Section 8.

1: Introduction to Heat Exchangers

Heat Transfer
Cambridge University Press
Greg Nellis and Sandy Klein
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI

Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are common devices that are used for many applications
Examples of heat exchangers that are necessary to provide you with a high
standard of living

the furnace in your house

the radiation in your car
the evaporator and condenser in your air conditioner, refrigerator, freezer, etc.
your hot water heater
the boiler and condenser in the Rankine power cycle that provides much of the
electricity that you use

The efficiency of most energy systems is largely controlled by the

performance of the heat exchangers that are involved.
The optimization of a thermal-fluid system often depends on correctly
designing a heat exchanger
a large heat exchanger leads to a high efficiency and therefore a low operating
cost and high capital cost
a small heat exchanger leads to a large operating cost and small capital cost
an optimally designed heat exchanger balances these effects

Heat Exchanger Classification

Heat exchanger - device to transfer thermal energy from one fluid stream
to another

Direct transfer - energy is transferred directly from one stream of fluid to

the other through a separating wall that forms a pressure boundary
Indirect transfer - fluid transfers energy to a temporary storage medium
and then energy is transferred to the other fluid

Direct contact energy is transferred directly from one stream to a

second, immiscible fluid without any separating wall between the fluids

Flow Configuration
The flow configuration can have a large effect on the performance of direct
transfer heat exchangers
as energy is removed from hot fluid and added to the cold fluid it causes their
temperatures to change, affecting the temperature difference that drives the
heat transfer process
for internal flow problems we had to keep track of the mean temperature of a
single fluid using an energy balance
for heat exchanger problems, we have to keep track of two mean
temperatures using two energy balances

Parallel Flow Configuration

m C , TC ,in

m C , TC ,out

Parallel flow configuration - fluids flow

in the same direction
q

Notice that the temperature of the hot

fluid drops as energy is removed and
the temperature of the cold fluid rises
as energy is added
m H , TH ,in
T
TH,in

TC,in

m H , TH ,out

Counter Flow Configuration

m C , TC ,in

Counter flow configuration - fluids flow

in opposite directions

m C , TC ,out

Notice that the temperature distribution

is very different when all we did was
reverse the direction of the hot fluid
All else being equal, the counter flow
configuration will lead to higher
performance

m H , TH ,out

m H , TH ,in

T
TH,in

TC,in

Parallel and Counter Flow Configurations

Tube-in-tube heat exchanger

hot fluid in
cold fluid out

cold fluid in
hot fluid out
Plate heat exchanger - common for liquid-to-liquid applications

Cross Flow Configuration

Cross flow configuration - hot and cold fluids flow perpendicular to one
another

Common for liquid to gas applications (e.g., car radiator)

Mixed vs Unmixed
Cross flow configuration is further classified based on whether the fluid
streams are mixed or unmixed

Unmixed - geometric obstructions prevent mixing in the direction that is

perpendicular to the flow direction
the fluid temperature can vary in the direction perpendicular to the main flow
direction
fluid temperature is 2-D - it varies both in the flow direction and in the direction
perpendicular to the flow

Mixed - there are no geometric obstructions to prevent mixing in the

direction that is perpendicular to the flow direction
the fluid temperature cannot vary in the direction perpendicular to the main
flow direction
the fluid temperature is 1-D - it varies only in the flow direction

Mixed vs Unmixed

Both Fluids Unmixed

TH

y
TC

Cold Fluid Mixed/Hot Fluid Unmixed

TH

y
TC

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

One fluid flows in a shell across a bank of tubes through which the other
fluid flows
pretty common configuration for industrial applications
the shell-and-tube heat exchanger combines the characteristics of a cross-flow
and counter-flow configuration
baffles

shell-side outlet
tube-side
inlet

tube-side
outlet
shell-side inlet

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Multiple Pass
baffles

shell-side outlet
tube-side
inlet

shell-side outlet
tube-side
outlet

tube-side
inlet

shell-side inlet

Two tube pass

tube-side
outlet
shell-side inlet

Two shell pass

Overall Energy Balance

Regardless of configuration, an overall energy balance can be carried out
for the heat exchanger
m C , TC ,out

qsur

m C , TC ,in

m H , TH ,in

m H , TH ,out

Overall Energy Balance

Overall energy balance

mH iH ,in mC iC ,in mH iH ,out mC iC ,out qsur 0

enthalpy (h is confusing)

Typical assumptions:

m C , TC ,out

qsur

m C , TC ,in

constant specific heat capacity

externally adiabatic

With these assumptions:

q mH cH TH ,in TH ,out
q mC cC TC ,out TC ,in
m H , TH ,in
capacitance rate:

CH mH cH
CC mC cC

m H , TH ,out

Total Conductance
Notice that the overall energy balance is not sufficient to solve a heat
exchanger problem.
q mH cH TH ,in TH ,out
q mC cC TC ,out TC ,in

If I know the inlet temperatures and geometry, these two equations are not
sufficient to determine the outlet temperatures and heat transfer rate

It is necessary to determine the total conductance of the heat exchanger

and solve the two energy balances that dictate the interaction between the
two fluids based on the heat exchanger configuration

Total Conductance
Total conductance - the inverse of the total thermal resistance that
separates the two streams
total conductance is defined the same way regardless of configuration
a heat exchanger with a low thermal resistance (high conductance) is large
and should have high performance

The total resistance separating the hot and cold fluids is calculated without
considering how the temperature of the fluids change
If the temperatures of the two fluids did not change then:
T TC
q H
UA TH TC
Rtotal
this equation cannot generally be used
because these two temperatures will change
as fluid flows through the heat exchanger

H , in

TC ,in

Rtotal

this is the largest temperature difference in the heat

exchanger, the temperature difference will be less as the fluids
change temperature

Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Example

cold fluid

hot fluid
Din D
out
L

The total resistance is: Rtotal Rconv , H Rcond Rconv ,C

where
Rconv , H

1
hH Din L

Rcond

The total conductance is: UA

D
ln out
D
in
2 ktube L
1

Rtotal

Rconv ,C

1
hC Dout L

Fouling Resistance
When heat exchangers operate for a long time, material starts to build up
on the heat exchange surfaces (they become "fouled")

The surface coating will often interfere with heat transfer and therefore
reduce the overall performance
It is necessary to account for the eventual impact of fouling in design
calculations - this is done using a fouling resistance:
Rf

R f
As

area-specific fouling factor (m 2-K/W)

depends on the fluid and how it is treated
empirical (typically measured)
resembles a contact resistance
surface area that is being fouled

Area-Specific Fouling Factor

Fouling factor information can be found in handbooks
Several values are available in EES:

Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger with Fouling

cold fluid

hot fluid
Din D
out
L

The total resistance is:

where

R f ,H

Rf , H

Din L

Rtotal Rconv , H R f , H Rcond R f ,C Rconv ,C

R f ,C

Rf ,C

Dout L

1
UA

The total conductance is reduced by the presence of fouling:

Rtotal

Compact Heat Exchanger Correlations

Many (most) heat exchanger cores are not
as easy to analyze as a tube-in-tube heat
exchanger
They are some complex combinations of
internal and external flow (this is
particularly true on the finned, gas-side of
most heat exchangers)

Would you model the air flow as internal

flow through rectangular ducts or external
flow over a bank of tubes?
It is a complicated problem...
Compact heat exchanger correlations are
based on measurements for a specific set
of heat exchanger cores

Compact Heat Exchanger Correlations

Compact heat exchanger correlations are presented in books like Kays and
London as figures that show the Colburn j-factor (jH) and the friction factor
(f) as a function of the Reynolds number:

Colburn jH and friction factor

0.05

A s,fin/A s,out = 0.913

D h = 3.63 mm
= 0.534
0.04
2
3
A s,out/V = 587 m /m
0.03
f
0.02

0.01

0
400 500

jH

1,000

2,000
Reynolds number

5,000

10,000

Colburn j-Factor
The Colburn j-factor is used to correlate the heat transfer coefficient:
jH St Pr (2/3)

where the Stanton number is defined as: St

and the mass flux is: G

m
Amin

hout
Gc

average heat
transfer coefficient
on the gas side

minimum flow area in core

The Reynolds number is defined as: Re

G Dh

hydraulic diameter associated with flow

through the core

Friction Factor
The friction factor is defined based on the pressure drop across the core

G2
p
2 in

4 L flow in

2 in
1
1
f
Dh
out

viscous

inertial

where the free-to-frontal flow area ratio is:

free flow area

frontal area

These correlations are not easy to use in their basic form

They have been programmed in EES to make them more accessible

EES Compact Heat Exchanger Functions

There are four sets of EES functions
Non-dimensional - provides jH and f given Re and core name

EES Compact Heat Exchanger Functions

Geometry - provides useful geometric characteristics of the core given the
core name

some of the useful characteristics include

a - the surface area per volume of core
Afin/A - the fraction of the core that is finned
- the ratio of free-flow to frontal area
Dh - the hydraulic diameter of the passages

EES Compact Heat Exchanger Functions

Coefficient of heat transfer - provides the average gas-side heat transfer
coefficient given the dimensional inputs

fluid, temperature,
mass flow, pressure,
etc.

average heat transfer

coefficient

EES Compact Heat Exchanger Functions

Pressure drop - provides the total pressure drop given the dimensional
inputs

fluid, temperature,
mass flow, pressure,
etc.

pressure drop

Section 8.2: The Log-Mean Temperature

Difference
Heat Transfer
Cambridge University Press
Greg Nellis and Sandy Klein
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI

The Energy Balance Solutions

An overall energy balance and the heat exchanger conductance are not
sufficient to solve a heat exchanger problem
q mH cH TH ,in TH ,out
q mC cC TC ,out TC ,in

Given the operating conditions (input temperatures and flow) and the
geometry (and therefore the UA) it is not possible to compute the outlet
temperatures and performance
It is use energy balances on each stream coupled with a rate equation
based on the total conductance in order to derive a set of coupled ODEs
(or PDEs, depending on configuration) that must be solved.
The solution to these coupled differential equations has been obtained for
a variety of configurations. The solution is algebraically manipulated and
placed in either the LMTD or effectiveness-NTU format.

Counter Flow Heat Exchanger Solution

Here we will derive the solution for a counter flow heat exchanger and
show how it can be algebraically rearranged and placed in both the LMTD
and effectiveness-NTU format
Define a differential control volume for both of the two streams

m C , TC ,out

m C , TC ,in

dx

m H , TH ,in

m H , TH ,out

Differential Energy Balance

The differential energy balance on
the hot stream leads to:

mH iH x

d mH iH
mH iH x
dx dq
dx

which can be simplified to:

0 mH

m C , TC ,in

m C , TC ,out
dx

x
m H , TH ,out

m H , TH ,in

diH
dx dq
dx

The rate of change of enthalpy with

position is related to both
temperature and pressure gradients:

i dT
i dpH
H
0 mH H
H
T P dx P T dx
cH
neglected

m C iC x

dx dq m H iH x

dq

m C iC x

d m C iC

m H iH x

dx

dx

d m H iH
dx

dx

x
Differential Energy
Balance

Typically, only the temperature

driven component is important:
dq mH cH

dTH
dx
dx

m C iC x

A similar process for the cold fluid

leads to:
dq mC cC

dTC
dx
dx

The rate of heat transfer is driven by

the local temperature difference:

dq TH TC UA
local temp.
difference

dx
L

amount of
conductance
in segment dx

m H , TH ,out

m H , TH ,in

m H iH x

dq

m C iC x

d m C iC

m H iH x

dx

dx

d m H iH
dx

dx

Coupled Differential Equations

Substitute the rate equations into the energy balances in order to obtain:
dx
mH cH
L
dx
UA TH TC mC cC
L

UA TH TC

dTH
dx
dx
dTC
dx
dx

which can be simplified to:

dTH
UA

TH TC
dx
L mH cH

dTC
UA

TH TC
dx
L mC cC

this is the set of coupled

differential equations that
must be solved in order to
obtain the solution for a
counter flow heat
exchanger

Solution for a Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

Here we will obtain the solution for the case where the specific heat
capacity of each stream is constant:
dTH
UA

TH TC
dx
L mH cH
dT

UA
C
T

T
H C
dx
L
m
c
C C

d TH TC
dx

1
UA
1

TH TC

L
m
c
m
c
C C
H H

a single ODE for the temperature difference

TH TC

d
UA 1
1

dx
L mH cH mC cC

Solution for a Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

Separate:

UA 1
1

L mH cH mC cC

x L

and integrate:

L
UA 1
1

dx

L mH cH mC cC 0

x 0

ln

dx

1
xL
1
UA

x 0
m
c
m
c
C C
H H
m C , TC ,out

x L TH ,out TC ,in

m C , TC ,in

dx

x 0 TH ,in TC ,out
x

m H , TH ,in

m H , TH ,out

Solution for a Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

TH ,out TC ,in
The solution is: ln
TH ,in TC ,out

1
1

UA

m
c
m
c
C C
H H

This equation, when coupled to an overall energy balance:

q mH cH TH ,in TH ,out
q mC cC TC ,out TC ,in

is the complete solution. Given the operating conditions (flow rates and
inlet temperatures) and geometry (which allows the conductance to be
calculated) it is now possible to determine the outlet temperatures and
performance
The log-mean temperature difference and effectiveness-NTU forms of this
solution are obtained just by algebraic manipulation - they provide no new
information

Log-Mean Temperature Difference

The log-mean temperature difference expresses the solution in the form:

q UA Tlm
where Tlm is the log-mean temperature difference.
The log-mean temperature difference represents the average temperature
difference in the heat exchanger that is driving the heat transfer process
and depends on the configuration.
The log-mean temperature difference is obtained by solving the overall
energy balance for the capacitance rates:
q CH TH ,in TH ,out
q CC TC ,out TC ,in

CH

H , in

CC

q
TH ,out

q
TC ,out TC ,in

Log-Mean Temperature Difference

Substitute the capacitance rate equations into the solution:
TH ,out TC ,in
ln
T T
H ,in C ,out

1
1

UA

C
C
C
H

TH ,out TC ,in
TH ,in TH ,out TC ,out TC ,in
ln
UA

q
TH ,in TC ,out

and solve for the rate of heat transfer:

TH ,out TC ,in TH ,in TC ,out

q UA

TH ,out TC ,in

ln

H
,
in
C
,
out

Tlm ,cf

log-mean temperature
difference for a counter
flow heat exchanger

LMTD Solution for a Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

The log-mean temperature difference for a counter flow heat exchanger is:

Tlm ,cf

TC ,in TH ,in TC ,out

H , out

TH ,out TC ,in
ln

T
H ,in C ,out

A similar process for the parallel flow heat exchanger leads to:
Tlm , pf

H , in

TC ,in TH ,out TC ,out

TH ,in TC ,in
ln

TH ,out TC ,out

The solutions for the counter and parallel flow configurations are identical
when expressed in terms of the temperature differences at the ends of the
heat exchanger

LMTD Solutions for a Counter and Parallel Flow

x 0 x L
The log-mean temperature difference expressed in
Tlm , pf Tlm ,cf
terms of the end temperature differences:
x 0
ln

m , T
m , T
m C , TC ,in
m C , TC ,out
xL
C

m H , TH ,in

m H , TH ,in

m H , TH ,out

C ,in

m H , TH ,out

Temperature

Temperature
TH,in

C , out

x0

TH,in

xL

TC,out

TH,out

x0

TC,out
TH,out

TC,in

x
0

TC,in

xL

x
0

LMTD Solutions for a Counter and Parallel Flow

Notice that it does not matter which end of the heat exchanger is defined as
being x = 0 and x = L

Tlm , pf Tlm ,cf

x 0 x L x L x 0 x L x 0

ln x 0
ln x L
ln x L
x L
x 0
x 0

LMTD Solutions for other Configurations

The log-mean temperature difference for other configurations requires that
the log-mean temperature difference for a cross-flow heat exchanger be
multiplied by a correction factor, F
Tlm F Tlm,cf

The correction factor depends on the configuration as well as the

dimensionless parameters:
T

P
T

C , out
H , in

TC ,in

TC ,in

CC TH ,in TH ,out
R

CH TC ,out TC ,in

The correction factor for most common heat exchanger configurations is

available in the form of charts and tables as well as EES functions.

Correction Factor Charts

Log-mean temp. difference correction factor, F

For example, the correction factor for a cross-flow heat exchanger with both
fluids mixed:
1

R = 0.2

0.9

0.4
0.6
0.8
1

0.8
1.5
2
3
0.7

0.6
0

0.1

0.2

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

LMTD effectiveness, P

0.8

0.9

Correction Factor EES Functions

These solutions are also programmed in EES:

Using the LMTD Solutions

The LMTD solutions are convenient for design-type problems. That is,
problems where you know the desired performance and therefore all of the
input and output temperatures and would like to find the conductance.

For design-type problems, the LMTD solution can be used to determine the
required conductance:

q F R, P Tlm,cf UA
R

TH ,in TH ,out
TC ,out TC ,in

P
T

C , out
H , in

TC ,in

TC ,in

Tlm ,cf

H , out

TC ,in TH ,in TC ,out

TH ,out TC ,in
ln

TH ,in TC ,out

For simulation-type problems, the LMTD solution is not convenient because

all of the temperatures are not known

The effectiveness-NTU solutions are generally superior to the LMTD form

Example
A cross-flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed.

UA 60

W
K

TH ,out

TC ,in 300 K
CC 70 W/K

TC ,out

TH ,in 400 K
CH 120 W/K

Solution
The inputs are entered in EES

The cold exit temperature is assumed:

and used to compute the rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger:
q CC TC ,out TC ,in

Solution
The hot exit temperature is computed from an energy balance:
TH ,out TH ,in

q
CH

The log-mean temperature difference for a counter flow heat exchanger is

computed:
TH ,out TC ,in TH ,in TC ,out

Tlm ,cf
TH ,out TC ,in
ln

T
H ,in C ,out

Correction Factor
The correction factor is obtained using the internal EES solutions:
R

TH ,in TH ,out
TC ,out TC ,in

P
T

C , out
H , in

TC ,in

TC ,in

The guess values are updated and the assumed value of the cold exit
temperature is commented out:

The heat transfer rate is computed using the LMTD solution:

q F R, P Tlm,cf UA

which leads to TH,out = 371.5 K, TC,out = 348.9 K, and 3.4 kW of heat

transfer

Section 8.3: The Effectiveness-NTU Method

Heat Transfer
Cambridge University Press
Greg Nellis and Sandy Klein
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI

The Energy Balance Solutions

The effectiveness-NTU method for solving heat exchanger problems is
more flexible and easier to use than the LMTD method. This is particularly
true for simulation-type problems where the outlet temperatures are not
known a-priori.
The log-mean temperature difference solution expresses the rate of heat
transfer in terms of the conductance and an effective driving temperature
difference:
q UA Tlm

The effectiveness-NTU expresses the rate of heat transfer in terms of the

maximum possible rate of heat transfer and the effectiveness (which is the
dimensionless performance of the heat exchanger)

q qmax

Effectiveness
The effectiveness is defined as:

actual rate of heat transfer

q

maximum possible rate of heat transfer qmax

The maximum possible rate of heat transfer occurs when either:

the hot outlet temperature is reduced to the cold inlet temperature

qmax , H CH TH ,in TC ,in

or the cold outlet temperature is increased to the hot inlet temperature

qmax ,C CC TH ,in TC ,in

The maximum rate of heat transfer is the minimum of these quantities:

q Cmin TH ,in TC ,in where Cmin = MIN CC ,CH

Number of Transfer Units

The number of transfer units is defined as: NTU

UA
Cmin

and represents the dimensionless size of the heat exchanger.

if either the heat exchanger becomes physically larger (conductance
increases) or has less fluid to process (the capacitance rate decreases),
then the number of transfer units will increase

Cmin
The capacity ratio is defined as: CR
Cmax
CR = 1 is a balanced heat exchanger
CR 0 is a heat exchanger where one fluid has a much larger capacitance
rate than the other (e.g., condensation or evaporation occurs on one side)

Effectiveness-NTU Solutions
The effectiveness-NTU solution is obtained by substituting the definitions
of effectiveness, NTU, and capacitance ratio into the general solution for
a particular configuration
For example, for the counter-flow configuration:
TH ,out TC ,in
ln
T T
H ,in C ,out

1
1

UA

C
C
C
H

The energy balances are solved for the outlet temperatures:

q
q
T

TC ,out TC ,in
H ,out
H ,in
CH
CC
Substitute the definition of effectiveness:

TC ,out TC ,in

cf Cmin TH ,in TC ,in

CC

TH ,out TH ,in

cf Cmin TH ,in TC ,in

CH

Effectiveness Solution for a Counterflow HX

Substitute these equations into the solution to obtain:

Cmin
T

T
H ,in C ,in C ,in
H ,in cf
C
H
UA 1 1
ln

Cmin
CH CC

TH ,in TC ,in

TH ,in TC ,in cf
CC

which can be rearranged:

TH ,in TC ,in 1 cf

ln

TH ,in TC ,in 1 cf

Cmin

CH
1
1
UA

C
C

Cmin
C
H

CC

Effectiveness Solution for a Counterflow HX

and simplified:

1 cf
ln

1 cf

Cmin
CH
Cmin
CC

UA 1 1

CH CC

To proceed, assume that the hot fluid has the highest capacitance rate:
Cmin CC

Therefore:

1 cf
ln

1 cf

Cmin
Cmax
Cmin
Cmin

Cm ax CH

UA 1 1

Cmax Cmin

Effectiveness Solution for a Counterflow HX

CR

which can be rearranged:

Cmin
1 cf
Cmax
ln
1 cf

and simplified:

1 cf CR
ln
1
cf

UA

Cmin

NTU

Cmin
1

Cmax

CR

NTU CR 1

This is the effectiveness-NTU solution for a counter-flow heat exchanger

it is a relationship between the parameters effectiveness, number of
transfer units, and capacitance ratio
the same solution would be obtained if the cold fluid had the higher
capacitance rates

Effectiveness-NTU Solutions
The effectiveness NTU solutions are typically solved for:
the effectiveness as a function of number of transfer units and capacitance
rates - this is useful for simulation type problems
the number of transfer units as a function of effectiveness and capacitance
rates - this is useful for design type problems

These solutions are listed in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, respectively

These solutions are also programmed in EES

Table 8-1: Effectiveness as a Function of NTU

Table 8-2: NTU as a Function of Effectiveness

Solutions in EES
The solutions are programmed in EES:

both formats are included

for various configurations

Example
A cross-flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed.

UA 60

W
K

TH ,out

TC ,in 300 K
CC 70 W/K

TC ,out

TH ,in 400 K
CH 120 W/K

Solution
The inputs are entered in EES

The minimum capacitance rate is identified:

and used to compute the number of transfer units:

NTU

UA
Cmin

Solution
The internal EES functions are used to identify the effectiveness

The maximum possible rate of heat transfer is computed:

qmax Cmin TH ,in TC ,in

and the effectiveness is used to compute the actual rate of heat transfer:

q qmax

which leads to 3.4 kW of heat transfer.

Note that this is the same solution that was obtained with the LMTD method
but the process is much easier using the effectiveness method

Behavior of Effectiveness-NTU Solutions

1
C R=0

The different flow configurations

require different solutions due to
the interaction between the two
fluids; i.e., the impact on the
driving temperature difference in
the heat exchanger is different.

Effectiveness

0.8

C R=0.5
0.6

0.4

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

1
C R=0
C R=0.25

C R=0
C R=0.25

0.8
C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0.6

Effectiveness

Effectiveness

parallel flow

0.2

C R=1.0
0.4

counter flow

0.2

0
0

C R=0.75
C R=1

0
0

0.8

C R=0.25

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

0.6
C R=1.0
0.4

cross flow

0.2

C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0
0

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

Behavior as Capacitance Ratio Approaches Zero

When the capacitance ratio approaches zero, the temperature on one side
of the heat exchanger changes very little

In this limit, the configuration does not matter

For example - the two limiting cases as the hot-side capacitance rate
becomes very large:
Temperature

Temperature

TH,in

TH,in

TH,out
TC,in

TC,out

TH,out
TC,in

TC,out

counter flow

parallel flow

Behavior as Capacitance Ratio Approaches Zero

1
C R=0

Notice that the solution for CR = 0

is identical for each configuration
Effectiveness

0.8

lim 1 exp NTU

CR 0

C R=0.25
C R=0.5

0.6

C R=0.75
C R=1

0.4

parallel flow

0.2

0
0

C R=0.25

0.8
C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0.6

Effectiveness

Effectiveness

C R=0
C R=0.25

C R=0

C R=1.0
0.4

counter flow

0.2

0
0

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

0.8

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

0.6
C R=1.0
0.4

cross flow

0.2

C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0
0

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

Behavior as NTU Approaches Zero

When the number of transfer units approaches zero, the temperature on
both sides of the heat exchanger changes very little

In this limit, the configuration also does not matter

For example - the two limiting cases as the number of transfer units
becomes small (e.g., 0.1):
Temperature

Temperature

TH,in

TH,out

TC,out

TC,in

TH,in

TH,out

TC,out

TC,in

counter flow

parallel flow

Behavior as NTU Approaches Zero

1
C R=0

Notice that the solutions for all

collapse to a single line as NTU
approaches zero

Effectiveness

0.8

lim NTU

NTU 0

C R=0.5
0.6

0.4

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

1
C R=0
C R=0.25

C R=0
C R=0.25

0.8
C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0.6

Effectiveness

Effectiveness

parallel flow

0.2

C R=1.0
0.4

counter flow

0.2

0
0

C R=0.75
C R=1

0
0

0.8

C R=0.25

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

0.6
C R=1.0
0.4

cross flow

0.2

C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0
0

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

Behavior as NTU Becomes Infinite

If the capacitance ratio and the NTU are not small then configuration
begins to matter

For example - the two limiting cases have very different temperature
distributions (with equal capacitance rates)
Temperature

Temperature

TH,in

TH,in
TC,out

TH,out
TC,out

TH,out
TC,in

TC,in

x
counter flow

x
parallel flow

Behavior as NTU Becomes Infinite

If the number of transfer units becomes very large, then the temperature
difference at some location (the pinch point) will approach zero
Temperature

Temperature

TH,in
TC,out

TH,in

TH,out
TC,out
TH,out
TC,in
x

counter flow

TC,in
x

parallel flow

The effectiveness of the counter flow configuration approaches unity as

NTU approaches infinity

The effectiveness of the parallel flow configuration approaches 50% as

NTU approaches infinity (for CR = 1)

Behavior as NTU Approaches Infinity

Notice that the limit on effectiveness for the parallel flow configuration
depends on the capacitance ratio

lim pf
NTU

1
CR 1

1
C R=0

Effectiveness

0.8

C R=0.25
C R=0.5

0.6

C R=0.75
C R=1

0.4

parallel flow

0.2

0
0

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units

Effect of Configuration
1
cross-flow, both fluids unmixed

counter-flow

0.8

Effectiveness

In general, the counter flow

configuration will have the
largest effectiveness while the
parallel flow configuration will
have the smallest - all other
configurations lie between
these extremes

0.6

0.4
parallel-flow

shell-and-tube,
single pass

cross-flow,
one fluid mixed

0.2

CRC=R =11
0
0

The difference disappears as

either the capacitance ratio or
NTU becomes small

2
3
Number of transfer units

counter-flow
cross-flow,
both fluids unmixed

Effectiveness

0.8
shell-and-tube,
single pass

0.6

cross-flow,
one fluid mixed

parallel-flow
0.4

0.2

CR =CR0.25
= 0.25
0
0

2
3
Number of transfer units

Heat Exchanger Design

Heat exchanger design balances capital cost (which increases with NTU)
against operating cost (which decreases with NTU)
At high NTU, the reduction in operating cost tends to level off
A rational heat exchanger design will tend to lead to NTU ~ 1-2
1
C R=0
C R=0.25

Effectiveness

0.8

0.6
C R=1.0

C R=0.5
C R=0.75

0.4

cross flow

0.2

0
0

2
3
4
5
Number of transfer units