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2u
,
u2 + v 2 + 1
y=
2v
,
u2 + v 2 + 1
z=
u2 + v 2 1
.
u2 + v 2 + 1
Theodore Voronov.
2u0
,
(u0 )2 + (v 0 )2 + 1
2v 0
,
(u0 )2 + (v 0 )2 + 1
y=
z=
1 (u0 )2 (v 0 )2
.
(u0 )2 + (v 0 )2 + 1
(c) Both coordinate systems (u, v) and (u0 , v 0 ) are defined on S 2 \ {N, S}.
To find the change of coordinates u = u(u0 , v 0 ), v = v(u0 , v 0 ), we substitute
x, y, z as functions of u0 , v 0 to the expressions for u and v. For example,
(u0 )2 +(v 0 )2 +1
2u0
u0
x
= (u0 )2 +(v
for u we obtain u = 1z
0 )2 +1 2((u0 )2 +(v 0 )2 ) = (u0 )2 +(v 0 )2 , because
0 2
0 2
0 2
0 2
1(u ) (v )
2((u ) +(v ) )
1 z = 1 (u
0 )2 +(v 0 )2 +1 = (u0 )2 +(v 0 )2 +1 . And similarly for v. So the change of
coordinates u = u(u0 , v 0 ), v = v(u0 , v 0 ) has the form
u=
u0
,
(u0 )2 + (v 0 )2
v=
v0
.
(u0 )2 + (v 0 )2
These formulas are defined for all (u0 , v 0 ) except for (u0 , v 0 ) = (0, 0), which
are the coordinates of the north pole N in the (u0 , v 0 )-system. Conversely,
the change of coordinates u0 = u0 (u, v), v 0 = v 0 (u, v) is given by
u0 =
u2
u
,
+ v2
v0 =
u2
v
.
+ v2
These formulas are defined for (u, v) 6= (0, 0), which are the coordinates of
the south pole S in the (u, v) coordinate system.
Problem 4.
equation
x
.
1z
2
Theodore Voronov.
For the inverse map, we solve for x and z having in mind the relation |x|2 +
z 2 = 1. We have x = u(1 z), hence we arrive at the quadratic equation
(denoting 1 z = w): |u|2 w2 + (1 w)2 = 1, or (1 + |x|2 )w2 2w = 0, from
which we obtain the unique solution w = 2/(|u|2 + 1), since w = 1 z 6= 0,
and therefore
2u
|u|2 + 1
|u|2 1
z=
|u|2 + 1
x=
We have arrived at two mutually inverse maps establishing a bijection between S n \ {N } and Rn . The map F 1 : Rn S n \ {N } can be viewed as a
chart for S n . We can change notation and denote it N := F 1 . So we have
N : Rn(N ) S n \ {N },
|u(N ) |2 1
2u(N )
,
N : u(N ) 7
|u(N ) |2 + 1 |u(N ) |2 + 1
x
1
.
N : (x, z) 7 u(N ) =
1z
,
Theodore Voronov.
x1
x
, . . . , 1, . . . ,
k
xn+1
.
xk
(where 1 appears at the kth place in the LHS and at the lth place, in the
RHS), from where we obtain
n+1
1
kl : (u1(l) , . . . , 1, . . . , un+1
(l) ) 7 (u(k) , . . . , 1, . . . , u(k) )
where
ui(k)
ui(l)
uk(l)
for all i. (Two special cases of this formula are i = k where we get uk(k) = 1
as it should be, and i = l where ul(k) = u1k , since ul(l) = 1.)
(l)
In small dimensions, we have two charts for RP 1 and three charts for
RP 2 . For RP 1 , the charts are 1 : R U1 where U1 = {(x1 : x2 ) | x1 6= 0)},
1 : x(1) 7 (1 : x(1) ), and 2 : R U1 where U2 = {(x1 : x2 ) | x2 6= 0)},
2 : x(2) 7 (x(2) : 1), and the changes of coordinate are
x(2) =
1
,
x(1)
x(1) =
4
1
.
x(2)
Theodore Voronov.
Theodore Voronov.
the change of coordinates on CP 1 . Therefore, we may introduce an identification of CP 1 with S 2 , for example, by the identification of coordinates
1
0 . (There are three other equally good
w = w(2) = w
, hence w(1) = w1 = w
w2
choices corresponding to swapping the poles of S 2 and applying the complex
conjugation to CP 1 .)
Remark. It is instructive to express the diffeomorphisms RP 1
= S 1 and
1 2
CP = S so obtained in a way independent of local coordinates. In terms of
homogeneous coordinates on RP 1 and CP 1 (which are not local coordinates!)
and the standard coordinates (x, y) and (x, y, z) on the ambient Euclidean
spaces R2 S 1 and R3 S 2 , the formulas are as follows:
S 1 RP 1 ,
S 2 CP 1 ,
(x, y) 7 (x : 1 y) RP 1 ,
(x, y, z) 7 (x + iy : 1 z) CP 1 ,
and
2x1 x2
(x1 )2 (x2 )2
,
,
RP S ,
(x : x ) 7 (x, y) =
(x1 )2 + (x2 )2 (x1 )2 + (x2 )2
2w1 w 2
|w1 |2 |w2 |2
1
2
1
2
,
CP S , (w : w ) 7 (x + iy, z) =
.
|w1 |2 + |w2 |2 |w1 |2 + |w2 |2
1
x
To get the first set, one writes (x1 : x2 ) = xx2 : 1 = (u : 1) = 1y
: 1 , so
finally (x1 : x2 ) = (x, 1 y), and similarly for the complex case. To get the
1
1
second set, one has to plug u = xx2 or u + iv = w
into the inverse formulas
w2
for the stereographic projection and get rid of denominators. In particular,
for (cos : sin ) RP 1 , we get as the image (x, y) = (sin 2, cos 2) S 1 .
1
Problem 8.
Theodore Voronov.
:
(a,
b,
d)
7
(a,
b,
c)
=
a,
b,
b
a
b
defined on an open subset of Vb . Hence SL(2) is a manifold of dimension 3.
For SL(n), n > 2, one can guess that it is a manifold of dimension n2 1.
To prove that, it is possible to follow closely the above proof for n = 2 by
considering the first row expansion of det g (recall that the coefficients of the
entries g1k are Mk , where Mk is the minor obtained by deleting the first
row and the kth column of g). One can introduce analogs of the charts above
and show that they make a smooth atlas for SL(n). (There is, however, an
alternative proof, which we shall consider later.)
Problem 9. A k-dimensional linear subspace L in Rn can be specified
practically in two ways: either as the span of k linearly independent vectors
from Rn (which make a basis in L) or as the solution space of a system of
nk independent linear equations (i.e., of rank nk). Sometimes one way is
more convenient and sometimes there is no preference. We use the notation
Gk (Rn ) for the set of all k-dimensional linear subspaces in Rn .
(a) A 2-plane through the origin in R3 can be conveniently specified by
an equation
ax + by + cz = 0
where at least one coefficient is non-vanishing. Since multiplying the equation
by a non-zero factor does not change the plane, we may identify the 2planes with the equivalence classes (a : b : c), i.e., with the points of the
projective space RP 2 . In particular, G2 (R3 ) (which we identified with RP 2 )
is a manifold of dimension 2.
(b) To study 2-planes in R4 , it is more convenient to describe them using
bases. Suppose linearly independent vectors a1 and a2 span a 2-plane in R4 .
We may write them as a matrix 2 by 4,
a11 a12 a13 a14
A=
,
a21 a22 a23 a24
7
Theodore Voronov.
Theodore Voronov.
chart are given by the entries of a k (n k) matrix. There are nk such
charts corresponding to the nk choices of k columns in A. (The alternative
description of k-dimensional subspaces using (n k) independent equations
gives rise to the identification Gk (Rn )
= Gnk (Rn ).) The complex case is
similar.