away into
focus. Then slowly close the iris to reduce the effective diameter of the objective lens. It is
noticed that the letters begin to become blurred, indicating the resolution is decreasing.
Further more, as the amount of light gathered decreases, the letters rapidly reduce.

Section Two
Careful measurement of a celestial objects position in the
sky(astrometry) may be used to determine its distance

Define the terms parallax, parsec, light-year

Parallax this is the apparent change in position of a nearby object as seen against a distant
background due to the change in position of the observer
Parsec One parsec is the distance that corresponds to an annual parallax of 1 arc sec
Light year this is the distance light travels in a year
1pc = 3.26 light years = 206265 AU
1AU = 1.5 x 1011 m (distance between earth and sun

Explain how trigonometric parallax can be used to determine the distance to stars

Trigonometric parallax is the technique used to calculate the distance to an object from the
observer using trigonometry and parallax

Annual parallax is half the angle through which the star appears to shift as the earth moves
from one side of its orbit to the other
Parallax data is collected by photographing the same star field twice, from opposite points of
earths orbit in order to use the baseline of and then measuring the annual shift of stars
against a background of distant stars. This allows the parallax to be calculated. The annual
parallax can be calculated from half this angle, giving a right angled triangle with a baseline of
1 AU. Basic trigonometry can then be used to determine the lengths of the sides and hence the
distance to stars.
For example, a star that has a parallax of say 1 arc second will be at a distance of:

Tan P = D/d
d = D/tanp
=

1.5 x10^11/tan (1/3600)

1pc

A large number of relatively near stars, whose distances can be calculated accurately from
parallax measurements, are used as reference stars for a range of techniques to estimate
distances to much more distant stars, including some in neighbouring galaxies.
If the parallax angle is smaller, then the star is further away, and if the angle is larger, the star
is closer.
d = 1/p
Where d = distance from star
P = parallax angle in arcsecs

Discuss the limitations of trigonometric parallax measurements


Gather and process information to determine the relative limits to trigonometric
parallax distance determinations using recent ground based and space based
telescopes

The usefulness of trigonometric parallax measurements is limited because the parallax angle of
nearby stars is extremely small. Current telescopes have a limited resolution and accuracy and
hence limited in measuring small angular shifts
Further more, this is combined with the seeing effect of the atmosphere, making
measurements of small angles very difficult.
The maximum distance of measurements to reasonable accuracy is approximately 33pc, which
is approximately 0.03 arcsec

Solutions

Using a larger baseline, however this is impossible as for this to happen; earths orbital
radius has to be increased.

Putting telescopes above the atmosphere and in the space reduces the limit to which
trigonometric parallax measurements are restricted by avoiding the effects of the earths
atmosphere.
o

E.g. Hipparcos has precision to 0.01 arcsecs which is 10 times more accurate
than ground based measurements.

Gaia is planned to be launched and intended to have a precision to 10


microarsecs, 100 times more precise than hipparcos

Section Three
Spectroscopy is a vital tool for astronomers and provides a wealth of
information

Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these
with a continuous blackbody spectrum

Spectroscopy is the analysis of spectra produced by an object to obtain information on its


features.
The spectrum is a range of wavelengths of electromagnetic waves. Under the visible range,
these wavelengths are observed as colour. There are 2 types:

Continuous spectrum e.g. white light, rainbow

Line spectrum e.g. emission and absorption spectrum

Continuous blackbody spectrum


This is produced when an object emits all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Under
the visible range, a continuous band of colours is observed. Black bodies emit a complete
spectrum of electromagnetic waves where the radiation emitted is related to the temperature
of the body. This radiation is produced by the oscillation of electrons.
Continuous spectra are given off by hot solids, liquids and high pressure gases. The intensity of
the spectrum varies smoothly with frequency, with a maximum that depends on the
temperature of the body.
R

Emission Spectrum
An emission spectrum has the appearance of coloured lines as seen against a dark
background.
This is produced when gases or atoms are excited in a flame or an external energy source that
causes the transition of electrons into higher energy states. When they return to the ground
state, they emit the energy as photons, which form an emission spectrum.

For this reason, the emission wavelengths are often called the emission lines. Each element
has its own characteristic emission spectrum
Absorption Spectrum
An absorption spectrum consists of dark lines as seen against a colourful background
This occurs when white light from a continuous spectrum source passes through a cool non
luminous gas. Some of the components wavelengths are absorbed by the electrons of the
gaseous atoms. These electrons then make a transition into the higher energy state and
eventually return to their ground state, releasing the energy as photons. The wavelengths
emitted are identical to the ones emitted.
However, the radiation is emitted in all directions in space, and hence the energy obtained in
the viewing direction is less than the original directional energy. Thus the spectral lines appear
darker in these wavelengths than others.

Perform a first hand investigation to examine a variety of spectra produced by


discharge tubes, reflected sunlight or incandescent filament

A prism spectrometer was used in order to view the spectra produced by reflected sunlight. It
produced an absorption spectrum due to the earths atmosphere

Describe the technology needed to measure astronomical spectra.

The device used in spectroscopy is called a spectrometer. There are 2 types

Prism spectrometer

Diffraction grating spectrometer

Astronomical spectra are examined by using a spectroscope, or recorded and measured with a
spectrograph, mounted at the focus of a telescope. A spectrograph consists of 3 parts:
1. Collimator This uses a narrow slit and one or more mirrors or lens to form a parallel
beam from a single light source such as a star
2. Dispersive element Either a prism or diffraction grating consisting of a thin piece of
glass with thousands of lines etched down it. They both disperse the light beam.
3. Device to view/record the different wavelengths this may be a viewing telescope, a
focussing mirror with photographic plate or film, or an electronic imaging device such as
a charge coupled device (CCD) detector.
Note: Diffraction grating works by the diffraction of light, creating an interference pattern.
Since the maximum interference for each wavelength occurs at a different angle, a diffraction
grating effectively disperses the different wavelengths in a light beam.

Identify the general types of spectra produced by stars, emission nebulae, galaxies
and quasars

Stars These emit a continuous spectrum similar to a black body. However since light is
absorbed by gases in its cooler outer atmosphere, dark absorption lines appear against the
continuous background of light emitted from each star. The wavelengths of the absorption lines
can be used to determine the elements and molecules present in the atmosphere of the star
Emission Nebulae These emit an emission spectrum. They are regions of gas and dust
which glow because they are illuminated with UV light from stars within the nebulae. As
excited electrons in the atoms and ions within the nebula drop to lower energy levels, line
spectra are produced with emission lines in the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared and radio
bands, characteristic of the elements that make up the nebula along with strong hydrogen
emission lines (red/pink)
Galaxies This emits a continuous spectrum. They are made up of gas, dust and millions of
stars. The spectrum of a galaxy is generally the composite of various spectra. These are
normally red shifted
Quasar This emits a continuous spectrum with a few emissions lines that fluctuate in
intensity rapidly. They are very distant objects that produce vast quantities of continuous
radiation at all wavelengths

Describe the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to
classify stars

A stellar spectrum consists of an approximate black body radiation spectrum for the
temperature of the stellar surface, superimposed with absorption lines characteristic of the
elements present in the stellar atmosphere.
Stars can be classified into 7 spectral classes based on their surface temperatures
O

Oh

Boy

Angry

Higher surface temp

Fearnside

Gonna

Kill

Me

Lower surface temp

In each spectral class, it is then subdivided from 0 9

Bo

B1

B2

Higher surface temp

B9
Lower surface temp

By analysing the stellar spectra, we can classify them according to their surface temperatures
and colour
Spectral Class
O

Spectral Features
Ionised helium

Surface Temp
> 25000

Colour
Blue

Mass (sun = 1)
30

Weak hydrogen
stronger hydrogen

25000 -11000

Blue

neutral helium
Strong hydrogen

11000-8000

White

2.5

Ionised metals
Weaker hydrogen

8000-6000

Yellow

1.4

Ionised heavier metals

Neutral metals
Ionised calcium strongest

6000-4800

Yellow

12

Many neutral metals


Neutral metals dominate

4800-3500

Orange

0.7

Hydrogen lines very weak


Strong neutral metals

< 3500

Red

0.3

Molecules particularly

white

white

titanium oxide

Describe how spectra can provide information on surface temperature, rotational


and transition velocity, density and chemical composition of stars

Surface Temperature
This can be deduced based by using Weins law. A spectroscope is used to determine the
wavelength of maximum output in analysing the prominence of spectra or by plotting the
intensity of the radiation as a function of its wavelength and using the wavelength when it
peaks.
Weins law : T x peak = 2.89 x10-3
Rotation velocity
This can be determined by analysing the optical Doppler shift effect caused by the rotation of
the star. As a star rotates about its own axis, the spectral lines will be both blue and red
shifted. This is because one side moves towards the observer (blue shift) ad the other side
moves away from the observer (red shift)

Thus the individual spectral lines will be broadened by an amount depending on the rotational
velocity of the star. The faster a star rotates, the more broadening of spectral lines is observed.
Translational velocity
This is also determined by analysing the Doppler effect on the absorption lines. If a star is
approaching the observer, every absorption line in the spectrum of the star is shifted toward
the blue end of the spectrum by the same amount. If the star is moving away, all the lines are
shifted towards the red end. The amount by which all the lines are shifted depends on the
component of the velocity of the star along the line of sight.

Density
The broader the spectral lines, the higher the density of the atmosphere surrounding the stars.
This is different to the rotational velocity analysis as the intensity varies across the line in
different way from the effect of rotation.
Chemical composition
This can be determined by comparing the absorption spetrum of the star to the absorption
spectra on the earth.

Analyse information to predict the surface temperature of a star from its


intensity/wavelength graph

First identify the wavelength at which the black body curve is at its highest intensity. Then use
Weins law in order to predict its surface temperature

Section Four
Photometric measurements can be used for determining distance and
comparing objects

Photometry is the measurement of the brightness of stars and other celestial objects
The brightness of a star depends on its

Luminosity
o

Radius2

Temperature

Distance-2

Define absolute and apparent magnitude

Apparent magnitude This is the number given to a star to indicate its brightness as
measured from earth
Absolute magnitude This is the number given to a star to indicate its brightness as
measured at 10 parsecs away

Explain how the concept of magnitude can be used to determine the distance to a
celestial object

Since the brightness of a star depends on its luminosity and its distance to the earth, the
apparent magnitude will vary with the distance to the observer. The further the observer is, the
fainter the star and the higher the apparent magnitude. The closer the observer is the brighter
the star and the lower the apparent magnitude.
Since absolute magnitude is measured from 10pc away, it is a fixed number and hence the
brightness of stars can be properly compared. Absolute magnitude is estimated for distant
stars by comparison with reference stars of the same spectral class and of known distance.
Thus if both the apparent and absolute magnitudes were known, then the distance can be
worked out with the formula of

If a star is further away than 10 pc, its apparent magnitude m is larger than its absolute
magnitude M, because the star appears fainter at the greater distance. If closer than 10 pc, it
would appear brighter and m would be smaller than M.
Where M is the absolute magnitude
M is the apparent magnitude
d is the distance in parsecs

Outline spectroscopic parallax

Spectroscopic parallax is the process of using the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram and the distance
modulus formula to determine the approximate distance of a star.
This method involves

Using photometry to measure the apparent magnitude of the star

Using spectroscopy to determine the spectral class as well as the luminosity class in order
to determine which group the star belongs to

Use the H-R diagram to find the absolute magnitude. By drawing a vertical line up from the
position on the horizontal spectral class axis until it intercepts with the luminosity class, we
can read off the stars luminosity on the vertical axis.

Using the distance modulus formula

Explain how two-colour values(ie colour index B-V) are obtained and why they are
useful

The apparent magnitude of a star can vary depending on the detector used. A human eye is
more sensitive to the yellow-green region of the visible spectrum and hence red and blue stars
are not judged to be as bright as they really are. (Red stars are seen to be brighter and bluer
stars seen to be dimmer)
Similarly, a photographic film or detector is most sensitive to the blue region of the spectrum.
The visual magnitude (V) refers to the magnitude as judged by the eye or a photometer
fitted with a yellow green filter
The photographic magnitude (B) refers to the magnitude as detected by photographic film
or a photometer fitted with a blue filter.
Colour index is determined by the photographic magnitude minus the visual magnitude
CI = B - V
They are useful as they provide a more accurate reading of magnitude when both values are
used. It is a fast and simple method and can be used to determine the colour and spectral
class of a star.

Describe the advantages of photoelectric technologies over photographic methods


for photometry

Photographic photometry
This is the technique used to identify the brightness of a star based on photographic images. It
involves making a photograph of a portion of the sky and when the image is developed, the
size and density of each spot is measured. Brighter stars expose a larger area of film and
appear as larger denser sports. Each sport is compared to standard spots and densities to
determine the star magnitude.

Advantages

It is a fast method and the brightness of a large group of stars can be identified at one time

Fine detail of a star can be recorded photographically, often to high resolutions achieved
electronically

Disadvantages

Restricted to the visible range of the EM spectrum

Sensitive to blue colour which leads to inaccurate measurements of brightness

Photoelectric photometry
This is the technique used to identify the brightness of a star by converting the amount of light
input into electric signals. They use a combination of a filter and an electronic sensor such as a
CCD. In general the brighter the star, the greater the electric signal. (more generally used)
Advantages

Responds uniformly to all wavelengths of the EM spectrum and hence allows the study of a
much broader region of the EMR than done by photographic film

They are more efficient in catching photons, hence a greater sensitivity to intensities of
light

Fast response for computer analysis, can be done quickly and remotely

Disadvantages

Slower than photographic for comparison and studying a large group of stars

Cannot achieve the same resolution

Perform an investigation to demonstrate the use of filters for photometric


measurements

Produce simulated starlight from the incandescent lamp in a ray box kit, commonly available in
school science laboratories. This has the advantage that coloured filters mounted in 35 mm
slide frames can easily be inserted in the light path. If this is not available, filters can be held
by hand in front of any incandescent lamp.
Use a light intensity probe attached to a datalogger to measure the intensity of light at a set
distance from the lamp. Set the datalogger to operate in manual or snapshot mode. A
photographers hand-held light meter is a suitable alternative to measure light intensity.
Place different coloured filters, one at a time, between the lamp and the light probe. For each
filter, measure the intensity of light with the datalogger. You should note that the filters used in
photometry, unlike those in a ray box kit, transmit a carefully calibrated range of frequencies.

For each filter, also observe the light through a hand-held spectroscope to see qualitatively
what effect the filter has on the spectrum of white light produced by the lamp. Use the in-built
scale to measure the range of wavelengths transmitted.
Record all your observations systematically in a suitable table. Compare your qualitative and
quantitative observations for different filters.
Use your observations to predict the effect of different filters on the measurement of apparent
magnitude of stars of different spectral type.

Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to assess the impact
of improvements in measurement technologies on our understanding of celestial
objects

Key discoveries in imaging and measurement of celestial bodies follow the introduction of
improved technology.
Tyhco Brahes large metal and wooden quadrants and scales allowed an enormous
improvement in the measurements of the position of celestial bodies. Kepler then used Brahes
measurements to calculate that the orbit of Mars was elliptical, undermining the accepted
geocentric belief of circular orbits.
The invention of photography in the 19th century allowed length and integrated exposures
which produced a permanent image that could be measured and analysed. This allowed starts
to be accurately compared over time, allowing the time-varying phenomenon such as variable
stars to be studied. Measurements of plates allowed magnitudes of objects to be studied.
Measurements of plates allowed magnitudes of objects to be determined and faint objects such
as galaxies to be discovered. The development of the spectrograph led to the discovery of
helium in the sun before it was found on earth. Furthermore this has developed into using
photomultipliers and CCDs in photometry that electronically enable a greater understanding by
improving on the measurement technologies
The Hubble telescope combined long exposure photographic plates with spectral observations
to discover the galaxies were separate from the milky way and that the universe is expanding.
These discoveries had profound social and philosophical implications.
More recently, developments in electronics have allowed astronomers to observe wavelengths
other than visible light. The advent of computers and space telescoped has allowed them to
detect and image objects such as nebulae and galaxies across the EM spectrum.

Section Five
The study of binary and variable stars reveals vital information about
stars

Describe binary stars in terms of the means of their detection


o Visual
o Astrometric
o Spectroscopic
o Eclipsing

Binary stars consist of two stars orbiting around their common centre of mass. Approximately
half of all stars are actually binary star systems. They are classified accordingly to the method
used to detect them
Visual
These are those that can be resolved by a telescope where binary stars can be actually seen
orbiting one another
Astrometric
This consists of 2 stars but one star is too faint to be detected in anyway. Only one star can be
seen
The only means of detection is the wobble effect from the orbital motion of the visible star.
This is deduced from the periodic perturbation (variation in the designated orbit of one body
due to the influence of another body)
Spectroscopic
These are unresolved pairs of stars that can only be detected from the shifting of their spectral
lines. During its orbit, one star will be moving towards the observer and the other moving
away. The receding star experiences a red shift while the approaching star experiences a blue
shift in their absorption spectra.
Periodic doubling of the spectral lines indicates it is a spectroscopic binary

Eclipsing
These are unresolved stars that can only be detected by the characteristic of the light intensity
of the 2 stars. In the eclipsing binary, one star of the pair eclipses the other at regular
intervals, leading to variations in the brightness of the light.
When the brighter star (usually the small one) eclipses the duller star (usually the bigger one),
the combined intensity dips slightly. When the duller star eclipses the brighter star, the
combined intensity drops more steeply. As shown below

The difference between the flat and curved bottom is that a total eclipse occurs with the flat
bottom and a partially eclipses creates the curved bottom

Explain the importance of binary stars in determining stellar masses

Binary star systems are important as they enable astronomers to calculate the mass of stars.
By observing the system, we can determine the period of the motion, the separation and
hence the total mass can be calculated using Keplers law.
Astronomers need to know the mass of stars in order to understand the processes that that
give a star its energy at different stages of its evolution.

Classify variable stars as either intrinsic or extrinsic and periodic or non periodic

Variable stars are those that vary their brightness


This can be classified into two types

Intrinsic These change their brightness due to processes within the star e.g. rate of
nuclear fusion, surface temperature

Extrinsic These change their brightness due to external process


o

Eclipsing binary

Rotating variables (have large and cool spots that change the stars brightness as
they rotate

Intrinsic variable stars are classified into

Periodic These vary brightness in a regular cycle with a fixed period


o

Mira

RV tauri

Cepheids

RR lyrae

Non periodic Change their intensity in an irregular way

Super novae

Novae

Flare stars

R coronae Borealis

T Tauri

Explain the importance of the period luminosity relationship for determining the
distance of Cepheids

Cepheids are supergiant stars that are intrinsic periodic variable stars with a characteristic
light curve. They change their radius and surface temperature periodically which results in a
change in their brightness. The temperature change is due to an increased rate of fusion
during contraction and a decreased rate during expansion.
There are two types

Type I massive, young second generation stars

Type II small, old and red first generation stars

It was found that when the absolute magnitude of the cepheids is graphed against their
corresponding periods, a linear relationship is obtained. This means their period of their
brightness is directly related to their average luminosity. The period varies from 3-50
days where the longer Cepheids being more luminous than those with shorter periods.

Thus we can measure the period of variation of a Cepheid variable, we can easily determine its
luminosity immediately. We can then calculate the distance to the star by using the inverse
square law or by applying the distance modulus equation.
Due to the correlation between their periods and the average absolute magnitude, they are
very useful in determining the distance to different galaxies

Section Six
Stars evolve and eventually die

Present information by plotting Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for: nearby or


brightest stars, stars in a young open cluster, starts in a globular cluster

The Hertzsprung Russell diagram is a plot of the surface temperature/spectral class/colour


against their absolute magnitude/luminosity of stars. The H-R diagram is important since it
enables astronomers to classify stars and understand its evolution.
Important features

Star temperature decreases towards the right, hence stars on the left are blue (spectral
class O) while those on the right are red (spectral class M)

The radius of a star increased vertically for each spectral class. Therefore a red star near
the bottom of the diagram will have a smaller radius than a red star near the top of the
diagram

When a star is plotted, it will fall into one of the main distinct groups, each characteristic of
a specific stage in star lifetime.

Main sequence This is where the majority of stars ( greater than 90%) lie and most of
these are found on the cooler part of the band
o

They fuse hydrogen to helium in their cores and exist in a state of equilibrium
between the force of gravity pushing inwards and the radiation and gas pressure
pushing outwards

The point at which the stars joins the main sequence at the lower edge of the
band is called the zero age main sequence

It becomes more luminous and massive in moving from the bottom right to the
top left

Red giants this is when the nuclear fusion of helium occurs at the core
o

They are extraordinarily large in size

White dwarfs This is when no more nuclear fusion occurs, basically a collapsed star
corpse.

Analyse information from a H-R diagram and use available evidence to determine
the characteristics of a star and its evolutionary stage

The vertical axis of the H-R diagram may show the stars mass relative to the sun, its absolute
luminosity or its luminosity relative to the sun. The horizontal axis may show the stars surface
temperature, its spectral class or its colour index.
Stars fall into distinct groups in the H-R diagram, with common characteristics of luminosity
(hence, mass) and temperature (hence, colour), and at a similar evolutionary stage. The
regions include:

the main sequence (diagonally from bottom right to top left),

the red giants (middle to upper right side cool, but very luminous, therefore very large),

the white dwarfs (bottom middle and left hot, but low luminosity, therefore small)

the supergiants (across the top of the H-R diagram both very hot and very luminous).

A higher mass start evolves more quickly than a lower mass star
Sample analysis

Star A is low and to the right of the main sequence, therefore it is a protostar, at a very early
stage of its life, and heading for the main sequence. It is very cool, but is nearly as luminous
as the sun, therefore it is very large.
Star B is on the main sequence, so it has begun to produce energy by fusion of hydrogen into
helium. Its low surface temperature shows it to be a red star, while its low luminosity, and
position at the bottom of the main sequence, show it to be a dwarf. As a low-mass star, it will
consume its fuel very slowly and spend a very long time on the main sequence.
Star C is on the main sequence and is steadily converting hydrogen to helium by fusion. Its
surface temperature is approximately 6000 K (remember that the scales are logarithmic), so it

is a yellow star like the sun. It is also approximately as luminous as the sun, therefore it must
be of similar mass to the sun.
Star D is in the region of red giant stars. It is relatively cool, but about 1000 times as
luminous as the sun, therefore it must be very large. It has consumed most of its fuel and is
near the end of its life.
Star E is very hot and very luminous, about 10 000 times as luminous as the sun, but it is on
the main sequence. It must therefore be a very young star, as such a star consumes its fuel
quickly and would not stay on the main sequence very long. It is very massive and will have a
short, violent life, ending in a supernova.
Star F is a hot white star, but from its low luminosity, and its position on the H-R diagram, we
can see that it is very small. It is a white dwarf and is at the end of its life.

Present information by plotting on a H-R diagram the pathways of stars of 1, 5 and


10 solar masses during their life cycle

Blue stars initially have a bigger gas cloud and more fuel and enter the main sequence at the
top left such as the 10 solar mass star. They burn fuel the quickest and survive as stars only
for a fraction compared to the smaller mass stars.

Describe the process involved in stellar formation

Stellar formation begins with the gravitational contraction of a vast nebula of interstellar dust
and molecular gas clouds, mainly hydrogen. This process begins slowly, but quickly speeds up
as the density increases more quickly at its centre and experiences greater gravity. Also, a
shock wave moving through a gas cloud could trigger the cloud to contract sufficiently to form
a star.*
The cloud now has two parts
o

A rapidly contracting core

Slower contracting surroundings of gas and dust.

As the core contracts, the gravitational potential energy converts into thermal energy. This
increasing temperature produces an outward pressure that opposes the gravitational force.
This pressure increases and builds up as the core becomes hotter, eventually stopping the
collapse and stabilising the size of the core.
This state before a new star begins to produce any nuclear energy in its core is called a
protostar. It eventually develops strong stellar wind that blows away the remnants of the
surrounding cloud. Hence without an energy source, the contraction of the core is very slow,
ranging from a hundred thousand years for a big star to several million years for a small star.
This decrease in size causes it become less luminous, but also heats the core.
If the core mass is above between 0.01 to 100 solar mass, it will eventually reach a
temperature high enough to trigger the nuclear fusion of the hydrogen within it (approx 8
million kelvins). If the mass were lower, the protostar would not have heated sufficiently to

begin nuclear fusion, and if it were greater, it wouldve overheated and blown itself up forming
smaller clouds and protostars.

Outline the key stages in a stars life in terms of the physical process involved

The evolutionary stages through which a star passes during its life depends on the initial mass
of the star.
Stellar Formation
Material accumulated at the centre of a nebula collapses under its own gravity and forms an
expanding core of hot dense matter. The heat radiated from the core causes the surrounding
cloud to become luminous. The luminous cloud with its hot dense core is known as the
protostar as it has not reached the stage in which nuclear fusion has begun. The increasing
density of the core begins to slow further in falling of matter.
Eventually the protostar ( if it has a mass greater than 0.08 solar mass) will reach a
temperature where the fusion of hydrogen begins, entering the main sequence
Small mass stars
A small star of 0.3 solar masses would take about a billion years to join the lower right hand
side of the main sequence. Since the star is comparatively small, the rate of hydrogen fusion in
the core is low and the surface temperature also being low. Such stars are therefore red and
very long lived
These small mass stars remain in the main sequence for over 30 billion years. Since they are
too small to reach the higher temperatures required to fuse helium, when a large core of
helium is formed in such stars, fusion ceases. Then the star contracts to become a white dwarf.
Without the fusion to oppose it, gravity collapses the star and the potential energy is converted
into heat, resulting in a small, very hot white dwarf, which will eventually radiate its heat away
and fade.

Sun-like mass stars


These are stars of about 0.5 to 5 solar masses that have enough mass to fuse hydrogen to
helium and then helium to form carbon and heavier elements. When a sufficiently large helium
core forms, fusion ceases and gravity collapses the star until a shell of hydrogen begins to
fuse. This expands and cools the star, turning it into a red giant. When the hydrogen in the
shell is used up, the star collapses again until the temperature is high enough to fuse helium to
carbon. When this occurs, the star expands and cools again.
Eventually the carbon formed in the core prevents further fusion and the star once more
collapses inwards. The heart produced by this collapse may blow off the outer layers of the star
in a nova explosion. The outer layers spread away from the star, forming a planetary nebula
while the small core that remains forms a white dwarf star.
Large mass stars
These are stars with masses greater than 5 solar masses, and elements heavier than helium
can be fused in the core. The star moves to the left and right of the H-R diagram. This is due
to the fusion of each successive element ceasing, and causing the collapsing and fusion of the
next element. Eventually a core of iron is formed and fusion ceases (fusion of iron and heavier
elements does not release energy). When the iron core is large enough, the star collapses and
causes a supernova explosion, blowing away most of the stars mass. The fate of the core
depends on the mass that remains (could become a neutron star, white dwarf or a black hole)

Describe the types of nuclear reactions involved in main-sequence and post main
sequence stars

Smaller and cooler main sequence star (about 20 million Kelvin)


The predominant type of nuclear reaction is the proton-proton chain reaction. It is a slow
process
1. Fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form a heavy hydrogen nucleus. One proton decays
into a neutron with the release of a position and neutrino
2. Fusion of a proton and deuterium nucleus to form helium 3 nucleus, with the release of
gamma radiation
3. Fusion of two helium 3 nuclei to form a helium 4 nucleus and two free protons which
may participate in further PP chain reactions

Bigger and hotter main sequence stars


The predominant reaction is the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle. This requires a higher
temperature and also converts 4 protons into 1 helium nucleus. This is fast and releases a lot
of energy. Carbon is used as a catalyst
1. Four successive protons combine with a carbon nucleus to produce nitrogen, then
oxygen and finally carbon again plus a helium nucleus
2. The first and third collision triggers the decay of a proton into a neutron and a position,
thus increasing the number of neutrons in the nucleus
3. The second and fourth collision simply increases the number of protons in the nucleus
4. This process if cyclic as the a carbon nucleus is present at both the start and the end,
allowing the process to be repeated.

Post main sequence stars


Since helium is plentiful in the core, three helium nuclei can fuse to form a carbon nucleus
through the triple alpha reaction. This process occurs when a star is at the stage of a red giant
3

He

12

C + gamma radiation

The carbon atom can then easily fuse with another helium nuclei to form oxygen
12

He

16

+ gamma radiation

If a star is massive enough, further exothermic shell-burning reactions can take place in
successively deeper shells within the star. This converts carbon to neon and magnesium,
oxygen to silicon and sulfur and then to iron. Here ends the energy source as further fusion will
not release anymore energy.

Discuss the synthesis of elements in stars by fusion

Initially only hydrogen and helium were present in the universe after the big bang. All other
elements were synthesised by fusion during the life and death of stars. The mass of the star
and the stage of life of the star determine which elements are synthesised.

Further helium is produced by fusion of hydrogen in main sequence stars either by PP or


CNO chain reactions. The rate at which fusion proceeds depends on the temperature and
pressure at the core and hence mass of the star. These fusion reactions are exothermic and
the energy is eventually released as radiation

Elements heavier than helium are produced by fusion in post main sequence stars,

Beyond iron, the reactions are endothermic, but inside red giant stars, heavier nuclei can
still be formed by nucleosynthesis
o

The first process is a slow capture of neutrons inside red giants that have
achieved a helium burning shell. The neutrons are captured by nuclei to form
heavier ones. This slow process is capable of generating elements up to lead on
the periodic table, including gold

The second process is a fast capture in a supernova explosion. In such an


environment, there is sufficient energy available to allow the rapid formation of
the elements heavier than lead such as uranium

Explain how the age of a globular cluster can be determined from its zero age

A star cluster consists of a few hundred to thousands of stars that are about the same age.
The stars in a cluster are believed to have condensed from interstellar gas clouds at the same
time. The age of a cluster can be determined by its turn off point the point it leaves the main
sequence.
An old cluster will have a low cut off point. This is because it contains a high mass stars and
hence consumers more energy to counteract the gravitation collapse. It will evolve off the main
sequence faster than younger stars.
A young cluster will have a higher cut off point

i.

is a young star cluster

ii.

is a much older cluster

Open clusters these are very young clusters with higher cut off points than globular
clusters in a region of about 25pc
Globular clusters these are older clusters of stars closely packed together in a spherical or
globular shape. It contains thousands to millions of stars 10-30pc across

Explain the concept of star death in relation to:


o Planetary nebula
o Supernovae
o White dwarfs
o Neutron stars/pulsars
o Black holes

The fate of a star when it does depends on its mass.


1. Planetary nebula These are huge clouds of gas and dust produced when the outer
layers of a star are blown away when fusion ceases in the star and it collapses inwards.
Approximately a quarter of the star can be blown outwards to form a planetary nebula
which expands outwards from the white dwarf that remains
2. Supernovae This is a violent explosion of uncontrolled nuclear reactions that completely
blows away the various layers of a massive star (occurs when original mass is greater than
5 solar masses). It occurs when an iron core builds up and fusion ceases in very large
stars. It is in such explosions that nuclear reactions occur in which elements heavier than
iron are created
3. White dwarfs these are small and very hot remnants of stars in which fusion has
ceased. Without fusion to oppose it, gravity collapses the star and potential energy is
converted to heat. It will eventually radiate its stored heat away and fade away to become

a brown, then black dwarf. The collapse is eventually hated by quantum effects of matter
where closely spaced electrons cannot be in the same energy level
4. Neutron stars/pulsars This is the extremely dense remnant of the core where the
inward force of gravity exceeds the maximum force of the outward pressure. Matter is
condensed to the density of nuclear material and a neutron star with a diameter of about
10km is formed. This huge decrease in radius results in a very hot and rapidly spinning star
with an intense magnetic field. They emit X-rays and as they rotate, sweep across the sky.
(also known as pulsars)
5. Black holes This is the crushed remnant of the core of a very massive star. The force of
gravity is so great that when fusion ceases, nothing can stop the star from collapsing. The
matter is crushed down to a point of infinite density, known as singularity, which is infinitely
small. Around the singularity is a region called the event horizon, where the escape velocity
required is greater than the speed of light, thus even light cannot escape from a black hole.
Thus they would appear as small black spheres in space.

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