Ecuador

For other uses, see Ecuador (disambiguation).

1 History
Equador redirects here. For the city in Brazil, see
Equador, Rio Grande do Norte.
Main articles: History of Ecuador and Indigenous
Not to be confused with Equator.
peoples in Ecuador
Ecuador ( i /kwdr/ E-kw-dawr), ocially the Republic of Ecuador (Spanish: Repblica del Ecuador
[repulika el ekwaor], which literally translates as
Republic of the Equator"), is a representative democratic republic in northwestern South America, bordered
by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and
the Pacic Ocean to the west. Ecuador also includes the
Galpagos Islands in the Pacic, about 1,000 kilometres
(620 mi) west of the mainland.

1.1 Pre-Inca era

Before the arrival of the Incas, the area was settled by various peoples. Some likely sailed to Ecuador by rafts from
Central America, others came to Ecuador via the Amazon
tributaries, others descended from northern South America, and others ascended from the southern part of South
America through the Andes or by sailing on rafts. They
What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of indigenous
developed dierent languages while emerging as unique
groups that were gradually incorporated into the Inca
ethnic groups.
Empire during the fteenth century. The territory was
colonized by Spain during the sixteenth century, achiev- These groups developed similar cultures, even though
ing independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, from their languages were unrelated, because they lived in the
which it emerged as its own sovereign state in 1830. The same environment. The people of the coast developed a
legacy of both empires is reected in Ecuadors ethnically shing, hunting, and gathering culture; the people of the
diverse population, with most of its 15.2 million people highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way
being mestizos, followed by large minorities of European, of life; and the people of the Amazon basin developed a
nomadic hunting and gathering way of life.
Amerindian, and African descendants.
Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area
became one community or tribe, with a similar language
and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as
the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast,
the Quitus (near present-day Quito), and the Caari (near
present-day Cuenca). Each civilization developed its own
distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests.

Spanish is the ocial language and is spoken by a majority

of the population, though thirteen indigenous languages
are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The
capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil.
In reection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the
historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1978.[8][9] Cuenca, the third-largest city,
was also declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an
outstanding example of a planned, inland Spanish-style
colonial city in the Americas.[10]

In the highland Andes mountains, where life was more

sedentary, groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages; thus, the rst nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals were formed.
Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their
leaders, a group of nations formed confederations. One
region was consolidated under a confederation called the
Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering
between the dierent regions. Its political and military
power was under the rule of the Duchicela blood line.

Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting

many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the
Galpagos Islands. It is one of seventeen megadiverse
countries in the world,.[11][12] The new constitution of
2008 is the rst in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights.[13]
Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic.
A
medium-income country, its developing economy is
highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and
agricultural products.

1.2 Inca era

When the Incas arrived, they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers - Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Ca1

2
pac - to absorb these confederations into the Inca Empire.
The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to far away areas of Peru, Bolivia, and
north Argentina. Similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to
prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador
became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same
language.
In contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal
Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador,
they found both the environment and natives more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them,
these natives withdrew to the interior and resorted to
guerrilla tactics. As a result, Inca expansion into the
Amazon basin and the Pacic coast of Ecuador was hampered. The natives of the Amazon jungle and coastal
Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force. The Amazonian natives and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were
the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination,
maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st
century.
Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Inca Empire was
involved in a civil war. The untimely death of both the
heir Ninan Cuchi and the Emperor Huayna Capac, from
a European disease that spread into Ecuador, created a
power vacuum between two factions. The northern faction headed by Atahualpa claims that Huayna Capac gave
a verbal decree before his death about how the empire
should be divided. He gave the territories pertaining to
present-day Ecuador and northern Peru to his favorite son
Atahualpa, who was to rule from Quito; and he gave the
rest to Huscar, who was to rule from Cuzco. He willed
that his heart be buried in Quito, his favorite city, and the
rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco.

HISTORY

made good his promise of lling a room full of gold. But,

after a mock trial, the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by
strangulation.

1.3 Colonization
New infectious diseases, endemic to the Europeans,
caused high fatalities among the indigenous population
during the rst decades of Spanish rule, as they had no
immunity. This was a time when the natives were also
forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish.
In 1563, Quito became the seat of a real audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty
of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
After nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was
still a small city numbering 10,000 inhabitants. On August 10, 1809, the citys criollos rst called for independence from Spain (among the peoples of Latin America).
They were led by Juan Po Montfar, Quiroga, Salinas,
and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo. Quitos nickname, "Luz de
Amrica" (Light of America), is based on its leading
role in trying to secure an independent and local government. Although the new government lasted no more than
two months, it had important repercussions and was an
inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of
Spanish America.
Ingapirca ruins northeast of Caar canton, Caar
Province
One of the main events in the conquest of the Incan
Empire was the death of Atahualpa, the last Sapa
Inca on August 29, 1533

Spanish Historical Center in Quito

Huscar did not recognize his fathers will, since it did
Shipwrights from Francisco de Orellanas expedinot follow Inca traditions of naming an Inca through the
tion building a small brigantine, the San Pedro.
priests. Huscar ordered Atahualpa to attend their fathers burial in Cuzco and pay homage to him as the new
Inca ruler. Atahualpa, with a large number of his fathers
veteran soldiers, decided to ignore Huscar, and a civil 1.4 Independence
war ensued. A number of bloody battles took place until
nally Huscar was captured. Atahualpa marched south Main article: Ecuadorian War of Independence
to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with On October 9, 1820, Guayaquil became the rst city in
Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain. The peohis brother.
ple were very happy about the independence and celeA small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro
brated, which is now Ecuadors independence day, olanded in Tumbez and marched over the Andes Mouncially on May 24, 1822. The rest of Ecuador gained its
tains until they reached Cajamarca, where the new Inca
independence after Antonio Jos de Sucre defeated the
Atahualpa was to hold an interview with them. Valverde,
Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha, near
the priest, tried to convince Atahualpa that he should
Quito. Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simn Boljoin the Catholic Church and declare himself a vassal
var's Republic of Gran Colombia joining with modernof Spain. This infuriated Atahualpa so much that he
day Colombia and Venezuela. In 1830 it separated from
threw the Bible to the ground. At this point the enthose nations and became an independent republic.
raged Spaniards, with orders from Valverde, attacked
and massacred unarmed escorts of the Inca and captured The 19th century for Ecuador was marked by instability,
Atahualpa. Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he with a rapid succession of rulers. The rst president of
Ecuador was the Venezuelan-born Juan Jos Flores, who

1.6

Loss of claimed territories since 1830

The States of Ecuador, Cundinamarca, and Venezuela formed

The Republic of Great Colombia.

Antique dug out canoes in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the Historic Center of Quito

The Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land
owners. This liberal wing retained power until the military Julian Revolution of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s
were marked by instability and emergence of populist
politicians, such as ve-time President Jos Mara Velasco Ibarra.

1.6 Loss of claimed territories since 1830

Main article: History of the EcuadorianPeruvian territorial dispute

Antonio Jos de Sucre

was ultimately deposed, followed by several authoritarian leaders, such as Vicente Rocafuerte; Jos Joaqun de
Olmedo; Jos Mara Urbina; Diego Noboa; Pedro Jos
de Arteta; Manuel de Ascsubi; and Floress own son,
Antonio Flores Jijn, among others. The conservative
Gabriel Garcia Moreno unied the country in the 1860s
with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the
late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the Presidencia of Quito in 1740 in Yellow, according to President
Juan Jos Flores territorial claims for Ecuador
highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.
Ecuador abolished slavery and freed its black slaves in
1851.[14]

1.5

Liberal Revolution

Main article: Liberal Revolution of 1895

1.6.1 President Juan Jos Flores de Jure Territorial

Claims for Ecuador
Since Ecuadors separation from Colombia in May 13,
1830, its rst President, General Juan Jos Flores, laid
claim to the territory that was called the Real Audien-

cia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito.

He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees or
Real Cedulas, that delineated the borders of Spains former overseas colonies. In the case of Ecuador, Floresbased Ecuadors de jure claims on the following cedulas
- Real Cedula of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that
were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829)
which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly
outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio Jos
de Sucre defeated President and General La Mars Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui. In addition, Ecuadors eastern border with the Portuguese colony
of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modied before the
wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso
(1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese
Empire. Moreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on
February 16, 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain,
whereby Flores convinced Spain to ocially recognize
Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial
titles over Spains former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito.
Ecuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most
of its contested territories to each of its more powerful
neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in
1904 through a series of peaceful treaties, and Peru after
a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was
signed in 1942.

1.6.2

Struggle for Independence

During the struggle for independence, before Peru or

Ecuador became independent nations, a few areas of the
former Vice Royalty of New Granada - Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jan - declared themselves independent from
Spain. A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martin decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jan with the intention of
using these towns as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then to liberate the rest of the
Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador). It was common knowledge among the top ocers of the liberation army from
the south that their leader San Martin wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic
of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it. But, Bolvar's intention
was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia,
out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada
which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador.
San Martins plans were thwarted when Bolvar, with the
help of Marshal Antonio Jos de Sucre and the Gran
Colombian liberation force, descended from the Andes
mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed
the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia. This happened a few days before San Martins Peruvian forces could arrive and occupy Guayaquil, with the intention of annexing Guayaquil

HISTORY

to the rest of Audiencia of Quito (Ecuador) and to the

future republic of Peru. Historic documents repeatedly
stated that San Martin told Bolivar he came to Guayaquil
to liberate the land of the Incas from Spain. Bolivar countered by sending a message from Guayaquil welcoming
San Martin and his troops to Colombian soil.
1.6.3 Peruvian occupation of Jan, Tumbez, and
Guayaquil
In the south, Ecuador had de jure claims to a small
piece of land beside the Pacic Ocean known as Tumbez, which lay between the Zarumilla and Tumbez rivers.
In Ecuadors southern Andes Mountain region where the
Maraon cuts across, Ecuador had de jure claims to an
area it called Jan de Bracamoros. These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar in December 17, 1819, during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created. Tumbez declared itself independent from Spain
on January 17, 1821, and Jaen de Bracamoros on June
17, 1821, without any outside help from revolutionary
armies. However, that same year, 1821, Peruvian forces
participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both
Jaen and Tumbez. Some Peruvian generals, without any
legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia, had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of
the Gran Colombia, feeling that Ecuador was once part
of the Inca Empire. Then on July 28, 1821, Peruvian
independence was proclaimed in Lima by the Liberator
San Martin and Tumbez and Jaen which were included as
part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force, had the whole region swear allegiance to the
new Peruvian ag and incorporated itself into Peru, even
though Peru was not completely liberated from Spain.
After Peru was completely liberated from Spain by the
patriot armies led by Bolivar and Antonio Jose Sucre at
the Battle of Ayacucho dated December 9, 1824, there
was a strong desire by some Peruvians to resurrect the
Inca Empire and to include Bolivia and Ecuador. One of
these Peruvian Generals was the Ecuadorian-born Jos de
La Mar, who became one of Perus presidents after Bolivar resigned as dictator of Peru and returned to Colombia. Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the
return of Jaen and Tumbez for almost a decade, then nally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaen, Tumbez, and part of Mainas, declared war.
President and General Jos de La Mar, who was born in
Ecuador, believing his opportunity had come to annex the
District of Ecuador to Peru, personally, with a Peruvian
force, invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities
in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on November 28,
1828. The war ended when a triumphant heavily outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of
Tarqui dated February 27, 1829, led by Antonio Jos de
Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar. This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty

1.6

Loss of claimed territories since 1830

of Guayaquil dated September 22, 1829, whereby Peru

and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over
Tumbez, Jaen, and Maynas. Through protocolized meetings between representatives of Peru and Gran Colombia,
the border was set as Tumbez river in the west and in the
east the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed
toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them.
However, what was pending was whether the new border
around the Jaen region should follow the Chinchipe river
or the Huancabamba river. According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and
Jan; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to
return Tumbez and Jan, alleging that it was not obligated
to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased
to exist when it divided itself into three dierent nations
- Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

1.6.4

The Dissolution of Gran Colombia

The Gran Colombia showing all Colombian Land Claims outlined in red

5
its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on May 13, 1830. After Ecuadors separation, the
Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself
with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota. President Juan Jos Flores with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on December 20, 1830, since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of
the South as far back as April 1830. Moreover, the Cauca
region throughout its long history had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador. Also,
the Cauca region which included such cities as Pasto,
Popayan, and Buenaventura had always been dependent
on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito. Fruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogota
and Quito, where the government of Bogota didn't recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from
the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832. In
ve months, New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the
fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces
were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from
Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to ght against
their fellow countrymen. Seeing that his ocers were rebelling, mutinying, and changing sides, President Flores
had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New
Granada. The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by
which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New
Granada (modern Colombia), the government of Bogota
recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the
border was to follow the Ley de Divisin Territorial de
la Repblica de Colombia (Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia) passed on June 25, 1824.
This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern
border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquet river. Later,
Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia, while
reorganizing its government, unlawfully made its eastern
border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims
south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayan extended its control all the way to the
Napo River.
1.6.5 Struggle for Possession of the Amazon Basin
known as Maynas

Ecuador in 1830

The Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as

Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with
its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation
of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with

When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru

decided not follow the treaty of Guayaquil of 1829 or the
protocoled agreements made. Peru contested Ecuadors
claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802,
by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred
these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to
the Viceroyalty of Peru. During colonial times this was
to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into
Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their
bases along the Amazon Basin. Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument,
which had nothing to do with political borders. Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian terri-

HISTORY

1880 to 1910, but to no avail.

In the early part of the 20th century Ecuador made an
eort to peacefully dene its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbors through negotiation. On May 6,
1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar - Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazils claims to the Amazon in recognition of
Ecuadors claim to be an Amazonian country to counter
Perus earlier Treaty with Brazil back in October 23,
1851. Then after a few meetings with the Colombian
governments representatives an agreement was reached
and the Muoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed July
15, 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo
river were recognized as well as Ecuadors rights to the
Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those to rivers. In this way Ecuador gave up
the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the
Caquet River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting
itself o from Brazil. Later a brief war erupted between
Colombia and Peru, over Perus claims to the Caquet region, which ended with the Peru reluctantly signing the
Salomon-Lozano Treaty on March 24, 1922. Ecuador
protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away
Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given
to Colombia in 1916.

South America (1879): All land claims by Peru, Ecuador,

Colombia, Brazil, Chile, and Bolivia in 1879

tories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of

Brazil. This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were
conrmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese
treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers. Peru began occupying the defenseless missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region which it began calling Loreto with its capital in Iquitos. During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru stated that
based on the royal cedula of 1802, it claimed Amazonian
Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and
toward the Andes Mountain range, depriving Ecuador
and Colombia of all their claims to the Amazon Basin.
Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south
toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Ecuador protested
that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta
river and the Maraon-Amazon river. Peru ignored these
protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853
with its capital in Iquitos which it had recently invaded
and systematically began to occupy using the river systems in all the territories claimed by both Colombia and
Ecuador. Peru briey occupied Guayaquil again in 1860,
since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the
disputed land for development to British bond holders,
but returned Guayaquil after a few months. The border
dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from

In July 21, 1924 the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol

was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed
to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in
an equitable manner and to submit the diering points
of the dispute to the United States for arbitration. Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on September 30, 1935.
These negotiations were long and tiresome. Both sides
logically presented their cases, but no one seemed to give
up their claims. Then on February 6, 1937, Ecuador presented a transactional line which Peru rejected the next
day. The negotiations turned into intense arguments during the next 7 months and nally on September 29, 1937
the Peruvian representatives decided to break o the negotiations without submitting the dispute to arbitration
because the direct negotiations were going nowhere.
Four years later in 1941, amid fast-growing tensions
within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River,
war broke out with Peru. Peru claimed that Ecuadors
military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an
invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and
that Peru since Ecuadors independence from Spain has
systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaen, and most of the
disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the
Putomayo and Maraon Rivers. In July 1941, troops
were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of
11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only
1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on July 5, 1941, when Peruvian forces
crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing
the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops.

1.7

Military governments (197279)

Finally, on July 23, 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro.

Ecuadorian troops during the Cenepa War

Map of Ecuadorian Land Claims after 1916

During the course of the EcuadorianPeruvian War, Peru

gained control over part of the disputed territory and
some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of
the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims. The Peruvian Navy
blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops. After a few weeks of war
and under pressure by the United States and several Latin
American nations, all ghting came to a stop. Ecuador
and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on January 29, 1942, in favor of hemispheric
unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favoring
Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war
came to an end.
The 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a militarycivilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Ro as a dictator
from Ecuadors government. However a post-Second
World War recession and popular unrest led to a return
to populist politics and domestic military interventions
in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline
brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast,
making Ecuador South Americas second largest oil exporter. The pipeline in southern Ecuador did nothing to
resolve tensions between Ecuador and Peru, however.
The Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote Cordillera del Cndor region in southern Ecuador. This caused a longsimmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to ghting between the two countries; rst
a border skirmish in JanuaryFebruary 1981 known as
the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in
January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down
Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry
marched into southern Ecuador. Each country blamed
the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa

The Mirage F.1JA (FAE-806) was one aircraft involved in the

claimed shooting down of two Peruvian Sukhoi Su-22 on February 10, 1995.

War. Sixto Durn Balln, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador. Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: grati could be
seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the "Cain
de Latinoamrica", a reference to the murder of Abel by
his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis.[15]
Ecuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act
peace agreement on October 26, 1998, which ended hostilities, and eectively put an end to the Western Hemispheres longest running territorial dispute.[16] The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and
the United States of America) ruled that the border of
the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the
Cordillera del Cndor. While Ecuador had to give up
its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes
of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area
of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to
Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, one
square kilometre of its territory, in the area where the
Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza focal point of the war had
been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conict. The nal border demarcation came into eect on May 13, 1999 and the
multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for
Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on June
17, 1999.[16]

1.7 Military governments (197279)

In 1972, a revolutionary and nationalist military junta
overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup
d'tat was led by General Guillermo Rodrguez and ex-

2 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

ecuted by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new

president exiled Jos Mara Velasco to Argentina. He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by
another military government. That military junta was
led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council included two other members:General Guillermo Durn Arcentales and General Luis Leoro Franco. The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections. Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister,
proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections. This plan
enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive oce.

1.8

Return to democracy

and provision of social services, and historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along
with the continuing destabilizing eorts by both the elite
and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the
executive oce. The populace and the other branches
of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutirrez from oce by Congress in April
2005. Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place and
remained in oce until the presidential election of 2006,
in which Rafael Correa gained the presidency.[17]
In December 2008, president Correa declared Ecuadors
national debt illegitimate, based on the argument that it
was odious debt contracted by corrupt and despotic prior
regimes. He announced that the country would default on
over $3 billion worth of bonds; he then pledged to ght
creditors in international courts and succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60%.[18]
He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the
Americas in June 2009. To date, Correas administration
has succeeded in reducing the high levels of poverty and
unemployment in Ecuador.[19][20][21][22][23]

Elections were held on April 29, 1979, under a new constitution. Jaime Rolds Aguilera was elected president,
garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian
history. He took oce on August 10, as the rst constitutionally elected president after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships. In 1980, he founded the
Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia (People, Change,
and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the Con- 2 Government and politics
centracin de Fuerzas Populares (Popular Forces Concentration) and governed until May 24, 1981, when he Main article: Politics of Ecuador
died along with his wife and the minister of defense, The current state of Ecuador consists of ve state funcMarco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed
in heavy rain near the Peruvian border. Many people believe that he was assassinated, given the multiple
death threats leveled against him because of his reformist
agenda, deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses
before they could testify during the investigation, and the
sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident.
Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado, who was followed in 1984
by Len Febres Cordero from the Social Christian
Party. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left
(Izquierda Democrtica, or ID) party won the presidency
in 1988, running in the runo election against Abdal
Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder
of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government
was committed to improving human rights protection
and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of
Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small
terrorist group, "Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" (Alfaro Lives,
Dammit!"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the The current President Rafael Correa assumed oce on January
ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 15, 2007
1999.
The emergence of the indigenous population (approxi- tions: the Executive Function, the Legislative Function, the
mately 25%) as an active constituency has added to the Judicial Function, the Electoral Function and the Transdemocratic volatility of the country in recent years. The parency and Social Control.
population has been motivated by government failures to Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected Presdeliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment ident, for a four-year term. The current president of

2.3

Judicial branch

Ecuador, Rafael Correa, exercises his power from the

presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The current
constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent
Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008. Since 1936, voting is compulsory for
all literate persons aged 1865, optional for all other
citizens.[24]

the Legislative Palace, and consists of 130 Assemblymen, divided into ten committees, elected for a four-year
period. Fifteen national constituency elected assembly,
two Assembly members elected from each province and
one for every hundred thousand inhabitants or fraction
exceeding one hundred fty thousand, according to the
latest national census of population. In addition, the law
The executive branch includes 25 ministries. Provincial will determine the election of assembly of regions, and
metropolitan districts.
governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish
boards) are directly elected. The National Assembly of
Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in
July and December. There are thirteen permanent com2.3 Judicial branch
mittees. Members of the National Court of Justice are
appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine-year
The judiciary system of the country is made by the Juterms.
dicial Council as its main body, and the National Court
of Justice, Provincial Courts, and tribunes. Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council. The National
2.1 Executive branch
Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a
term of nine years. Judges are renewed by thirds every
Main article: List of heads of state of Ecuador
The Executive Function is delegated to the President, three years, as stipulated in the Organic Code of the Judiciary System. These are elected by the Judicial Council
pursuant to opposition proceedings and merits. As independent organisms of the judiciary system are the Attorney General and the Public Defender. Auxiliary organizations are as follows: the notarial service, the judicial auctioneer, and the receivers. Also there is a special
regime of indigenous justice.

2.4 Electoral branch

Palacio de Carondelet, the executive branch of the Ecuadorian

Government

The Electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur. Its main functions are to organize, control
elections, and punish the infringement of electoral rules.
Its main body is the National Electoral Council, which is
based in the city of Quito, and consists of seven members
of the political parties most voted, enjoying complete nancial and administrative autonomy. This body, along
with the Electoral Tribunal, forms the Electoral Function
which is one of the ve branches of government Ecuador.

currently exercised by Rafael Correa. It is accompanied

by his vice president, currently Jorge Glas, elected for
four years (with the ability to be re-elected only once).
As Head of State and Head of Government, he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of
National Coordinators, Ministers, Ministers of State and
Public Servants. The executive branch denes foreign
policy, appoints the Chancellor of the Republic, as well
as Ambassadors and Consuls, being the ultimate author- 2.5 Transparency and social control
ity over the Armed Forces of Ecuador, National Police
branch
of Ecuador, and appointing authorities. The acting presidents wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador.
The Transparency and Social Control consists of the
Council of Citizen Participation and Social Control, an
ombudsman, the General Comptroller of the State, and
2.2 Legislative branch
the superintendents. Its authorities shall exercise their
posts for ve years. This power is responsible for proMain article: National Assembly (Ecuador)
moting transparency and control plans publicly, as well
as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as
The legislative function is exercised by the National As- also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory
sembly, which is headquartered in the city of Quito in mechanism of accountability in the country.

10

2.6

Human rights

UNs Human Rights Council's (HRC) Universal Periodic

Review (UPR) has treated the restrictions on freedom
of expression and eorts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions
for the expression of opinions, and delay in implementing
judicial reforms. Ecuador rejected the recommendation
on decriminalization of libel.[25]

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS

phasis on multilateral approaches to international issues.

Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most
of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association,
the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America, the Andean Community of Nations, the Union of
South American Nations (UNASUR), and The Bank of
the South (Spanish: Banco del Sur or BancoSur).

According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) President

Correa has intimidated journalists and subjected them to
public denunciation and retaliatory litigation. The sentences to journalists have been years of imprisonment and 3 Administrative divisions
millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants have been pardoned.[25] Correa has stated he was
Main articles: Provinces of Ecuador and Cantons of
only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements.[26]
Ecuador
According to HRW, Correas government has weakened
the freedom of press and independence of the judicial
system. In Ecuadors current judicial system, judges are Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces (Spanish: provinselected in a contest of merits, rather than government ap- cias), each with its own administrative capital:
pointments. However, the process of selection has been
criticized as biased and subjective. In particular, the nal interview is said to be given excessive weighing.
Judges and prosecutors that have made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits have received permanent
posts, while others with better assessment grades have
been rejected.[25][27]
The laws also forbid articles and media messages that
could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate. In the rst half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio
stations were closed down.[25]
In July 2012 the ocials warned the judges that they
would be sanctioned and possibly dismissed if they allowed the citizens to appeal to the protection of their constitutional rights against the state.[25]
People engaging in public protests against environmental
and other issues are prosecuted for terrorism and sabotage, which may lead to an eight-year prison sentence.[25]
Human Rights Watch has been criticized for bias on its Map of Ecuador
reports on Ecuador.[28]

2.7

Foreign aairs

Main article: Foreign relations of Ecuador

Ecuadors principal foreign policy objectives have traditionally included defense of its territory from external aggression and support for the objectives of the United Nations and the OAS. Ecuadors membership in the OPEC
in the 1970s and 1980s allowed Ecuadorian leaders to
exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy. In
Antarctica, Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research
station for scientic study as a member nation of the
Antarctica Treaty. Ecuador has often placed great em- Extent of Ecuadors western EEZ in the Pacic

11
The provinces are divided into cantons and further subdivided into parishes (parroquias).

3.1

Regions and planning areas

Regionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more

adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital Quito. In Ecuador there
are seven regions or zones, each shaped by the following
provinces:
A Puma helicopter from the Armys Aviation Branch

Region 1 (42,126 km, or 16,265 mi2 ): Esmeraldas,

Carchi, Imbabura, and Sucumbios. Administrative
city: Ibarra
Region 2 (43,498 km, or 16,795 mi2 ): Pichincha,
Napo, and Orellana. Administrative city: Tena
Region 3 (44,710 km, or 17,263 mi2 ):
Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Pastaza, and Cotopaxi.
Administrative city: Riobamba
Region 4 (22,257 km, or 8,594 mi2 ): Manab and
Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas. Administrative
city: Ciudad Alfaro
Region 5 (38,420 km, or 14,834 mi2 ): Santa Elena, Ecuadorian Air Force (FAE)
Guayas, Los Ros, Galpagos, and Bolvar. Administrative city: Milagro
Region 6 (38,237 km, or 14,763 mi2 ): Caar,
Azuay, and Morona Santiago. Administrative city:
Cuenca
Region 7 (27,571 km, or 10,645 mi2 ): El Oro,
Loja, and Zamora Chinchipe. Administrative city:
Loja
Quito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts.
Galpagos, despite being included within Region 4, is
also under a special unit.[30]

Military

Main article: Military of Ecuador

The Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas del
Ecuador), consists of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and
have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the
integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory.
The military tradition starts in Gran Colombia, where a
sizable army was stationed in Ecuador due to border disputes with Peru, which claimed territories under its political control when it was a Spanish vice-royalty. Once
Gran Colombia was dissolved after the death of Simn
Bolvar in 1830, Ecuador inherited the same border disputes and had the need of creating its own professional
military force. So inuential was the military in Ecuador

BAE Shyri (SS-101) from the Ecuadorian Navy.

in the early republican period that its rst decade was under the control of General Juan Jose Flores, rst president of Ecuador of Venezuelan origin. General Jose Ma.
Urbina and General Robles are examples of military gures who became presidents of the country in the early
republican period.
Due to the continuous border disputes with Peru, nally
settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency inltrating
Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has
gone through a series of changes. In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget

12

GEOGRAPHY

to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%.[31]

The icons of the Ecuadorian military forces are the Marshall Antonio Jos de Sucre and General Eloy Alfaro. The
Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) graduates the army ocers and is located in Quito.[32] The
Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates the navy ocers,[33] and the Air Academy
Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates the air force ocers.[34] Other training academies
for dierent military specialties are found across the
country.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Ecuador

Ecuador has a total area of 283,520 km2 (109,468 sq mi),
including the Galpagos Islands. Of this, 283,520 km2
(109,468 sq mi) is land and 6,720 km2 (2,595 sq mi) water. Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay, Surinam, Guyana
and French Guyana in South America.

Ecuador lies between latitudes 2N and 5S, bounded on

the west by the Pacic Ocean, and has 2,337 km (1,452
mi) of coastline. It has 2,010 km (1,250 mi) of land
boundaries, with Colombia in the north (590 km, or 370
mi, border) and Peru in the east and south (1,420 km, or
882 mi, border).
The country has four main geographic regions:
La Costa, or the coast": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the West of the Andean
range -, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ros, Manab,
El Oro, Santa Elena. It is the countrys most fer-

Chimborazo volcano, the farthest point from the centre of the

Earth[35][36]

tile and productive land, and is the seat of the large

banana exportation plantations of the companies
Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most
of Ecuadors rice crop is grown. The truly coastal
provinces have active sheries. The largest coastal
city is Guayaquil.
La Sierra, or the highlands": The sierra consists
of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces
- Azuay, Caar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura,
Loja, Pichincha, and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuadors volcanoes and all of its
snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the
traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and
the population is predominantly indigenous Kichua.
The largest Sierran city is Quito.
La Amazona, also known as El Oriente, or the
east": The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces - Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana,
Pastaza, Sucumbos, and Zamora-Chinchipe. This
region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and indigenous intangible zones, which
are vasts stretches of land set aside for the Amazon
indigenous tribes to continue living traditionally. It
is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum
in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here
have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies. The population is primarily mixed indigenous Shuar, Huaorani and Kichua, although there
are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are
little-contacted. The largest city in the Oriente is
probably Lago Agrio in Sucumbos, although Macas
in Morona Santiago runs a close second.
La Regin Insular is the region comprising the
Galpagos Islands, some 1,000 kilometres (620 mi)
west of the mainland in the Pacic Ocean.
Ecuadors capital is Quito, which is in the province
of Pichincha in the Sierra region. Its largest city is
Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province. Cotopaxi, which is
just south of Quito, features one of the worlds highest

5.3

Biodiversity

13

active volcanoes. The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,268

m, or 20,560 ft, above sea level) is considered to be the
most distant point of the Earths surface from the center
of the Earth, given the approximately ellipsoid shape of
the planet.[1]

ing the northsouth rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas,

Chone, Guayas, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes.

Because of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course
of a year. Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the
two six o'clock hours.[1]

internal coast and La Sierra on their way to the Pacic

Ocean. The internal coast, by contrast, is crossed by
perennial rivers that may ood during the rainy season,
sometimes forming swamps.

Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador form in the La Sierra

region and ow east toward the Amazon River or west
toward the Pacic Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt
at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the
5.1 Climate
La Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and
ow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and
Main article: Climate of Ecuador
widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as
they ow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations
of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden
There is great variety in the climate, largely determined
by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain val- as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the
leys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas Oriente.
and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacic coastal area has In the Costa, the external coast has mostly intermita tropical climate with a severe rainy season. The climate tent rivers that are fed by constant rains from Decemin the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, ber through May and become empty riverbeds during the
and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the moun- dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial
tains shares the climate of other rainforest zones.
rivers that ow throughout the external coast from the

Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo,

and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the conuence
5.2 Hydrology
of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise
in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall,
Main article: Rivers of Ecuador
which at sixty-one meters (200 feet) is the highest waThe Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon terfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi
and is the major river used for transport in the eastern
lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from 500 to 1,800
m (1,600 to 5,900 ft). In its upper reaches, the Napo ows
rapidly until the conuence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels o. The
Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All
of these rivers ow into the Amazon River. The Galpagos Islands have no signicant rivers. Several of the
larger islands, however, have freshwater springs although
they are surrounded by the Pacic Ocean.

5.3 Biodiversity

Pastaza River

watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacic, includ- Galpagos tortoise

14

6 ECONOMY
(6,295 km, or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as indigenous tribes)
incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems
such as native forests or grasslands. Eligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the
poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be
protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be
protected, among other factors.[43]

Blue-footed booby

Despite being on the UNESCO list, the Galpagos are

endangered by a range of negative environmental eects,
threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem.[44]
Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest
has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated
wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health eects
to indigenous peoples.[45]

6 Economy
Main article: Economy of Ecuador
Ecuadors economy is the eighth largest in Latin Amer-

Hammerhead sharks

Ecuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the

world according to Conservation International,[11] and it
has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any
nation.[37][38]
Ecuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the worlds
known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more
endemic in the Galpagos. In addition to over 16,000
species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles,
138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of buttery. The Galpagos Islands are well known as a region
of distinct fauna, famous as the place of birth of Darwins Theory of Evolution and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[39]
Ecuador has the rst constitution to recognize the rights
of nature.[40] The protection of the nations biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of Buen Vivir, or good living, Objective
4, Guarantee the rights of nature, Policy 1: Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered
a strategic sector.[41] As of the writing of the Plan in
2008, 19% of Ecuadors land area was in a protected
area; however, the Plan also states that 32% of the land
must be protected in order to truly preserve the nations
biodiversity.[37] Current protected areas include 11 national parks, 10 wildlife refuges, 9 ecological reserves,
and other areas.[42] A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area

Tree map of products exported by Ecuador in the HS4 product

classication.

ica and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between

2000 and 2006.[46] From 2007 to 2012 Ecuadors GDP
grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the
average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which
was 3.5%, according to the United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean
(ECLAC).[47] Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the crisis. In January 2009 the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast
at 6.88%.[48] In 2011 its GDP grew at 8% and ranked
3rd highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd)
and Panama (1st).[49] Between 1999 and 2007, GDP dou-

15
bled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE.[50] Ination rate up to January 2008 was located about 1.14%,
the highest recorded in the last year, according to the
government.[51][52] The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007
until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to
8 percent.[53] Unemployment mean annual rate for 2009
in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis
continued to aect the Latin American economies. From
this point unemployment rates started a downward trend:
7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012.[54]
The extreme poverty rate has declined signicantly between 1999 and 2010.[55] In 2001 it was estimated at 40%
of the population, while by 2011 the gure dropped to
17.4% of the total population.[56] This is explained to an
extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved
after adopting the U.S. dollar as ocial means of transaction. However, starting in 2008 with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been
realized through social spending mainly in education and
health.[57]

fee productions are also signicant. The countrys vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves.[62] Pines and cedars
are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin.[63] The
industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest
industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the
industry has grown considerably. This city is also the
largest business center of the country.[64] Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market. Despite this, there is limited export of products produced
or processed industrially. These include canned foods,
liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more. A minor industrial
activity is also concentrated in Cuenca.[65] The incomes
due to the tourism have been increasing during the last
years because of the eorts of the Government of showing the variety of climates and the biodiversity in Ecuador
http://www.ecuador.travel/.

World Trade Center headquarters in Guayaquil

Reneries in Esmeraldas

Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to

maintaining a positive trade balance.[58] Since the late
1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and
proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels as of
2011.[59]
The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the rst six months of
2012, a huge gure compared with that of 2007, which
reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about
$425 million compared to 2006.[56] The oil trade balance
positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while
non-oil was negative, amounting to $2.842 million. The
trade balance with the United States, Chile, the European Union, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico is positive.
The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia, and Asia is
negative.[60]

Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of
Nations,[66] and an associate member of Mercosur.[67]
It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO),
in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank
(IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF),
Corporacin Andina de Fomento (CAF) and other multilateral agencies.[68][69][70] In April 2007, Ecuador paid
o its debt to the IMF, thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country. The public nance of
Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE),
the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank,
the National Finance Corporation, the Ecuadorian Housing Bank (BEV) and the Ecuadorian Educational Loans
and Grants.[71]

Between 2006 and 2009, the government increased social spending on social welfare and education from 2.6%
to 5.2% of its GDP.[72] Starting in 2007, with an economy surpassed by the economic crisis, Ecuador was subject to a number of economic policy reforms by the govIn the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of ernment that have helped steer the Ecuadorian economy
bananas (rst place worldwide in production and export), to a sustained, substantial, and focused nancial stabilowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa.[61] ity and social policy.[72] Such policies were expansionThe shrimp, sugar cane, rice, cotton, corn, palm, and cof- ary scal policies, of access to housing nance, stimulus

16

6 ECONOMY

packs, and limiting the amount of money reserves banks

could keep abroad.[72] The Ecuadorian Government has
made huge investments in education and infrastructure
throughout the nation, which have improved the lives of
the poor.[73]
In 2000, Ecuador changed its currency from the sucre to
the U.S. dollar following a banking crisis.[74]
On December 12, 2008, president Correa announced
that Ecuador would not pay $30.6 million in interest to
lenders of a $510-million loan, claiming that they were
illegitimate.[74] In addition, it claimed that $3.8 billion in
foreign debt negotiated by previous administrations was
illegitimate because it was authorised without executive
decree.[74] At the time of the announcement, the country had $5.65 billion in cash reserves.[74] http://www.
worlddiplomacy.org States that Since Ecuadors Presi- The U.S. dollar, current currency of the Republic of Ecuador
dent Rafael Correa won a third term in 2013, this should
provide further stability and a good rate of growth for
Ecuadors economy.[75]
coin) of other countries. This was the peso fuerte. The
standard of 903 neness for silver, however, resulted in
a heavy export of the coin. It disappeared as soon as it
entered circulation (Greshams law), grabbed up by the
6.1 Industry
merchants of Guayaquil.
The country has potential for the industry in a variety of By the 1850s, the Quito mint was not receiving enough
sectors, including domestic production of raw materials precious metals to justify its operation. It had to coin a
and manufactured textiles, mining, chemical, petrochem- minimum of 6,000 pesos a year just to meet overhead.
ical, and oil renement. Power generation is also a poten- The mint was shut down temporarily during 1853 while
tial sector that is starting to be developed due to Ecuadors the government considered the options of keeping it open
high water potential in various sectors of the country; or shutting it down permanently. The mint equipment was
the development of products based on the melting or worn and could not produce coins in sucient quantity to
glass materials, production and agro-processed foods, compete with the foreign coin that entered Ecuador.
and pharmaceutical production, among others. The most
relevant project currently under development is the Pa- Congress passed a new monetary law on December 5,
cic renery, located in Manta, which will be one of the 1856, adopting the French decimal system, a standard of
0.900 for silver, and the Ecuadorian Franco. The peso
largest in the region.
remained a unit of account equal to 5 francos. Paper
money was rst issued in 1859 by the Banco de Circulacin y Descuento de Manuel Antonio de Luzarraga in
6.2 Currency
Guayaquil, with banknote denominations of 1, 4, 5, 10,
and 20 pesos.
Main article: Currency of Ecuador
See also: Ecuadorian real
In its infancy, Ecuador was part of Gran Colombia until
1830 as Departamento del Sur. Gran Colombia's monetary regulations retained the old Spanish colonial system.
Ecuador ocially began its own monetary unit on June
28, 1835, when the inscription (rev.) EL ECUADOR
EN COLOMBIA was changed to REPBLICA DEL
ECUADOR. Many regional coins from neighboring
Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, etc., as well as international
units, were in circulation and accepted while Quito fought
counterfeiting and tried to unify its currency. Counterfeiting had reached alarming proportions during 1842. At
this time, Ecuador was on the verge of bankruptcy, and,
since legitimate coins had such imperfections, it was impossible to tell them from the bad coins.

Ecuadors monetary unit, the peso, was renamed sucre

(decree of March 22, 1884, eective April 1). The
1884 monetary law permitted free circulation of the gold
coins of France, Italy, Switzerland, Colombia, etc. As
for silver, the law permitted the import of 5-franc pieces
of France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland etc. opper
(velln) was made legal tender to 5 dcimos. Bank reserves were in silver coins, and banknotes were convertible solely into silver. Ecuador was on a de facto silver
standard and did not coin any gold between 1884 and
1892. President Antonio Flores Jijn announced that
from August 15, 1890, only national coins were allowed
to circulate in Ecuador, and Ecuadors monetary system
was unied.

Following the nancial banking crisis of 1999, the U.S.

On December 29, 1845, President Vicente Ramn Roca dollar became legal tender in Ecuador on March 13,
authorized a coin to compete with the fuertes (full-bodied 2000, and sucre notes ceased being legal tender on

17
September 11. Sucre notes remained exchangeable at Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of 4 lanes on
Banco Central until March 30, 2001, at 25,000 sucres per the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and rundollar. Ecuador now only issues its own centavo coins.
ning via Riobamba to Loja). In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are
the Route Espondilus and/or Ruta del Sol (oriented to
travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon
7 Transport
backbone (which crosses from north to south along the
Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities
of it).
Another major project is developing the road Manta
Tena, the highway Guayaquil Salinas Highway Aloag
Santo Domingo, Riobamba Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park). Other new developments include the
National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge
over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia San Vincente
Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacic
coast.
The Trolebs bus rapid transit system that runs through Quito. It
is the principal BRT in Ecuador.

San Lorenzo

Lita
Carchi
Salinas
Ibarra
Otavalo

Quito

The international airports of Quito and Guayaquil have

experienced a high increase in demand and have required
modernization. In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new
air terminal, once considered the best in South America
and the best in Latin America[77] and in Quito where an
entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance.
However, the main road leading from Quito city centre to
the new airport will only be nished in late 2014, making
current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as
long as two hours during rush hour.[78] Quitos old citycentre airport is being turned into parkland, with some
light industrial use.

8 Electrical power outlets

Latacunga

Ambato

Electrical power outlets in Ecuador are the same as in the

US (110v).

Urbina
Riobamba

Yaguachi

Duran

Milagro

Bucay

Alausi

Huigra

9 Mobile (cellular) phone frequencies

Sibambe

El Tambo
Coyoctor

Cuenca

0km
0mi

40km
30mi

90km
60mi

Mobile (cellular) phone frequencies in Ecuador are 850

MHz, 1900 MHz, and 1700/2100 MHz (LTE).[79]

Railways in Ecuador (interactive map)

Main article: Transport in Ecuador

10 Demographics

The rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian rail- Main article: Ecuadorian people
road and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent
developments in transportation matter.[76]
Ecuadors population is ethnically diverse and the 2011
The roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone im- estimates put Ecuadors population at 15,007,343.[1] The
portant improvement. The major routes are Pan Amer- largest ethnic group (as of 2010) is the Mestizos, who are
ican (under enhancement from four to six lanes from the descendants of Spanish colonists that interbred with

18

10 DEMOGRAPHICS

indigenous peoples, and constitute about 71% of the population. The White Ecuadorians (White Latin American) account for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and
can be found throughout all of Ecuador primarily around
the urban areas. Even though Ecuadors white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants
from Spain, today Ecuadors white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly
from Spain with people from Italy, France, Germany,
and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century. Ecuador also has people of middle eastern extraction that have also joined the ranks of the white minority. These include economically well o immigrants of
Lebanese and Palestinian descent, who are either Christian or Muslim (Islam in Ecuador). In addition, there is
a small European Jewish (Ecuadorian jews) population,
which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in
Guayaquil.[3] Amerindians account for 7% of the current
population. The mostly rural Montubio population of the
coastal provinces of Ecuador, who might be classied as
Pardo account for 7.4% of the population. The AfroEcuadorians is a minority population (7%) in Ecuador,
that includes the Mulattos and zambos, and are largely
based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantely Mestizo provinces of Coastal Baslica del Voto Nacional in old downtown Quito
Ecuador - Guayas and Manabi. In the Highland Andes
where a predominantely Mestizo, white and Amerindian
population exist, the African presence is almost non existent except for a small community in the province of
Imbabura called Chota Valley.

10.1

Religion

Main article: Religion in Ecuador

According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the countrys population have
a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics.
Among the people that have a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic Latin Rite (see List of Roman Catholic dioceses in Ecuador), 11.30% are Protestants, 1.29% are
Jehovahs Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Church of San Francisco
Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).[80][81]
In the rural parts of Ecuador, indigenous beliefs and
Catholicism are sometimes syncretized. Most festivals Jews) and many still speak Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
[84]
Today the Jewish Community of Ecuador
and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, language.
(Comunidad
Juda del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito
many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.
and has approximately 200 members. Nevertheless, this
There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, number is declining because young people leave the counindigenous religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), try for the United States or Israel. The Community has
Buddhists and Bah'. According to their own estimates, a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club, and
the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ac- a cemetery. It supports the Albert Einstein School,
counts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 where Jewish history, religion, and Hebrew classes are
members at the end of 2012.[82] According to their own oered. There are very small communities in Cuenca.
sources, in 2012 there were 77,323 Jehovahs Witnesses The Comunidad de Culto Israelita reunites the Jews of
in the country.[83]
Guayaquil. This community works independently from
The rst Jews arrived in Ecuador in the 16th and 17th the Jewish Community of Ecuador and is composed of
centuries. Most of them are Sephardic Anusim (Crypto- only 30 people.[85]

19

10.2

Nations

particularly in the areas that are popular among expats

and tourists.

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Ecuador

The Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the pluri- 11 Culture
nationality of those who want to exercise their aliation
with their native ethnic groups. Thus, in addition to criol- Main article: Culture of Ecuador
los, mestizos, and Afro-Ecuadorians, some people belong Ecuadors mainstream culture is dened by its Hispanic
to the indigenous nations scattered in a few places in the
coast, Quechua Andean villages, and the Amazonian jungle.

10.3

Population density

The majority of Ecuadorians live in the central provinces,

the Andes mountains, or along the Pacic coast. The
tropical forest region to the east of the mountains (El Oriente) remains sparsely populated and contains only about
3% of the population. Birth rate is 2-1 for each death.
Marriages are usually from 14 and above using parental
consent. About 12.4% of the population is married in the
ages 1519. Divorce rates are moderate.
A mestizo woman in Ecuadorian garment participating in the
Population cities (2010)[29]
Status According to the 2010 Census[86]

2010 Carnaval del Pueblo

mestizo majority, and, like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, inuenced in dierent degrees
10.4 Immigration and emigration
by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by African
elements. The rst and most substantial wave of modern
See also: Emigration from Ecuador
immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists,
following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower numA small east Asian Latino community, estimated at ber of other Europeans and North Americans migrated
2,500, mainly consists of those of Japanese and Chinese to the country in the late 19th and early twentieth cendescent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands turies and, in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World
and shermen in the late 19th century.[1]
War.
In the early years of World War II, Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants, and in 1939, when
several South American countries refused to accept 165
Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship Koenigstein, Ecuador granted them entry permits.[87]
In recent years, Ecuador has grown in popularity among
North American expatriates.[88] They're drawn there by
the authentic cultural experience and beautiful natural
surroundings. Also, Ecuadors favorable residency options make for an easy transition for those who decide
to settle there indenitely.
Another perk that draws many expats to Ecuador is its
low cost of living. Since everything from gas to groceries
costs far less than in North America, its a popular choice
for those who are looking to make the most of their re- Alpaca textile at the Otavalo Artisan Market in the Andes Mountirement budget.
tains, Ecuador
Even real estate in Ecuador is much less than its tropical
counterparts. However, as more and more North Ameri- Since African slavery was not the workforce of the Spancans are discovering Ecuadors potential, property prices ish colonies in the Andes Mountains of South America,
are beginning to rise from where they were a decade ago, given the subjugation of the indigenous people through

20

11

CULTURE

Amerindian language, such as Kichwa (also known as

Quichua), which is one of the Quechuan languages and is
spoken by approximately 2.5 million people in Ecuador,
Colombia, and Peru.[90] Other Amerindian languages
spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by the Aw),
A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken
by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar
and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi),
Tsa'ki (spoken by the Tschila), Paicoca (spoken by the
Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the
Waorani). Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish
are those universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there
are several idiosyncrasies.
Hand Painted Handcrafts at the Otavalo Artisan Market

11.2 Music
evangelism and encomiendas, the minority population of
African descent is mostly found in the coastal northern Main article: Music of Ecuador
province of Esmeraldas. This is largely owing to the The music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a
17th-century shipwreck of a slave-trading galleon o the
northern coast of Ecuador. The few black African survivors swam to the shore and penetrated the then-thick
jungle under the leadership of Anton, the chief of the
group, where they remained as free men maintaining their
original culture, not inuenced by the typical elements
found in other provinces of the coast or in the Andean region. A little later, runaway slaves from Colombia known
as cimarrones joined them. In the small Chota Valley
of the province of Imbabura exist a small community
of Africans among the provinces predominantly mestizo
population. These blacks are descendants of Africans,
who were brought over from Colombia by Jesuits to work
their colonial sugar plantations as slaves. As a general
rule, small elements of zambos and mulattoes coexisted
among the overwhelming mestizo population of coastal
Ecuador throughout its history as gold miners in Loja,
Zaruma, and Zamora and as shipbuilders and plantation
workers around the city of Guayaquil. Today you can nd Julio Jaramillo is an icon of music.
a small community of Africans in the Catamayo valley of
the predominantly mestizo population of Loja.
genre of indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it is the naEcuadors indigenous communities are integrated into the tional genre of music. Through the years, many cultures
mainstream culture to varying degrees,[89] but some may have brought their inuences together to create new types
also practice their own indigenous cultures, particularly of music. There are also dierent kinds of traditional muthe more remote indigenous communities of the Amazon sic like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca,
basin. Spanish is spoken as the rst language by more Bomba (highly established in afro-Ecuadorian societies),
than 90% of the population and as a rst or second lan- and so on. Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples
guage by more than 98%. Part of Ecuadors population of the inuence of foreign cultures. One of the most tracan speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a sec- ditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito. Its
ond language. Two percent of the population speak only originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura).
Amerindian languages.
Sanjuanito is a danceable music used in the festivities
of the mestizo and indigenous cultures. According to
the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, San11.1 Language
juanito was danced by indigenous people during San Juan
Bautistas birthday. This important date was established
Main article: Languages of Ecuador
by the Spaniards on June 24, coincidentally the same date
when indigenous people celebrated their rituals of Inti
Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish, though many speak Raymi.

11.4

11.3

Literature

21

Cuisine

work was written in Quechua. The use of Quipu was

banned by the Spanish,[92] and in order to preserve their
See also: List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods
work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin
Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The
history behind the Inca drama Ollantay, the oldest literary piece in existence for any indigenous language in
America,[93] shares some similarities with the work of
Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his
work burned. The existence of his literary work came
to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was
restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found
a hidden manuscript. The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the Elegy to the Dead
of Atahualpa,[91] a poem written by Collahuazo, which
describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people
of having lost their king Atahualpa.
Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan
Bautista Aguirre, born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan
de Velasco, born in Riobamba in 1727. De Velasco wrote
Ecuadorian ceviche, made of shrimp, lemon, onions, and some
about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the
herbs. Tomato sauce and orange are used at some places but do
Kingdom of Quito (today Ecuador) before the arrival of
not form a part of the basic recipe
the Spanish. His historical accounts are nationalistic, feaand associated agricultural conditions. Most regions in turing a romantic perspective of precolonial history.
Ecuador follow the traditional three course meal of soup,
a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert
and coee to nish. Supper is usually lighter and sometimes consists only of coee or herbal tea with bread.
In the highland region, pork, chicken, beef, and cuy
(guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of
grains (especially rice and corn) or potatoes.
In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with sh,
shrimp, and ceviche being key parts of the diet. Generally, ceviches are served with fried plantain (chies y
patacones), popcorn, or tostado. Plantain- and peanutbased dishes are the basis of most coastal meals. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very
popular. Churrasco is a staple food of the coastal region, especially Guayaquil. Arroz con menestra y carne
asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil, as is fried plantain, which is
often served with it. This region is a leading producer
of bananas, cacao beans (to make chocolate), shrimp,
tilapia, mangos, and passion fruit, among other products.
In the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. Many fruits are available in this
region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.

11.4

Literature

Early literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was inuenced by the Spanish Golden Age.
One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo,[91] an
indigenous chief of a northern village in todays Ibarra,
born in the late 1600s. Despite the early repression and
discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his

Juan Montalvo

Famous authors from the late colonial and early republic

period include Eugenio Espejo, a printer and main author
of the rst newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose
Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his
ode to Simn Bolvar titled Victoria de Junin; Juan Montalvo, a prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera,
famous for his work Cumanda or Tragedy among Sav-

22

12 HEALTH

ages and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Juan A. Martinez with A la Costa';, Dolores Veintimilla;[94] and others.
Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist
Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade;
the essayist Benjamn Carrin; the poets Medardo Angel
Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade, and Luis Alberto Costales;
the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza
(author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio.
In spite of Ecuadors considerable mystique, it is rarely
featured as a setting in contemporary western literature.
One exception is The Ecuadorian Deception, a murder mystery/thriller authored by American Bear Mills. In
it, George d'Hout, a website designer from the United
States is lured under false pretenses to Guayaquil. A corrupt American archaeologist is behind the plot, believing
d'Hout holds the keys to locating a treasure hidden by a
buccaneer ancestor. The story is based on a real pirate by
the name of George d'Hout who terrorized Guayaquil in
the 16th Century.

11.5

Art

The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the

Escuela Quitea, which developed from the 16th to 18th
centuries, examples of which are on display in various old
churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo
Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamn, and Camilo Egas from
the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tbara, Anbal Villacs, Theo Constant,
Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutierrez, Felix
Arauz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist
Movement; and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style. The indigenous people of Tigua, Ecuador,
are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.

Estadio Monumental of Guayaquil.

American countries, is football (soccer).

Its best
known professional teams include Barcelona and Emelec
from Guayaquil; LDU Quito, Deportivo Quito, and El
Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and
Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful soccer team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is
the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores, the Copa Sudamericana, and the Recopa Sudamericana; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA
Club World Cup. The matches of the Ecuadorian national team are the most-watched sporting events in the
country. Ecuador has qualied for the nal rounds of the
2002, the 2006, & the 2014 FIFA World Cups. The 2002
FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a
huge success for the country and its inhabitants. The unusually high elevation of the home stadium in Quito often aects the performance of visiting teams. Ecuador
nished in 2nd place in the CONMEBOL qualiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become
World Champions, Brazil. In the 2006 FIFA World Cup,
Ecuador nished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica nishing second behind Germany in Group A in the 2006
World Cup. They were defeated by England in the second
round.

Ecuador has won only two medals in the Olympic Games,

both gained by 20-km (12 mi) racewalker Jeerson
Prez, who took gold in the 1996 games and silver 12
Main article: Sport in Ecuador
years later. Prez also set a world best in the 2003
The most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South World Championships of 1:17:21 for the 20-km (12 mi)
distance.[95]

11.6

Sports

12 Health

Jeerson Prez, Olympic gold medalist

Main article: Health in Ecuador

The current structure of the Ecuadorian public health
care system dates back to 1967.[96][97] The Ministry of the
Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pblica del Ecuador)
is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of
the public health policies and health care plans. The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic. The current minister, or Ecuadorian
general surgeon, is Carina Vance.

23

IESS Hospital in Latacunga

The philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is

the social support and service to the most vulnerable
population,[98] and its main plan of action lies around
communitarian health and preventive medicine.[98]

Ecuador currently ranks 20, in most ecient health care

countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000.[101]
Ecuadorians have a life expectancy of 75.6 years.[102] The
infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births,[103] a
major improvement from approximately 76 in the early
1980s and 140 in 1950.[104] 23% of children under ve
are chronically malnourished.[103] Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water, and its supply
is provided by mean of water tankers. There are 686
malaria cases per 100,000 people.[105] Basic health care,
including doctors visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008.[103] However,
some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack
necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients.
Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still
expensive for the majority of the population.

13 Education

The public healthcare system allows patients to be treated

without an appointment in public general hospitals by
general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient
clinic (Consulta Externa) at no cost. This is done in
the four basic specialties of pediatric, gynecology, clinic
medicine, and surgery.[99] There are also public hospitals
specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular
group of the population, or provide better treatment in
some medical specialties. Some examples in this group
are the Gynecologic Hospitals, or Maternities, Children
Hospitals, Geriatric Hospitals, and Oncology Institutes.
Although well-equipped general hospitals are found in the
major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hos- ESPOL Guayaquil
pitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family
care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecol- Main article: Education in Ecuador
ogy, clinical medicine, and surgery.[99]
The Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children atCommunity health care centers (Centros de Salud) are
found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas. These are day hospitals that provide treatment to
patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours.[99] The
doctors assigned to rural communities, where the population of indigenous people can be substantial, have small
clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major
cities. The treatment in this case respects the culture of
the community.[99]
The public healthcare system should not be confused with
the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service, which
is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and
who are aliated obligatorily through their employers.
Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute
to the social security system voluntarily and have access to
the medical services rendered by the social security system. The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security (IESS)
has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation.[100]

The Oldest Observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory, founded in 1873 and located in Quito, Ecuador.
The Quito Astronomical Observatory is managed by EPN.[106]

tend school until they achieve a basic level of education,

which is estimated at nine school years.[107] In 1996, the

24

13

EDUCATION

net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of

children stayed in school until the fth grade.[107] The
cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the
government, but families often face signicant additional
expenses such as fees and transportation costs.[107]

almost ve, with the provision that the diploma is not terminal anymore, and it is given with the title of mdico
(medic). Therefore, an MD or PhD in medicine is only
to be obtained overseas until the universities adjust themselves to granting schemes and curriculum as in foreign
Provision of public schools falls far below the levels counterparts. Nonetheless, a mdico can start a career
needed, and class sizes are often very large, and fami- as family practitioner or general medicine physician.
lies of limited means often nd it necessary to pay for
education. In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on
to high school. The Ministry of Education states that the
mean number of years completed is 6.7.

Biblioteca Municipal de Guayaquil

Maldonados High School Riobamba

Ecuador has 61 universities, many of which still confer

terminal degrees according to the traditional Spanish education system,[108] honoring a long tradition of having
some of the oldest universities in the Americas: University of San Fulgencio, founded in 1586 by the Augustines; San Gregorio Magno University, founded in
1651 by the Jesuits; and University of Santo Toms of
Aquino, founded in 1681 by the Dominican order.

This new reorganization, although very ambitious, lacked

the proper path to the homologation of diplomas for
highly educated professionals graduated in the country or
even for the ones graduated in foreign institutions. One of
the points of conict was the imposition of obtaining foreign degrees to current academicians. As today, a Masters degree is a requirement to keep an academic position
and at least a foreign PhD to attain or retain the status of
rector (president of a university) or dcano (dean). For
Ecuadorian researchers and many academicians trained
in the country, these regulations sounded illogical, disappointing, and unlawful since it appeared a question of
a title name conict rather than specialization or science
advancement.

Among the traditional conferred terminal degrees can be

noted the doctorate for medicine and law schools or engineering, physics, chemistry, or mathematics for polytechnic or technology institutes. These terminal degrees, as
in the case of the PhD in other countries, were the main
requirement for an individual to be accepted in academia
as a professor or researcher. In the professional realm, a
terminal degree granted by an accredited institution auto- A debate to modify this and other reforms, specially the
matically provides a professional license to the individual. one which granted control of the Higher Education SysHowever, in 2004, the National Council of Higher Edu- tem by the government, was practically passed with concation (CONESUP), started the reorganization of all the sensus by the multi-partisan National Assembly on Audegree-granting schemes of the accredited universities in gust 4, 2010, but vetoed by President Rafael Correa,
order to pair them with foreign counterparts. The new who wanted to keep the law strictly as it was originally
structure of some careers caused the dropping of sub- redacted by his political party and SENPLADES (Najects, credits, or even the name of the previously con- tional Secretary of Planning and Development). Due to
ferred diplomas. The terminal degree in law, previously this change, there are many highly educated professionals
known as JD Juris Doctor (Doctor en Jurisprudencia) was and academicians under the old structure but estimated
replaced by the one of abogado (attorney) with the excep- that only 87% of the faculty in public universities have altion of the modication of the number of credits to equate ready obtained a Masters degree, and fewer than 5% have
it to an undergraduate degree. In the same fashion for a PhD (although many of them already have Ecuadorianmedical school, the required time of education was con- granted doctorate degrees).
siderably reduced from nine years (the minimum needed About 300 institutes of higher education oer two to three
to obtain the title of MD in Medicine and Surgery) to years of post-secondary vocational or technical training.

25

14

Sciences and research

The Oldest Observatory in South America is the Quito

Astronomical Observatory and is located in Quito,
Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory, which
gives the global community of a Virtual Telescope System that is connectied via the Internet and allows the
world to watch by streaming, is managed by EPN.
Contemporary Ecuadorian scientists who have been recognized by international institutions are Eugenia del Pino
(born 1945), the rst Ecuadorian to be elected to the
United States National Academy of Science, and Arturo
Villavicencio, who was part of the working group of the
IPCC, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with
Al Gore for their dissemination of the eects of climate
change.

EXA's rst satellite, NEE-01 Pegasus

Ecuador is currently placed in 96th position, of innovation in technology.[109] The most notable icons in
Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in
1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito.
Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Lavandera,[110] a
pioneer who built the rst submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar (18981950), a
botanist and biologist of Andean ora; and Jos Aurelio
Dueas (18801961), a chemist and inventor of a method
of textile serigraphy.
The major areas of scientic research in Ecuador have
been in the medical elds, tropical and infectious diseases
treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and
a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored
research supported by entrepreneurship in information
technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development.[111]
The scientic production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics,
statistics, and partial dierential equations in mathematics. In the case of engineering elds, the majority of
scientic production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions: Escuela Superior Politcnica del Litoral
- ESPOL, Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE,
and Escuela Politcnica Nacional EPN.
EPN is known for research and education in the applied
science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering
and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute [112]
monitors over the countrys volcanoes in the Andes
Mountains of Ecuador and in the Galpagos Islands, all
of which is part of the Ring of Fire. EPN adopted the
polytechnic university model that stresses laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering.

Currently, the politics of research and investigation are

managed by the National Secretary of Higher Education,
Science, and Technology (Senescyt).[113]

15 See also
Index of Ecuador-related articles

French Geodesic Mission

International rankings of Ecuador
List of Ecuadorians
List of mountains in Ecuador
List of national parks in Ecuador
Lost Pyramid of Puay
National symbols of Ecuador
Outline of Ecuador

16 References
[1] Ecuador. The World Factbook. Retrieved August 18,
2011.
[2] Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica del Ecuador. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
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[41] Plan Nacional del Buen Vivir, Objective No. 4, 2008

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[45] San Sebastian, M.; Hurtig, A. K. (2004). Oil Exploitation in the Amazon Basin of Ecuador: A Public Health
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[46] Yahoo! Noticias Espaa Los titulares de hoy. Yahoo
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27

[47] ECUADOR GDP GREW 4.3 PERCENT AVERAGE

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[49] Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) - Tasa de Crecimiento Real

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[72] Ecuadors Economy Since 2007 - Reports. Retrieved

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[51] Ecuador Ination rate (consumer prices) Economy.

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[73] Amrica Latina y el Caribe Ecuador Datos destacados. Retrieved September 13, 2014.

[52] Gill, Nathan. (January 6, 2012) Ecuadorian Ination Accelerated to Three-Year High in 2011. Bloomberg. Retrieved 2012-08-21.

[74] Mapstone, (December 13, 2008). Ecuador defaults on

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[56] Rebeca, Ray and Sara, Kozameh. (May 2012) Ecuadors
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[59] Oil Reserves. Retrieved September 13, 2014.

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[83] 2013 Yearbook of Jehovahs Witnesses

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[86] Resultados Nacionales Censo de Poblacin y Vivienda.

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[90] Kichwa Kichwa language page
[91] Borja, Piedad. Boceto de Poesa Ecuatoriana,'Journal de
la Academia de Literatura Hispanoamericana', 1972

28

17 FURTHER READING

[92] Robertson, W.S., History of the Latin-American Nations,

1952
[93] Karnis, Surviving Pre-Columbian Drama, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1952
[94] Dolores Veintimilla Brief biography
[95] The pride of Ecuador. Synergos.org. August 14, 1996.
Retrieved December 22, 2010.
[96] Larrea, Julio. 25 Aos de Vida Institucional, Imprenta
del Ministerio de Salud Publica, Quito 2008.
[97] History of the Ministry of Public Health. Msp.gob.ec.
Retrieved February 24, 2012.
[98] Program of the Ministry of Public Health Ecuador.
Msp.gob.ec. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
[99] Public health care network Ministry of Public Health
Ecuador. Msp.gob.ec. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
[100] Medical Services Instituto Ecuatoriano de Seguridad
Social. Iess.gob.ec. February 19, 2010. Retrieved
February 24, 2012.
[101] Most Ecient Health Care: Countries - Bloomberg Best
(and Worst)". Bloomberg.
[102] CIA The World Factbook Rank Order Life Expectancy At Birth
[103] Olsont, David (September 19, 2009). Still in its infancy,
Ecuadors free health care has growing pains | Special Reports. PE.com. Archived from the original on December
25, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2010.
[104] Rex A. Hudson. Labor. Ecuador: A country study
(Dennis M. Hanratty, ed.). Library of Congress Federal
Research Division (1989).
This article incorporates
text from this source, which is in the public domain.
[105] Ecuador at the Wayback Machine (archived October 26,
2007). Fightingdiseases.org
[106] NASA Creating a Virtual Telescope with Two Small
Spacecraft. NASA.
[107] Ecuador. The Department of Labors 2001 Findings on
the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International
Labor Aairs, U.S. Department of Labor. 2002.
[108] Spanish Education System, Spanish Education System
(Text in Spanish)
[109] Ecuador ocupa el puesto 96 en innovacin tecnolgica. elcomercio.com. September 19, 2013
[110] Lavandera, J.R. (December 27, 2009). Jos rodrguez lavandera, el inventor at the Wayback Machine (archived
May 10, 2011). expreso.ec
[111] Checkprogram press release.
trieved February 24, 2012.

Eluniverso.com.

Re-

17 Further reading
Ades, H. and Graham, M. (2010) The Rough Guide
to Ecuador, Rough Guides
Becker, M. (2008) Indians and Leftists in the Making
of Ecuadors Modern Indigenous Movements, Duke
University Press Books
Becker, M. and Clark, A. K. (2007) Highland Indians and the State in Modern Ecuador, University of
Pittsburgh Press
Blakenship, J. (2005) Caar: A Year in the Highlands of Ecuador, University of Texas Press
Brown, J. and Smith, J. (2009) Moon Guidebook:
Ecuador and the Galpagos Islands, Avalon Travel
Publishing
Crowder, N. (2009) Culture Shock! Ecuador: A
Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette, Marshall
Cavendish Corporation
Gerlach, A. (2003) Indians, Oil, and Politics: A Recent History of Ecuador, SR Books
Handelsman, M. H. (2008) Culture and Customs of
Ecuador, Greenwood
Hurtado, O. (2010) Portrait of a Nation: Culture and
Progress in Ecuador, Madison Books
O'Connor, E. (2007) Gender, Indian, Nation: The
Contradictions of Making Ecuador, 18301925,
University of Arizona Press
Pineo, R. (2007) Ecuador and the United States:
Useful Strangers, University of Georgia Press
Roos, W. and Van Renterghem, O. (2000) Ecuador
in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture,
Latin America Bureau
Sawyer, S. (2004) Crude Chronicles: Indigenous
Politics, Multinational Oil, and Neoliberalism in
Ecuador, Duke University Press Books
Strier, S. (2001) In the Shadows of State and
Capital: The United Fruit Company, Popular Struggle, and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador 1900
1995, Duke University Press Books
Torre, C. de la and Strier, S. (2008) The Ecuador
Reader: History, Culture, Politics, Duke University
Press Books

[112] Instituto Geofsico - EPN - Home. igepn.edu.ec.

Various (2010) Insight Guidebook:

Galpagos, Insight Guides

[113] Secretaria Nacional de Educacion Superior, Ciencia y

Tecnologia. Retrieved September 13, 2014.

Various (2009) Lonely Planet Guide: Ecuador & the

Galpagos Islands, Lonely Planet

Ecuador &

29
Whitten, N. E. (2011) Histories of the Present: People and Power in Ecuador, University of Illinois
Press
Whitten, N. E. (2003) Millennial Ecuador: Critical
Essays on Cultural Transformations and Social Dynamics, University Of Iowa Press

18

External links

President of Ecuador (Spanish)

CIA Library Site: Chief of State and Cabinet Members
Ecuador entry at The World Factbook
Ecuador at DMOZ
Ecuador at UCB Libraries GovPubs
Ecuador prole from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Ecuador
Geographic data
OpenStreetMap

related

Rotary International in Ecuador

to

Ecuador

at

30

19

19
19.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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MJCdetroit, Duncombe, EvelinaB, Rrburke, Computerman45, Addshore, Interfector, Bolivian Unicyclist, Kcordina, Edivorce, Merryjest,
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