CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION & CLASSIFICATION

OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Pump is mechanical device use to move a fluid from one point to other. It converts
mechanical energy of prime mover into velocity or kinetic energy and then head or
pressure energy of fluid being pumped. Energy change occurs by virtue of two main parts
of pump called impeller and volute or diffuser. Impeller is rotating part which converts
mechanical energy of prime mover into kinetic energy of fluid while volute or diffuser is
stationary part which converts kinetic energy into pressure energy of fluid.
1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE: -
Pump impeller is rotated by prime mover. The rotation of impeller creates low pressure
which sucks the fluid through inlet pipe to impeller eye. As impeller vanes are curved,
the fluid is pushed in tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force. This
centrifugal force imparts kinetic energy to fluid. Larger the diameter of impeller or
greater the speed of impeller, higher will energy imparted to fluid.
The shape of pump volute (casing) is such that it provides gradual increase in area so that
fluid decelerates while passing through it and its kinetic energy is converted into pressure
energy according to Bernoulli principle. The head (pressure equal to height of liquid
column) developed by pump is given by the formula:
H = v2 / 2g = (V×D) 2 / 2g
Where
H = Total Head developed by pump (m)
g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
v = Velocity at periphery of impeller (m/s) = V×D
V = Speed of impeller (rpm)
D = Diameter of impeller (m)
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps are classified on following basis
1) - On Basis of Flow: Radial Flow, Axial Flow, Mix Flow
2) -On Basis of Stages: Single Stage, Multi Stage
3) - On Basis of Suction: Single Suction, Double Suction
4) - On Basis of Impeller: Closed Impeller, Semi Open Impeller, Open Impeller
1.2.1 ON BASIS OF FLOW: -
1) – Radial Flow: - In a radial flow pump, the liquid enters at the center of the impeller
and is directed out along the impeller blades in a direction at right angles to the pump
shaft.
2) – Axial Flow: - In an axial flow pump, the impeller pushes the liquid in a direction
parallel to the pump shaft. Axial flow pumps are sometimes called propeller pumps
because they operate essentially the same as the propeller of a boat.
3) – Mixed Flow: - Mixed flow pumps borrow characteristics from both radial flow and
axial flow pumps. As liquid flows through the impeller of a mixed flow pump, the
impeller blades push the liquid out away from the pump shaft and to the pump suction at
an angle greater than 90 0

a) - Radial Flow b) - Mixed Flow c) - Axial

Flow

1.2.2 ON BASIS OF STAGES: -

A pump stage is defined as that portion of a centrifugal pump consisting of one impeller
and its associated components.
1) - Single Stage: - Single stage pump has one impeller and associated components with
in pump casing. Single stage pumps are usually used for applications where low or
ordinary head is required.
2) - Multi Stage: - A centrifugal pump with a single impeller that can develop a
differential pressure of more than 150 Psi between the suction and the discharge is
difficult and costly to design and construct. A more economical approach to developing
high pressures with a single centrifugal pump is to include multiple impellers on a
common shaft within the same pump casing. Internal channels in the pump casing route
the discharge of one impeller to the suction of another impeller.
1.2.3 ON BASIS OF SUCTION: -
1) - Single Suction: - A single-suction impeller allows liquid to enter the center of the
blades from only one direction.
2) - Double Suction: - A double-suction impeller allows liquid to enter the center of the
impeller blades from both sides simultaneously.

1.2.4 ON BASIS OF IMPELLER: -

Classification of centrifugal pump on the basis of impeller is explained in chapter – 2,
topic 2.1.1
CHAPTER – 2

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Centrifugal pumps vary in design and construction from simple pumps with relatively
few parts to extremely complicated pumps with hundreds of individual parts. Some of the
most common components found in centrifugal pumps are explained as:

2.1 IMPELLER: -
Impeller is the heart of the centrifugal pump. It rotates the liquid mass with a peripheral
speed of its vane tips. The whirling movement of impeller imparts centrifugal force to the
liquid and increases its velocity head. Impeller does not increase liquid pressure. But high
velocity head is converted in to pressure head in the volute. Increase in velocity is
directly proportional to the impeller diameter and pump speed. The impeller is mounted
on the shaft which is supported by bearings and driven through prime mover.
2.1.1 IMPELLER CLASSIFICATION: -
The impeller may be classified on the basis of its construction as :
a) – Closed or Shrouded Impellers: -
This type of impeller contains two shrouds (or side wall) in which plane or curved vanes
are inserted. This type of impeller is suitable for pumping pure liquids like water, oil,
alkali and acids etc.
b) – Semi Open Impeller
In this type of impeller vanes are fixed on one shroud only. These impellers have less
number of vanes but have more length to avoid clogging of impeller. This type of
impeller is used for pumping liquid containing muck and debris up to some extent only,
such as sewage water, paper pulp, etc
c) – Open Impeller
In this type of impeller the vanes are directly fixed on the web. There is no shroud. The
impeller is used for pumping slurry or liquids having large solid particles like sand and
pebbles etc. These impellers are required to perform very rough duty and as such these
are generally made of very tough material having a property of wear and impact
resistance.

a)-Closed Impeller b)-Semi Open Impeller c)-Open Impeller

2.1.2 WEARING RINGS: -
Small clearance is maintained between the impeller and the pump casing to allow
impeller to rotate freely inside casing. But to maximize the efficiency of centrifugal
pump, it is necessary to minimize the amount of liquid leaking through this clearance
from the high pressure or discharge side of the pump back to the low pressure or suction
side. Some wear or erosion occurs at point of contact of impeller and casing due to
leakage of liquid through this tight clearance. The leakage may become unacceptably
large and maintenance may be required on the pump.
To minimize the cost of pump maintenance, many centrifugal pumps have replaceable
wearing that are attached to the impeller and/or casing to allow a small running clearance
between the impeller and casing. These wear rings prevent actual impeller or casing
wear. These wearing rings are replaced periodically during the life of a pump and prevent
the more costly replacement of the impeller or casing.
2.2 CASING: -
Casing houses the impeller, supports the bearings used to support the pump shaft and also
provides provision for connection with the suction and delivery pipes. As it handles
liquids with higher pressure, a seal is provided to prevent leakage from the gap between
the pump casing and the shaft. Wearing rings are also mounted on the impeller and fitted
in the casing to restrict leakage of high pressure liquid back to the pump suction.
The efficiency of a pump depends on the type of casing used. As such, a casing should
not waste more energy due to eddy formation.
2.2.1 TYPES OF PUMP CASING: -
There are two types of pump casing: volute and diffuser casing
a) – Volute Casing: -
Volute casing is used to build higher heads. Volute casing provides gradual increase in
area which reduces velocity of liquid and corresponding increase in pressure or head. A
considerable loss takes place in simple volute casing due to formation of eddies.
b) – Diffuser Casing: -
Some centrifugal pumps contain volute with stationary vanes that surround the impeller.
The purpose of vanes is to increase the efficiency of the centrifugal pump by allowing a
more gradual expansion and less turbulent area. Hence eddies formation is reduced. The
ring of vanes is called diffuser and is very efficient.

a) – Volute Casing b) – Diffuser Casing

2.3 SUCTION PIPE: -

One end of suction pipe is connected to reservoir while other end is connected to impeller
eye. A strainer is usually connected at inlet of suction pipe to avoid the entry of foreign
particles. Design of suction pipe is very important for smooth working of pump. A poorly
design suction pipe may cause insufficient net positive suction head, vibration, noise and
water hammer problems. Losses in suction pipe should be as low as possible because
value of pressure at pump inlet of pump is limited to avoid cavitation. Therefore bends at
suction pipe are avoided and its diameter is kept larger to minimize losses. A great care
should also be taken to make the suction pipe air tight.
Sometimes to reduce axial thrust, suction pipe is branched into two parts and liquid is
allowed to enter the impeller from both sides. Such pump is called double suction pump.
2.4 DELIVERY PIPE: -
Delivery pipe starts from outlet flange of pump and ends on supply end or reservoir. A
check valve is provided in delivery pipe near pump discharge to protect the pump from
water hammer in case when pump outlet header is pressurized and pump is stopped. Most
of centrifugal pumps have recirculation line from delivery pipe back to suction pipe or
suction reservoir before pump outlet valve. The purpose of pump recirculation line is to
protect the pump from shut-off head in case pump outlet valve is closed while pump is
running.
2.5 SHAFT: -
The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques from prime
mover to pump impeller during star up and operation. It also supports the impeller and
other rotating parts. It should do its job with a deflection less than the minimum clearance
between the rotating and stationary parts of pump. Pump shafts are usually protected
from erosion, corrosion, and wear at the seal chambers, leakage joints and internal
bearings rub by renewable sleeves. Usually wear, corrosion, and erosion-resistant
material is used for shaft sleeve.
2.6 BEARINGS
The purpose of bearing is to support the pump and keep the shaft or rotor in correct
alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial and axial loads. Two types
of bearings are commonly used.
Radial Bearings: - Support the shaft and prevent radial motion of shaft.
Thrust Bearings: - Prevent the axial motion of pump shaft.
Bearing is enclosed in bearing housing. Bearing housing also includes reservoir of
lubricant, constant oil level or film and cooling mechanism.
2.7 PUMP SEAL
In almost all centrifugal pumps, the rotating shaft that drives the impeller penetrates the
pressure boundary of the pump casing. It is important that the pump is designed properly
to control the amount of liquid that leaks along the shaft at the point where shaft
penetrates the pump casing. There are many different methods of sealing the shaft
penetration of the pump casing. Factors considered when choosing a method include the
pressure and temperature of the fluid being pumped, the size of the pump, and the
chemical and physical characteristics of the fluid being pumped. Two types of seals are
commonly used to prevent along the shaft leakage of centrifugal pumps: gland seal and
mechanical seal.
2.7.1 GLAND SEAL: -
Gland seal is one of the simplest types of shaft sealing. In this type of seal a cylindrical
space called stuffing box is kept in pump casing surrounding the shaft. Rings or strands
of packing material are placed in the stuffing box to form a seal to control the rate of
leakage along the shaft. The packing rings are held in place by a gland while gland is held
in place by studs with adjusting nuts. As the adjusting nuts are tightened, they move the
gland in and compress the packing. This axial compression causes the packing to expand
radially forming a tight seal between the rotating shaft and the inside wall of the stuffing
box.

The high speed rotation of the shaft generates a significant amount of heat as it rubs
against the packing rings. If no lubrication and cooling are provided to the packing, the
temperature of the packing increases to the point where damage may occurs to the
packing, the pump shaft, and possibly nearby pump bearings. Stuffing boxes are normally
designed to allow a small amount of controlled leakage along the shaft to provide
lubrication and cooling to the packing. The leakage rate can be adjusted by tightening and
loosening the packing gland.
It is not always possible to cool the packing by controlled leakage along the shaft. The
pump suction may be under a vacuum so that outward leakage is impossible or the fluid
may be too hot to provide adequate cooling of the packing. These conditions require a
modification to the standard stuffing box. One method of adequately cooling the packing
under these conditions is to include a lantern ring. A lantern ring is a perforated hollow
ring located near the center of the packing box that receives relatively cool, clean liquid
from either the discharge of pump or from an external source and distributes the liquid
uniformly around the shaft to provide lubrication and cooling. The fluid entering the
lantern ring can cool the shaft and packing, lubricate the packing, or seal the joint
between the shaft and packing against leakage of air into the pump in the event the pump
suction pressure is less than that of the atmosphere.
2.7.2 MECHANICAL SEAL: -
Mechanical seal consists of three basics parts: primary seal faces, secondary seal faces
and sealing spring.

i) - Primary Seal Faces: - Rotating seal face is attached to shaft while stationary seal
face is attached to pump casing. The purpose of primary seal faces is to prevent leakage
between pump shaft and casing. One of primary seal faces is made of relatively hard
material like tungsten carbide while other is made of relatively soft material like graphite.
ii) - Seal Members: - Secondary seal members provide sealing of primary seal faces.
They consist of wedge ring located under rotating face, o-ring locating on stationary face
and gland ring gasket.
iii) - Seal Spring: - spring is very important component of mechanical seal. It
mechanically drives the rotating seal face into stationary face and assures that seal faces
remain in contact during any axial movement, seal face wear and face misalignment.
Sealing Points of Mechanical Seal: -
There are four main sealing points of mechanical seal. The primary seal point is seal
faces, Point A. This sealing point is achieved by utilizing two very flat and lapped
surfaces perpendicular shaft that create very treacherous leakage path. Leakage is further
reduced by rubbing contact between stationary and rotating faces. Second sealing point is
along shaft under rotating seal face. This path is blocked by secondary o-ring. Point C is
used to prevent leakage between gland ring and stationary seal face. Point D is gland ring
gasket which prevents leakage between equipment case and gland.
 WHEN AND WHY MECHANICAL SEAL IS USED?
Mechanical seal can be used for following applications
1) - Wearing, maintenance and seal replacement frequency in mechanical seal is less than
gland seal as mechanical seal faces are made of harder material while gland seal rings are
made of fibrous material and they are more like to wear.
2) - Mechanical seal is used for the pumps using hazardous liquids leakage from
mechanical seal is less is less than gland se.al.
3) - Mechanical seal is used for the pumps using high pressure and high temperature
liquids in order to minimize the outward leakage of liquid.
2.8 COUPLING: -
Coupling is used to compensate for axial growth of the shaft and transmit torque to the
impeller. Shaft couplings can be broadly classified into two groups: rigid and flexible.
Rigid couplings are used in applications where there is absolutely no possibility or room
for any misalignment. Flexible shaft couplings are more prone to selection, installation
and maintenance errors. Flexible shaft couplings can be divided into two basic groups:
elastomeric and non-elastomeric.
Elastomeric couplings use either rubber or polymer elements to achieve flexibility. These
elements can either be in shear or in compression. Non-elastomeric couplings use metallic
elements to obtain flexibility. These can be one of two types: lubricated or non-
lubricated. Lubricated designs accommodate misalignment by the sliding action of their
components, hence the need for lubrication. The non-lubricated designs accommodate
misalignment through flexing.
CHAPTER – 3

OPERATION OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Many centrifugal pumps are designed in a manner that allows the pump to operate
continuously for months or even years. Improper operation of centrifugal pumps can
result in damage to the pump and loss of function of the system that the pump is installed
in. It is helpful to know what conditions can lead to pump damage to allow better
understanding of pump operating procedures and how the procedures aid the operator in
avoiding pump damage.
To understand operation of centrifugal pumps, it is important to know the important
performance parameters of centrifugal pumps. Key performance parameters of
centrifugal pumps are given by: -
3.1 PUMP CAPACITY: -
Capacity is the flow rate with which liquid is moved or pushed by the pump to the
desired point. It is measured in cubic meters per hour (m3/hr).
The capacity depends on a number of factors like process liquid characteristics (density,
viscosity), size of the pump impeller, impeller rotational speed RPM, size and shape of
cavities between the vanes and pump suction and discharge temperature and pressure
conditions. Most of centrifugal pumps operate at constant speed and the only items that
can change the amount flowing through the pump are the pressures at the pump inlet and
outlet. The effect on the flow through a pump by changing the outlet pressures is graphed
on pump characteristics curves explained in article 4. Pump flow can be calculated by
following formulas:
Q=V×A
Q = Capacity or flow rate of pump (m3/hr)
V = velocity of flow (m/sec)
A = Area of pipe (m2)
3.2 PUMP HEAD: -
Head is a measurement of the height of a liquid column that the pump could create from
the kinetic energy imparted to the liquid by pump impeller. Head is measured in meters.
The term head is equivalent to pressure.
Head can be calculated by following relation
h=P/w
h = head of liquid (m)
P = Pressure of liquid (N/m2)
W = Specific weight of liquid (N/m3)
3.2.1 WHY HEAD IS USED INSTEAD OF PRESSURE?
Pressure is calculated by following relation:
Pressure = ρ × g × h = w × h
Where w = specific weight of liquid
So for constant head pressure of liquid depends upon specific weight which in turn
depends upon specific gravity of liquid. As specific gravity is different for different
liquids so pressure of liquid changes for different liquids but head is independent of
specific gravity so it will not change. Since any given centrifugal pump can move a lot of
different fluids, with different specific gravities, it is simpler to discuss the pump's head
and forget about the pressure.
3.2.2 STATIC SUCTION HEAD ( hs ): -
Head resulting from elevation of liquid relative pump centerline. Suction head is taken
+ve if liquid is above pump centerline while it is taken as –ve if liquid is below pump
centerline. –ve suction head is also termed as suction lift. It is denoted by hs.
3.2.3 STATIC DISCHARGE HEAD ( hd): -
It is vertical distance in meters between pump centerline and point of discharge i.e. free
surface of liquid in discharge tank. It is denoted by hd.
3.2.4 FRICTION HEAD ( hf ): -
The head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It depends
upon the size, condition and type of pipe, number and type of pipe fittings, flow rate, and
nature of the liquid. It is denoted by hf.
3.2.5 PRESSURE HEAD ( hp ): -
Pressure head is pressure on the surface of the liquid reservoir from where pump is taking
suction, converted to meter or head. Pressure Head must be considered when a pumping
system either begins or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than
atmospheric. It is denoted by hp.
3.2.6 VELOCITY HEAD ( hv ): -
It is energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity when expressed in meter.
In other words it is head necessary to accelerate the water. The velocity head is usually
insignificant and can be ignored in most high head systems. However, it can be a large
factor and must be considered in low head systems. It is denoted by hv.
3.2.7 TOTAL SUCTION HEAD ( Hs ): -
When a centrifugal pump is taking suction from a tank or other reservoir, suction head of
the pump is the sum of the absolute pressure head at the surface of the liquid in the tank
plus the head due to the elevation difference between pump center line and surface of
liquid in the tank plus velocity head in suction flange minus friction head losses in the
suction line from the tank to the pump.
The total suction head is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange, converted to
meter of liquid.
Hs = hps + hs + hvs – hfs
Hs = Total suction head
hps = Suction reservoir pressure head
hs = Static suction head
hvs = Velocity head at suction flange
hfs = Friction head at suction pipe
3.2.8 TOTAL DISCHARGE HEAD ( Hd ): -
Discharge head of the pump is the sum of the absolute pressure head at the surface of the
liquid in the tank to pump delivering liquid plus the head due to the elevation difference
between pump center line and surface of liquid in the tank plus velocity head in discharge
flange plus friction head losses in the discharge line up to delivery tank.
The total discharge head is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange, converted to
meter of liquid.
 Hd = hpd + hd + hvd + hfd
Hd = Total discharge head
hpd = Discharge reservoir pressure head
hd = Static discharge head
hvd = Velocity head at discharge flange
hfd = Friction head at discharge pipe
3.2.9 TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL HEAD ( HT ): -
It is the total discharge head minus the total suction head or
HT = Hd + HS (with a suction lift) , HT = Hd - HS (with a suction head)

3.3 CAVITATION: -
The flow area at the eye of the pump impeller is usually smaller than either the flow area
of the pump suction piping or the flow area through the impeller vanes. When the liquid
being pumped enters the eye of a centrifugal pump, the decrease in flow area results in an
increase in flow velocity accompanied by a decrease in pressure. The greater the pump
flow rate, the greater the pressure drop between the pump suction and the eye of the
impeller. If the pressure drop is large enough, or if the temperature is high enough, the
pressure drop may be sufficient to cause the liquid to flash to vapor when the local
pressure falls below the saturation pressure for the fluid being pumped. Any vapor
bubbles formed by the pressure drop at the eye of the impeller are swept along the
impeller vanes by the flow of the fluid. When the bubbles enter a region where local
pressure is greater than saturation pressure farther out the impeller vane, the vapor
bubbles abruptly collapse. This process of the formation and subsequent collapse of
vapor bubbles in a pump is called cavitation.
Cavitation in a centrifugal pump has a significant effect on pump performance.
Cavitation degrades pump performance resulting in a fluctuating flow rate and discharge
pressure, pitting of pump internal components specially impeller and can also cause
excessive pump vibration which leads to damage at bearings, wearing rings and seals.
Cavitation will be discussed in details in article 5.
3.4 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD: -
To avoid liquid vaporization or pump cavitation, the pressure of the fluid at all points
within the pump must remain above saturation pressure. The quantity used to determine if
the pressure of the liquid being pumped is adequate to avoid cavitation is the net positive
suction head.
Two terms are usually used to illustrate the NPSH
3.4.1 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE (NPSHA):
The net positive suction head available is the difference between the pressure head at the
suction of the pump and the saturation pressure (converted height of liquid column or
head) for the liquid being pumped. NPSH A is function of system design. It is calculated
based on system or process conditions.
NPSHA = Suction Head – Saturation Head = HSuc - Hsat
NPSHA = hvs + hs + hps - hfs – Hsat = hs + hps - hfs – Hsat
hvs = velocity head at suction is very small so it can be neglected
hs = static suction head
hps = pressure head of suction reservoir
hfs = friction head losses in suction pipe
Hsat = Saturation pressure of liquid converted to head
3.4.2 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE (NPSHR):
The net positive suction head required is the minimum liquid head at pump suction
necessary to avoid cavitation. NPSHR is function of pump design. It depends upon factors
including type of impeller inlet, impeller design, pump flow rate, impeller rotational
speed and the type of liquid being pumped.
The manufacturer usually tests the pump at different capacities by throttling the suction
side. When the first sign of vaporization occurs, the suction pressure is noted. This
pressure is converted into the head. This head number is published on the pump curve
and is referred as the net positive suction head required.
3.5 HOW TO AVOID CAVITATION:
To avoid cavitation, it is necessary that the net positive suction head available must be
greater than or equal to the net positive suction head required. It is normal practice to
have at least 0.5m to 1m of extra NPSH available at the suction flange to avoid any
problems at the duty point.
NPSHA ≥ NPSHR
Now cavitation can be avoided by two ways:
1) - By increasing NPSHA
2) – By decreasing NPSHR
3.6 POWER AND EFFICIENCY: -
3.6.1 EFFICIENCY: -
Pump efficiency is ratio of output power (hydraulic power supplied by pump to liquid)
supplied to input power (brake power supplied at pump shaft).
Efficiency = Hydraulic Power / Brake Power
3.6.2 HYDRAULIC POWER: -
Hydraulic power or work done by pump or output of pump is function of head developed
by pump, pump capacity (flow rate) and specific weight of liquid being pumped.
Mathematically hydraulic power is given as:
Hydraulic Power = w × Q × H = P × Q
Hydraulic power is expressed in Watt
w = specific weight of liquid being pumped (N/m3)
Q = capacity or flow rate of pump (m3/sec)
H = Head developed by pump (m)
P = pressure developed by pump (Pa or N/m2)
3.6.3 BRAKE POWER: -
Brake power or pump input is the actual power delivered to the pump shaft. Brake power
is always greater than hydraulic power due presence of mechanical and hydraulic losses.
Brake power of pump can be calculated by diving hydraulic power to pump efficiency.
Brake Power can also be read from the pump curves at any flow rate.
CHAPTER – 4

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

For a given centrifugal pump operating at a constant speed, the flow rate through the
pump is dependent upon the differential pressure or head developed by the pump. The
lower the pump head, the higher the flow rate. A vendor manual for a specific pump
usually contains a curve of pump flow rate versus pump head called a pump characteristic
curve. After a pump is installed in a system, it is usually tested to ensure that the flow rate
and head of the pump are within the required specifications.
4.1 SYSTEM CURVE: -
The capacity (flow rate) and pressure needs of any system can be defined with the help of
a graph called a system curve. System curve is developed by the user based on the service
demand or as per system requirement. Parameters used as input of system curves include
physical layout, process conditions and fluid characteristics. System curve represents the
relationship between flow and hydraulic losses in a system in a graphic form. Friction
losses vary as a square of the flow rate so system curve is parabolic in shape.
4.2 PUMP CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
The pump designers try to match the system curve supplied by the user with a pump
curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible. A pumping system operates where
the pump curve and the system resistance curve intersect. The intersection of the two
curves defines the operating point of both pump and process. However, it is impossible
for one operating point to meet all desired operating conditions. For example when the
discharge valve is throttled, the system resistance curve shift left and pump operating
point also shifts left. Hence instead of defining one single operating point, normal range
of pump operation is usually defined.
Pump characteristics curve is graph between pump capacity and pressure; however it also
shows some other parameters e.g. best efficiency point, normal pump operating range,
pump shutoff head point, pump runout point, NPSH R, brake power and speed in rpm.
Usually characteristics curve is plotted for constant speed for a given impeller diameter.
4.3 BEST EFFICIENCY POINT: -
Best Efficiency Point gives the capacity at maximum impeller diameter at which the
pump efficiency is highest. Any point left or right of best efficiency point, the efficiency
is lower than best efficiency point. Significance of best efficiency point can be explained
as:
1) - The efficiency of centrifugal pumps is expressed in percentage and represents that
how efficiently velocity of fluid can be converted into pressure energy. The best
efficiency point is the area on the curve where the change of velocity energy into pressure
energy at a given flow rate is optimum or it is the point where pump is most efficient.
2) – Best efficiency point is measure of mechanically stable operation as forces on
impeller are symmetrical at this point. Non symmetrical forces act on impeller when
operating right or left of best efficiency point which may cause vibration, excessive
hydraulic thrust, temperature rise and erosion etc.
3) - Best efficiency point is an important parameter in that many parametric calculations
such as specific speed, suction specific speed, viscosity correction, head rise to shutoff
etc. are based on capacity at best efficiency point. Many users prefer that pumps operate
within 80% to 110% of best efficiency point.
4.4 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS OPERATING RANGE
4.4.1 SHUT OFF HEAD POINT: -
Centrifugal pump characteristics curve plot starts with zero flow, the head at this point is
maximum and is known as shut off head. The condition may occur with closed discharge
valve or against a seated check valve. If the discharge valve is closed and there is no
other flow path available to the pump, the impeller will churn the same volume of water
as it rotates in the pump casing. This will increase the temperature of the liquid due to
friction in the pump casing to the point that it will flash to vapor. The vapor can interrupt
the cooling flow to the pump's packing and bearings, causing excessive wear and heat. If
the pump is run in this condition for a significant amount of time, it will become
damaged.
4.4.2 PUMP RUNOUT: -
Centrifugal pump characteristics curve plot ends at pump runout condition. At pump
runout point, flow rate of pump is maximum while its head is minimum. Beyond runout
point, pump can not operate. The operation at pump runout point should be avoided as
pump runout can lead to cavitation and can also cause overheating of the pump's motor
due to excessive currents.
4.4.3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS OPERATING RANGE: -
Centrifugal pump characteristic curves begin from shutoff head point and end at runout
point. Normal operating range of centrifugal pump is from shutoff head point to pump
runout point. Pump normal operating curve is usually flat with head decreases as the flow
increases. As it is dangerous to operate pump near shutoff head or pump runout point so
many users keep adequate margin from operation of pump at these points.
CHAPTER – 5

PROTECTIONS OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

5.1 CAVITATION: -
The term cavitation is used to describe the phenomenon that occurs in a pump when there
is insufficient NPSH available. It is the situation where a liquid is vaporized by reduction
of pressure below saturation pressure of liquid being handled by a pump. The bubbles of
vapor so formed at the low pressure zones (eye of the impeller vanes) and collapse at
relatively higher pressure areas. Cavitation has a significant effect on pump performance.
It degrades pump performance resulting in a fluctuating flow rate and discharge pressure,
pitting of pump internal components especially impeller and can also cause excessive
pump vibration which leads to damage at bearings. To prevent cavitation and thus to
ensure satisfactory performance of the pump NPSHA must be grater than NPSHR.
5.1.1 MECHANISM OF CAVITATION: -
Mechanism of cavitation can be divided into following steps:
1) - Formation of Vapor Bubbles in Liquid: -
The flow area at the eye of the pump impeller is usually smaller than area of the pump
suction piping. When the liquid enters the eye of impeller, the decrease in flow area
results in an increase in flow velocity and hence decrease in pressure. The greater the
pump flow rate, the greater the pressure drop between the pump suction and the eye of
the impeller. If the pressure drop is large enough or if the temperature is high enough, the
pressure drop may be sufficient to cause the liquid to flash to vapor when the local
pressure falls below the saturation pressure for the fluid being pumped.
2) – Growth of Vapor Bubbles: -
Unless there is no change in the operating conditions, new bubbles continue to form and
old bubbles grow in size. The bubbles then get carried in the liquid as it flows from the
impeller eye to the impeller exit tip along the vane trailing edge. The life cycle of a
bubble has been estimated to be in the order of 0.003 seconds.
3) – Collapse of Vapor Bubbles: -
As the vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes, the pressure around the bubbles
begins to increase until a point is reached where the bubbles collapse. The process is not
an explosion but rather an implosion (inward bursting). Surrounding liquid rushes to fill
the void forming due to bubble collapse. The micro jet (rush in of liquid) subsequently
causes the hammering action. Bubble collapse pressures greater than 1GPa have been
reported. Hundreds of bubbles collapse at approximately the same point on each impeller
vane and hence highly localized hammering effect can cause pitting of pump impeller.
5.1.2 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CAVITATION: -
1) - Decrease in Pump Capacity: -
The formation of bubbles causes a volume increase decreasing the space available for the
liquid and thus diminish pumping capacity. For example volume of 1 m 3 of water at room
temperature becomes 1700 times of vapor volume at the same temperature.
2) - Decrease in Pump Head: -
Unlike liquids, bubbles are compressible. The head developed diminishes drastically
because energy developed is used to fill up the cavities, as the bubbles collapse.
3) – Abnormal Sound and Vibration: -
Movement of bubbles with very high velocities from low-pressure area to a high-pressure
area and subsequent collapse creates shockwaves producing abnormal sounds and
vibrations. The excessive vibration caused by cavitation often subsequently causes a
failure of the pump’s seal and bearings.
4) – Erosion or Pitting at Pump Impeller: -
When vapor bubbles collapse at high pressure zones, they cause a physical shock to the
leading edge of the impeller vane. This physical shock creates small pits on the leading
edge of the impeller vane. Each individual pit is microscopic in size, but the cumulative
effect of millions of these pits formed over a period of hours or days can literally destroy
the pump impeller. Impeller vanes, diffuser vanes and impeller tips are more sensitive
areas with respect to pitting.
5) – Corrosion of Pump Components: -
The implosion of bubbles destroys existing protective layers making the metal surface
permanently active for the chemical attack. The rate of erosion may be accelerated if the
liquid itself has corrosive tendencies such as water with dissolved oxygen to acids
5.1.3 INDICATIONS OF CAVITATION: -
Noise is one of the indications that a centrifugal pump is cavitating. A cavitating pump
can sound like a can of marbles being shaken. Other indications that can be observed
from a remote operating station are fluctuating discharge pressure, flow rate, and pump
motor current.
5.1.4 HOW TO AVOID CAVITATION:
A small number of centrifugal pumps are designed to operate under conditions where
cavitation is unavoidable. These pumps must be specially designed and maintained to
withstand the small amount of cavitation that occurs during their operation. Most
centrifugal pumps are not designed to withstand sustained cavitation.
To avoid cavitation, it is necessary that the net positive suction head available must be
greater than or equal to the net positive suction head required. It is normal practice to
have at least 0.5m to 1m of extra NPSH available at the suction flange to avoid any
problems at the duty point.
NPSHA ≥ NPSHR
Now cavitation can be avoided by two ways:
1) - By increasing NPSHA
2) – By decreasing NPSHR
1) - By Increasing NPSHA
NPSHA can be increased by following ways:
i) – By increasing static suction head i.e. increasing the liquid level at suction reservoir.
ii) – By increasing suction pressure head i.e. increasing pressure above suction reservoir.
iii) – By decreasing the temperature of liquid to pumped or reducing saturation pressure.
iv) – By decreasing friction head losses at suction pipe. It can be done by various ways
e.g. by increasing pipe diameter, reducing pump length and by reducing elbows and
bends in suction pipe.
2) – By Decreasing NPSHR
NPSHR can be decreased by following ways:
i) - By decreasing pump capacity (flow rate). It can be done by throttling discharge valve.
ii) - By decreasing the speed of variable speed pump.