Igneous Rocks

2013-2014 Term 2
GEOL 108 & GEOL 121

Outline
1.How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another?
(pg. 90)
2.How Do Magmas Form? (pg. 95)
3.Magmatic Differentiation (pg. 97)
4.Forms of Igneous Intrusions (pg. 102)
5.Igneous Processes and Plate Tectonics (pg. 105)

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from liquid rock (magma) in
several different ways
Igneous processes within the Earth produce
intrusive igneous rocks
Igneous processes on or near Earths surface
produce extrusive igneous rocks

Igneous Rocks

Identification
Igneous rocks are classified based upon:
Texture
Mineral grain size

Composition
Chemistry
Mineralogy

Texture
Geologists have classified igneous rocks based
upon mineral grain sizes for two centuries

Textural Differences
Three key observations used by early geologists to link
observed textures with geologic processes
1. Volcanic rocks tend to be fine-grained; however, variation in
grain-size were observed for lavas that cool at different rates
2. Laboratory experiments showed that mineral crystals only grow
large when magma cools slowly
3. Hutton observed granite intrusions in sedimentary rocks, which
also showed evidence of metamorphism

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Form when magma forces its way into existing rock
(country rock)
Facilitates slow cooling and solidification
Produces coarse-grained, interlocked crystals
Granite

Gabbro

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Form when magma (lava) and volcanic ash are
ejected at Earths surface
Facilitates rapid cooling and solidification
Produces glassy to fine-grained textures
Rhyolite

Basalt

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Form when magma ejected
at Earths surface

Pahoehoe

Also called volcanic rocks

Lavas:
Rocks formed from flowing
lavas can be:
smooth and ropy (Pahoehoe lava)
sharp and jagged (Aa lava)

Pyroclasts:
Fragments of lava ejected into
air during eruption

Aa

Pyroclasts
Volcanic ash
Small fragments resulting
from fine spray of magma
Largely composed of glass
(non-crystalline)

Bombs
Lava fragments >64 mm in
diameter

Cool and solidify before

hitting ground

Volcanic Rocks
Pumice
Forms during explosive volcanic
eruptions
Bubbles trapped during rapid
cooling of gas-rich frothy lava

Obsidian
Rapid cooling prevents atoms
from arranging in a crystalline
structure
Glassy with smooth, uniform
texture with conchoidal fracture

Porphyritic Texture
Igneous rock with distinct difference in crystal size
Larger crystals (phenocrysts) emplaced in relatively finegrained rock matrix
Phenocrysts crystallize in magma, which then cools and
inhibits subsequent crystal growth
Phenocyrsts often exhibit euhedral form due to early
crystallization within magma

Porphyritic Texture
Both extrusive and intrusive examples exist - rock matrix
can either be aphanitic or phaneritic
Phenocrysts commonly found in felsic (light-coloured,
silica-rich) rocks
Andesite

Granite

Phenocrysts

aphanitic matrix

phaneritic matrix

Vesicular Texture
Characteristics:
Igneous rocks pitted with vesicles
Vesicles can be spherical or elongated

Formation:

USGS

Pressure acting on magma decreases during eruption

Bubbles of gas and water form as a result
Voids are preserved in rocks as lava cools and solidifies

Occurrence:
Found in aphanitic to glassy igneous rocks
Secondary minerals may form in vesicles; this is called
amygdaloidal texture

Vesicular Texture
Vesicular Basalt: Vesicles within aphanitic
matrix. This example contains olivine
phenocrysts

Pumice: Vesicles within volcanic glass.

Igneous Rock Textures

Igneous Rock Textures

Composition
Igneous rocks can also be classified based upon
their chemical and mineral composition
Igneous rocks contain 40 to 70 % silicate minerals
Generally classified according to relative proportions of
silicate minerals
Felsic minerals
highest in silica
crystallize at lower temperatures

Mafic minerals
lowest in silica
Crystallize at higher temperatures

Compositional Groups

Composition and Texture

Extrusive and intrusive rocks can have identical
composition
Examples:
gabbro vs. basalt
pyroxene, plagioclase,
amphibole, and olivine

granite vs. rhyolite

feldspar, quartz, biotite
and/or amphibole

Composition and Texture

Most chemical and mineralogical compositions in
felsic-to-mafic series can exhibit extrusive
(aphanitic) or intrusive (phaneritic) textures
Highly mafic (ultramafic) rocks, which exhibit low
silica content are the exception
only phaneritic textures are observed in these rocks

Classification Model

Felsic Rocks
Chemistry:
Poor in iron and magnesium
Rich in silica

Mineralogy:
Quartz
Orthoclase feldspar (K)
Plagioclase feldspar (Na, Ca)
Micas and/or amphiboles

Appearance:
Light in colour
Phaneritic or aphanitic texture

Granite

Intermediate Igneous Rocks

Chemistry:
Intermediate iron and magnesium
Intermediate silica

Mineralogy:
Plagioclase felspars
Quartz (granodiorite)
Pyroxene (diorite)
Micas and/or amphibole

Appearance:
Colours fall between
felsic and mafic rock
Phaneritic or aphanitic texture

Granodiorite

Diorite

Mafic Rocks
Chemistry:
Relatively high iron and magnesium
Lower silica content

Mineralogy:
Large proportions of pyroxenes
and olivines
Moderate amounts of Ca-rich
plagioclase feldspar
No quartz

Appearance:
Dark in colour
Phaneritic or aphanitic texture

Basalt

Ultramafic Rocks
Chemistry:
High magnesium
Relatively high iron
Lower silica content (~40 45%)

Mineralogy:
Primarily olivine and
pyroxene
< 10% feldspar, no quartz

Appearance:
Dark , greenish gray
Phaneritic texture

Peridotite

Felsic to Mafic Trends

Strong correlation
between mineralogy and
crystallization/melting
temperature
Silica content increases in
felsic rocks
Mafic minerals melt at
higher temperatures
Viscosity increases with
silica content
Density increases with
decreasing silica content

Generation of Magma
Complete melting of rocks generally rarely occurs
at a single temperature
Melting points are controlled by four principal
factors:
Temperature
Pressure
Water content
Composition

Generation of Magma
Conditions suitable for melting rock melts typically
occurs in the lower crust and upper mantle
Typical magma temperatures range from 700 to 1200C

Majority of lithosphere and mantle is solid

Melting occurs in high-temperature, low-pressure
environments:
Mid-ocean ridges
Mantle plumes (hot spots)
Island arc (subduction zones)

Generation of Magma

Geothermal Gradient

Geotherm: Earths interior temperature profile with depth

Solidus: Temperature below which a rock is completely solid

Partial Melting
Rocks often undergo incomplete or partial melting
at a given temperature
Mineral composition controls the melting
temperature of rocks
Felsic minerals melt at lower temperatures
Mafic minerals melt at higher temperatures

Temperatures of ~1000C are typically required for

partial melting of crustal rocks
These temperatures occur at depths > 40km

Partial Melting
Ratio of solid to partial melt depends upon proportions
and melting temperatures of minerals in the original rock

Partial Melting
Partial melting of peridotite
within the mantle produces
most basaltic magmas
1 2 % melting in the upper mantle
15 20% melting at mid-ocean ridges
Partial melt and crystallized basalt are enriched in silica
relative to peridotite
felsic minerals begin to melt at lower temperatures
Describes density differences among the upper mantle,
oceanic lithosphere, and continental lithosphere!

The Crust
Less dense continental
crust floats on denser
mantle

0 (km)
10
20
30
40
50

Oceanic crust
(3.0 g/cm3)

Continental crust
is less dense than
oceanic crust.

Continental crust
(2.8 g/cm3)

Mantle
(3.4 g/cm3)

Moho
discontinuity

Why do densities of continental and oceanic crust differ?

Continental crust has higher silica content
Oceanic crust contains more aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and iron

Decompression Melting
Pressure increases with depth within Earth
Temperature at which minerals melt also increases

Melting temperatures for rocks with given

composition increase with pressure
Rocks in most of the crust and mantle remain solid

At a given temperature, rock can melt if confining

pressure decreases
This process is known as decompression melting

This process leads to formation of basalt at midocean ridges

Decompression Melting

Fluid-Induced Melting
The presence of water lowers the melting
temperature of rocks
Example: melting temperature of albite decreases from
~1000 to 800C if large amounts of water are present

Dissolving one substance (water) in another (rock)

lowers the melting temperature of the solution
Water-content is particularly important factor in
the melting of sedimentary rocks
Pore spaces contain large volumes of water

Magma Chambers
Magma has lower density than parent solid rock
Density difference causes magma to move slowly
upward through voids and fractures
Rising hot magmas cause partial melting and
displacement of surrounding country rock
Pools of molten rock called magma chambers
develop in the lithosphere
Can be several cubic kilometers in volume
Expel magma to Earths surface during volcanic
eruptions

Magmatic Differentiation
Theory which describes compositional changes in
rocks relative to a uniform parent magma
Primary cause of compositional change is cooling
of magma
Different minerals crystallize at different temperatures
Last minerals to melt are the first to crystallize in a
cooling magma
Segregation of precipitated minerals from magma is
referred to as fractional crystallization
Chemical composition of magma changes as a result

Fractional Crystallization
Crystals formed in a cooling magma and are
segregated from the remaining liquid
Bowens reaction series

Fractional Crystallization
As magma cools, minerals crystallize at different
temperatures and settle out in a particular order
Example: The Palisades Intrusion

Fractional Crystallization

Magmatic Differentiation
Example: Granite from Basalt
Basaltic magmas far more common than rhyolitic ones
Why did granite become so abundant in Earths crust?
Partial melting of basaltic magma should produce
andesitic magma

Magmatic Differentiation
Melting of varied rock types in the upper mantle
and crust must cause variation in magma
composition:
1. Rocks in upper mantle undergo partial melting to
produce basaltic magmas
2. Mixtures of sedimentary rock and basaltic oceanic
crust melt to form andesitic magmas
3. Mixtures of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic
continental crustal rocks melt to produce rhyolitic
magmas

Magmatic Differentiation

Magmatic Differentiation
Process is more complex that just partial melting
and fractional crystallization
Begins with partial melting of mantle and crustal rocks
under a range of conditions
Non-uniform cooling drives fractional crystallization and
exchange between magma chambers can cause spatial
variations in magma composition
Immiscible magmas present in a single magma chamber
will undergo separate fractional crystallization; miscible
magmas within a single magma chamber will follow a
different fractional crystallization pathway than a single
magma type

Igneous Intrusions

Plutons
Plutons are large igneous bodies that form deep
within Earths crust
Their size, shape and relationship to country rock
are highly variable
Form by several processes, collectively referred to
as magmatic stoping
Wedging open overlying rock
Melting surrounding rock
Breaking off large blocks of rock (xenoliths)

Magmatic Stoping

Plutons
Most plutons show sharp contact with country rock
The largest plutons are called batholiths
at least 100 km2 in areal extent

Smaller plutons are called stocks

Batholiths and stocks are discordant intrusions

Cut across layers of country rock they intrude
Xenolith

Half dome, California

Sills and Dikes

Sills and dikes are sheet-like igneous bodies
formed by injection of magma into country rock
Sills are concordant intrusions because their
boundaries are parallel to bedded layers of
country rock
Dikes are discordant intrusions because their
boundaries cut across bedded layers of country
rock

Sills and Dikes

Sills
Exhibit a wide range in thickness and extent
Range form a centimeter to hundreds of meters in
thickness, and can extend kilometers in length

Differ from lava flows and pyroclastic deposits in

four key ways:
1. Lack ropy, blocky and vesicular structures
2. Are more coarse-grained than volcanic rocks
3. Adjacent country rock exhibits signs of metamorphism
4. Do not exhibit layered structure that can develop from
successive lava flows

Dikes
The major route of magma transport in the crust
Can form by forcing open existing fractures in
country rock
Xenoliths commonly observed in dikes

Exhibit a wide range in thickness and extent

Thickness may range from several meters to
centimeters, and may be many kilometers in length

Dikes commonly exist in swarms

Numerous dikes form in regions where country rock has
been deformed by large igneous intrusion

Sills and Dikes

Sills and Dikes

Depth of intrusion dictates texture or rock within
sills and dikes
Those that formed near Earths surface tend have
aphanitic texture, whereas those that formed deeper in
the crust tend to exhibit phanertic texture

Veins and Pegmatites

Veins are mineral deposits within rock fractures
that are foreign to the surrounding country rock
Pegmatites are veins of extremely coarse-grained
granite that cut across finer-grained country rock
Mineral crystals > 2cm
long; can be much larger
Results from slow cooling
of magma extra rich in
dissolved water
Water allows elements
to rapidly diffuse to
crystallization sites

Pegmatites
Most exhibit a felsic composition
commonly contain quartz, feldspar and mica (granite)
intermediate and mafic pegmatites are very rare

Pegmatites are an important source of:

Rare minerals that contain beryllium,
lithium, neodynium, etc.
Gemstones including beryl,
emerald, topaz, zircon, etc.
Industrial minerals including
large sheets of mica and
feldspars

5 cm

Igneous Processes and Tectonics

Photo by DAVID ILIFF. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0

Igneous Processes and Tectonics

Igneous Processes and Tectonics

Rock composition and igneous processes are
linked by plate tectonics
Large volumes of magma are produced at plate
boundaries (mantle plumes also important):
Spreading centers
Convergent boundaries

Temperature and pressure conditions linked to

tectonic processes drive magmatic differentiation
Partial melting
Fractional crystallization

Magma Factories

Magma Factories

Spreading Centers
Mid-ocean ridges produce largest volume of
igneous rocks
Produce ~19 km3 of basaltic magma annually
Active volcanoes generate <1km3 per year

Magma generated by
decompression melting
of mantle rocks
magma chambers are
generated below the
ridge axis

Ophiolite Suite

Spreading Centers
Peridotite undergoes partial melting in the upper
mantle
Comprised of olivine and lesser amounts of pyroxene
Partial melting produces basaltic magma

Magma chamber formed below crest of mid-ocean

ridge separate into three layers:
Portion of magma rises and erupts to ocean floor,
generating pillow basalts
Additional magma solidifies in the cracks as vertical,
sheeted dikes of gabbro
Remaining magma solidifies as massive gabbro
intrusions as magma chamber collapses and cools

Spreading Centers

Spreading Centers
These basic igneous units are the basic
layers of oceanic lithosphere worldwide
Composition of residual peridotite layer
differs from convecting asthenosphere
How?

This peridotite layer provides rigidity to

oceanic lithosphere
Deep-sea sediment covers pillow basalts,
forming sedimentary rocks over time

Subduction Zones
Composition of magmas more variable than at
spreading centers
Generated from oceanic crust, continental crust,
seafloor sediments, mantle peridotite and water

Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics

Subduction Zones
Fluid-induced melting is the basic mechanism of
magma production
Sedimentary rocks that form on oceanic lithosphere
contain water
Seawater also reacts with basalt near spreading centers
to form hydrous minerals

Water released as subducting rock is subjected to

increasing temperature and pressure
This water reduces melting temperatures

Subduction Zones

Subduction Zones
Magmas produced by fluid-induced melting
exhibit variable composition
Initial composition is further altered by magmatic
differentiation
Fractional crystallization
Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magmas evolve to andesitic magmas

Silica content shifts from mafic to intermediate

Mantle Plumes
Sites of decompression
melting located within
lithospheric plates
Plumes of hot mantle
material rise
Perhaps from as deep
as the core-mantle boundary

Review Questions
Refer to the classification model for igneous rocks when answering these
questions. You will be provided with this figure on your exams!

How would you classify a coarse-grained igneous rock that

contains about 50% pyroxene and 50% olivine?
What kind of rock would contain some plagioclase feldspar
crystals about 5 mm long floating in a dark gray matrix of
crystals less than 1mm?
How would you classify a rock containing very large crystals
(> 5 cm) with orthoclase feldspar, Na-rich plagioclase
feldspar, quartz, micas and/or amphibole?

Review Exercise

A
Texture: aphanitic
Colour: light
Minerals: orthoclase feldspar?
Rock: rhyolite

D
Texture: aphanitic
Composition: dark (mafic)
Minerals: pyroxene?
Rock: basalt

C
Texture: phaneritic
Composition: dark/green (ultramafic)
Minerals: olivine
Rock: peridotite

Textures: vesicular, porphyritic

Composition: dark (mafic)
Minerals: olivine phenocrysts
Rock: basalt

E
Texture: phaneritic
Composition: light (felsic)
Minerals: orthoclase feldspar, quartz, biotite
Rock: granite

F
Textures: porphyritic
Composition: intermediate
Minerals: amphibole phencrysts
Rock: andesite

Review Questions
Why are intrusive igneous rocks coarse-grained (phaneritic)
and extrusive igneous rocks fine-grained (aphanitic)?
What kinds of minerals would you find in a mafic igneous
rock? What kinds of igneous rocks contain quartz?
How does fractional crystallization lead to magmatic
differentiation?
Where in the crust, mantle or core would you find a partial
melt of basaltic composition?
Water is abundant in the sedimentary rocks and oceanic
crust of subduction zones. How would the water affect
melting in these zones?

Key Terms and Concepts

Andesite

Fractional crystallization

Basalt

Gabbro

Batholith

Granite

Bomb

Intermediate rock

Concordant intrusion

Intrusive igneous rock

Country rock

Lava

Decompression melting

Mafic rock

Dike

Magma chamber

Discordant intrusion

Magmatic dierentiation

Extrusive igneous rock

Obsidian

Felsic rock

Ophiolite suite

Fluid-induced melting

Partial melting

Key Terms and Concepts

Pegmatite

Sill

Peridotite

Stock

Pluton

Tu

Porphyry

Ultramafic rock

Pumice

Vein

Pyroclast

Viscosity

Rhyolite

Volcanic ash