Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Joint Design
Run
Proces
s
1
2 And
Subs
TIG
TIG
Machine and
Degrease
Grade 304L
Stainless Steel
3 to 8mm Wall
25 to 100mm
All Positions
Upwards
Welding Sequences
DCDC-
N/A
N/A
N/A
Joint Design
Run
Proces
s
1
2 And
Subs
TIG
TIG
Machine and
Degrease
Grade 304L
Stainless Steel
3 to 8mm Wall
25 to 100mm
All Positions
Upwards
Welding Sequences
DCDC-
N/A
N/A
N/A
Procedure number
Process type
Thickness range.
Welding Position
Arc Energy Limits should be stated if impact tests are required or if the
material being welded is sensitive to heat input.
MMA
TIG
MIG
MAG
FCAW
Welding current
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Arc voltage
If Auto
yes
yes
If Used
If Used
yes
yes
SUB
ARC
yes
x
Interstitial infomation?
T Fillet Welds
CENTROID
MOMENT OF AREA
{Gas Pressures
Application Standards
All the above application standards require welding procedures to EN ISO
15614 Part 1 (Formerly BSEN 288-3) and welders coded to BSEN 287 Part
1. Some applications of BS 2971 and BS 5169 permit welders to be
qualified without procedures to BS 4872, a less stringent standard.
The application standard may require tests in addition to those required by
welding standards, for example most UK boiler and pressure vessel codes
require all weld tensile tests for plate qualification above 10mm.
UK pressure systems regulations
Items that come under the UK pressure systems regulations must be
'properly designed and constructed so as to prevent danger', and items that
are repaired or modified should not give rise to danger. The Health and
Safety Executive Guidance Booklet to the regulations interprets this
statement as meaning the manufacture or repair of any item should be
carried out to suitable codes and recommends the use of British Standards
or other equivalent National Standards.
European Pressure Equipment Directive
For inspection category 2 and above all welding procedures and welder
qualifications have to be approved by a Notified Body (an Inspection
Authority Notified by a European member country under the Directive), or
a Third Party Organisation similarly approved under the Directive. All
qualifications approved by these organisations have to be accepted by all
parties for work carried out under the directive providing they are suitable
for the application and technically correct.
Welding Procedure Specifications
This is a simple instruction sheet giving details of how the weld is to be
performed, its purpose is to aid the planning and quality control of the
welding operation. EN ISO 15609 (formerly EN288 Part 2) specifies the
contents of such a specification in the form of a list of items that should be
recorded, however only relevant information need be specified, for example
only in the case of a procedure requiring heat input control would there be a
necessity to quote travel speed or run out length for manual processes.
A weld procedure specification may cover a range of thicknesses, diameters
and materials, but the range must be specified and be compatible with the
rest of the parameters on the document. I suggest that you produce a new
WPS for each type of joint and keep to the ranges of thickness and
diameters specified in the welding procedure standard.
Welding Procedures
Welding procedures are required when it is necessary to demonstrate that
your company has the ability to produce welds possessing the correct
mechanical and metallurgical properties.
A welding procedure must qualified in accordance with the requirements of
an appropriate welding procedure standard such as EN ISO 15614 Part 1 as
follows:1. Produce a welding procedure specification as stated above.
specification. The joint set up, welding and visual examination of the
completed weld should be witnessed by an Inspection Body. The
details of the test such as the welding current, pre-heat etc., must be
4. If the test is successful you or the test body complete the appropriate
documents which the test bodies surveyor signs and endorses. The
necessary documents are as follows:E1 Welding Procedure Approval Test Certificate
This is the front sheet and only gives details of what the procedure can
be used for. i.e. its range of approval.
E2 Details Of Weld Test
This gives details of what actually took place during the test weld it is
similar to a WPS but should not include ranges of welding parameters.
E3 Test Results
Details of NDT and Mechanical testing Results
E4 Welder Approval Test Certificate.
This is the welder approval part of the qualification.
Note The E1, E2, E3, E4 designations are used by some Inspection
Authorities to refer to the individual forms. Examples of these forms are
given in annexes of EN ISO 15614 and EN287.
Forms E1, E2, E3 may be referred to as the WPAR (Welding Procedure
Approval Record) or WPQR (Weld Procedure Qualification Record).
In general a new welding procedure must be qualified for each of the
following changes subject to the individual requirements of the appropriate
standard used:-
Welder Approval
Once the procedure is approved it is necessary to demonstrate that all your
welders working to it have the required knowledge and skill to put down a
clean sound weld. If the welder has satisfactorily completed the procedure
test then he is automatically approved but each additional welder must be
approved by completing an approval test to an appropriate standard such as
EN 287 part 1 as follows:Complete a weld test as stated in 2) above. The test should simulate
production conditions and the welding position should be the position
that the production welds are to be made in or one more severe
For maximum positional approval a pipe inclined at 45 degrees
(referred to as the 6G position) approves all positions except vertical
down.
Test the completed weld in accordance with the relevant standard to
ensure that the weld is clean and fully fused.
For a butt weld this is normally a visual examination followed by
radiography.
Once the test is completed the E4 form has to be completed by you or
the test body and signed by the test bodies surveyor.
Note The above changes that require a new welding procedure may
also apply to the welders approval, refer to the standard for precise
details.
ASME 9
ASME 9 as far as the pressurised systems regulations are concerned can be
considered as equivalent to EN ISO 15614-1 /EN 287. However it may not
be contractually acceptable. The advantage in using ASME is that generally
Note P5, 9 & 10 are divided into sub groups eg 5A,5B etc., Treat each sub
group like a separate P Number
Dissimilar materials are acceptable providing they are compatible. For
example P1 to P8, but this does not cover P1 to P1 or P8 to P8.
Note S numbers are for pipework to B31, a P number covers an S number but
not the converse
Consumables
The ASME code uses its own specifications for consumables SFA. which is
almost identical to the AWS specification.
NOTE A change in consumable is only permissible providing it has the
same F number and A number (if applicable) as the P.Q.R..
Thickness Limits
Thickness limits Groove welds. See QW451 for precise details.
The thickness little 't' of deposited weld metal for each process involved is
approved from 0 to 2xt except:
If any Pass in a single or multipass weld > " then the thickness
approval equals 1.1xT
Two Root bends and Two face bends unless the plate thickness exceeds
3/8" then 4 side bends are required. All bend tests should be done to
QW160 using the correct former ref. QW466 to an angle of 180
degrees. Longitudinal (all weld) bend tests are not recommended unless
the base/weld materials differ markedly in bending properties. See QW
466 for exceptions and precise details.
The testing requirement for fillet welds on plate is 5 macro sections only, for
Pipe fillet welds 4 macro sections. No fracture test required.
Brief Introduction
Testing Requirements
Test requirements for groove welds QW452 consists of either:
One face bend and one root bend except for welding positions 5G & 6G
which require 4 bends (Ref QW452.1 Note 4). If the plate exceeds 3/8"
side bends may be used. See QW 466 for precise details and
exceptions.
Note:- Bend Tests can in most cases be replaced by Radiography
{See Below}.
One macro section (QW 184) and One fracture test (QW182).
If the pipe circumference is less than 6" then more samples must be
welded up to a maximum of 4. Ref QW 302.2.
Brief Introduction
ASME has adopted their own designation for welding processes, which are
very different from the ISO definitions adopted by EN24063.
Designation
Description
OFW
Oxyfuel Gas Welding
SMAW
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
SAW
Submerged Arc Welding
GMAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG/MAG)
Test Position
1G
2G
3G
3G
4G
5G
6G
6G
ISO and EN
PA
PC
PF
PG
PE
PF
HL045
JL045
Test Position
1F
2F
2FR
3F
3F
4F
5F
ISO and EN
PA
PB
PB
PF
PG
PD
PF
15 - 80 degrees inclination
Vertical, 80 - 90 degrees
For each of these inclinations the weld can be rotated from the flat position to
Horizontal to overhead.
Brief Introduction
EN288
2
3
4
5A
4
5
5
5B
5C
6
7
6
8
8
9A, B, C
10A,B,C,F,G
10 H
10J
11A Group 1
11 A Groups
7
?
10
?
7
?
Base Metal
Carbon Manganese Steels, 4 Sub Groups
Group 4 ?
Not Used
3 Sub Groups:- Typically half moly and half chrome half moly
2 Sub Groups:- Typically one and a quarter chrome half moly
Typically two and a quarter chrome one moly
2 Sub Groups:- Typically five chrome half moly and nine
chrome one moly
5 Sub Groups:- Chrome moly vanadium
6 Sub Groups:- Martensitic Stainless Steels Typically Grade 410
Ferritic Stainless Steels Typically Grade 409
Austenitic Stainless Steels, 4 Sub groups
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For welds subject to high restraint more preheat is advisable (suggest, Incr
CE by 0.3 or go down one hydrogen scale).
References.
Preheat calculator
Lincoln arc welding foundation
A simple to use and inexpensive calculator. It is based on practical experi
and tends to be very conservative when compared with the TWI method.
Pre-heat Calculator
Pre-Heat Calculator to EN1011 Part 2 - Non Alloyed And Low Alloy Steels.
Information on how to use this page
Heat Input
OR
Select Welding
Process
Heat Input
KJ/mm =
Carbon
Equivalent
Enter Carbon
Equivalent
Hydrogen Scale
Select Hydrogen
Scale
OR
Combined
Thickness
Note Thickness
Enter Combined
Thickness mm
Calculate PreHeat
Min Pre-Heat
Temperature=
Return
Page last updated 13 April 2002
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WELDING METALLURGY
Carbon Steel
? European Steel numbering and steel designations explained
? STAINLESS STEELS: Their properties and their suitability for welding. pdf file
for thePWHT
pickling and cleaning of stainless steel. pdf file
How to Avoid
? Handbook
? Key to Metals is a comprehensive steel properties database, also contains free useful
articles.
The General
Stainless Steel
Austenitic Stainless Steels
? Return To MainMenu Page
Duplex
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Carbon A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into clusters
of iron atoms. It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to harden
by heat treatment. It also causes major problems for welding ,
Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration,
in reality it will be heavily distorted because of the rapid heating and
cooling rates involved in the welding process.
Recommended Reading
A very cheap hard backed book covering all the basic essentials of
welding metallurgy.
Welding Metallurgy Training Modules:- (Devised by The
Welding Institute of Canada) Published in the UK by Abington
Publishing. Not cheap but the information is clearly represented in
a very readable format.
Residual Stress
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The above picture is of a new pressure vessel that failed during its
hydraulic test. The vessel had been stress relieved, but some parts of it
did not reach the required temperature and consequently did not
experience adequate tempering. This coupled with a small hydrogen
crack, was sufficient to cause catastrophic failure under test conditions. It
is therefore important when considering PWHT or its avoidance, to
ensure that all possible failure modes and their consequences are carefully
considered before any action is taken.
The post weld heat treatment of welded steel fabrications is normally
carried out to reduce the risk of brittle fracture by:
Alloying Elements
Manganese
Increases strength and hardness; forms a carbide; increases hardenability; lowers
the transformation temperature range. When in sufficient quantity produces an
austenitic steel; always present in a steel to some extent because it is used as a
deoxidiser
Silicon
Strengthens ferrite and raises the transformation temperature temperatures; has a
strong graphitising tendency. Always present to some extent, because it is used
with manganese as a deoxidiser
Chromium
Increases strength and hardness; forms hard and stable carbides. It raises the
transformation temperature significantly when its content exceeds 12%.
Increases hardenability; amounts in excess of 12%, render steel stainless. Good
creep strength at high temperature.
Nickel
Strengthens steel; lowers its transformation temperature range; increases
hardenability, and improves resistance to fatigue. Strong graphite forming
tendency; stabilizes austenite when in sufficient quantity. Creates fine grains and
gives good toughness.
Nickel And Chromium
Used together for austenitic stainless steels; each element counteracts
disadvantages of the other.
Tungsten
Forms hard and stable carbides; raises the transformation temperature range, and
tempering temperatures. Hardened tungsten steels resist tempering up to 6000C
Molybdenum
Strong carbide forming element, and also improves high temperature creep
resistance; reduces temper-brittleness in Ni-Cr steels. Improves corrosion
resistance and temper brittleness.
Vanadium
Strong carbide forming element; has a scavenging action and produces clean,
inclusion free steels. Can cause re-heat cracking when added to chrome molly
steels.
Titanium
Strong carbide forming element. Not used on its own, but added as a carbide
occur if the object is not properly supported during the annealing process.
Austenitic steels are not susceptible to hydrogen cracking, therefore preheating is seldom required, except to reduce the risk of shrinkage stresses
in thick sections. Post weld heat treatment is seldom required as this
material as a high resistance to brittle fracture; occasionally stress relief is
carried out to reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking, however this is
likely to cause sensitisation unless a stabilised grade is used (limited
stress relief can be achieved with a low temperature of around 450C ).
Austenitic steels have a F.C.C atomic structure which provides more
planes for the flow of dislocations, combined with the low level of
interstitial elements (elements that lock the dislocation chain), gives this
material its good ductility. This also explains why this material has no
clearly defined yield point, which is why its yield stress is always
expressed as a proof stress. Austenitic steels have excellent toughness
down to true absolute (-273C), with no steep ductile to brittle transition.
This material has good corrosion resistance, but quite severe corrosion can
occur in certain environments. The right choice of welding consumable
and welding technique can be crucial as the weld metal can corrode more
than the parent material.
Probably the biggest cause of failure in pressure plant made of stainless
steel is stress corrosion cracking (S.C.C). This type of corrosion forms
deep cracks in the material and is caused by the presence of chlorides in
the process fluid or heating water/steam (Good water treatment is essential
), at a temperature above 50C, when the material is subjected to a tensile
stress (this stress includes residual stress, which could be up to yield point
in magnitude). Significant increases in Nickel and also Molybdenum will
reduce the risk.
Stainless steel has a very thin and stable oxide film rich in chrome. This
film reforms rapidly by reaction with the atmosphere if damaged. If
stainless steel is not adequately protected from the atmosphere during
welding or is subject to very heavy grinding operations, a very thick oxide
layer will form. This thick oxide layer, distinguished by its blue tint, will
have a chrome depleted layer under it, which will impair corrosion
resistance. Both the oxide film and depleted layer must be removed,
either mechanically (grinding with a fine grit is recommended, wire
brushing and shot blasting will have less effect), or chemically (acid
pickle with a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acid). Once cleaned, the
surface can be chemically passivated to enhance corrosion resistance,
(passivation reduces the anodic reaction involved in the corrosion
process).
Carbon steel tools, also supports or even sparks from grinding carbon
steel, can embed fragments into the surface of the stainless steel. These
fragments can then rust if moistened. Therefore it is recommended that
To resist oxidation and creep high carbon grades such as 304H or 316H
are often used. Their improved creep resistance relates to the presence of
carbides and the slightly coarser grain size associated with higher
annealing temperatures. Because the higher carbon content inevitably
leads to sensitisation, there may be a risk of corrosion during plant shut
downs, for this reason stabilised grades may be preferred such as 347H.
The solidification strength of austenitic stainless steel can be seriously
impaired by small additions of impurities such as sulphur and
phosphorous, this coupled with the materials high coefficient of expansion
can cause serious solidification cracking problems. Most 304 type alloys
are designed to solidify initially as delta ferrite, which has a high
solubility for sulphur, transforming to austenite upon further cooling. This
creates an austenitic material containing tiny patches of residual delta
ferrite, therefore not a true austenitic in the strict sense of the word. Filler
metal often contains further additions of delta ferrite to ensure crack free
welds.
The delta ferrite can transform to a very brittle phase called sigma, if
heated above 550C for very prolonged periods (Could take several
thousand hours, depending on chrome level. A duplex stainless steel can
form sigma phase after only a few minutes at this temperature)
The very high coefficient of expansion associated with this material means
that welding distortion can be quite savage. I have seen thick ring flanges
on pressure vessel twist after welding to such an extent that a fluid seal is
impossible. Thermal stress is another major problem associated with
stainless steel; premature failure can occur on pressure plant heated by a
jacket or coils attached to a cold veesel. This material has poor thermal
conductivity, therefore lower welding current is required (typically 25%
less than carbon steel) and narrower joint preparations can be tolerated.
All common welding processes can be used successfully, however high
deposition rates associated with SAW could cause solidification cracking
and possibly sensitisation, unless adequate precautions are taken.
To ensure good corrosion resistance of the weld root it must be protected
from the atmosphere by an inert gas shield during welding and subsequent
cooling. The gas shield should be contained around the root of the weld
by a suitable dam, which must permit a continuous gas flow through the
area. Welding should not commence until sufficient time has elapsed to
allow the volume of purging gas flowing through the dam to equal at least
the 6 times the volume contained in the dam (EN1011 Part 3 Recommends
10). Once purging is complete the purge flow rate should be reduced so
that it only exerts a small positive pressure, sufficient to exclude air. If
good corrosion resistance of the root is required the oxygen level in the
dam should not exceed 0.1%(1000 ppm); for extreme corrosion resistance
this should be reduced to 0.015% (150 ppm). Backing gasses are typically
argon or helium; Nitrogen Is often used as an economic alternative where
corrosion resistance is not critical, Nitrogrn + 10% Helium is better. A
wide variety of proprietary pastes and backing materials are available than
can be use to protect the root instead of a gas shield. In some applications
where corrosion and oxide coking of the weld root is not important, such
as large stainless steel ducting, no gas backing is used.
A pdf guide to weld purging
Huntingdon Fusion Techniques Limited
Carbon content:
304 L grade Low Carbon, typically 0.03% Max
304 grade Medium Carbon, typically 0.08% Max
304H grade High Carbon, typically Up to 0.1%
The higher the carbon content the greater the yield strength. (Hence the
(18-20Cr, 8-12Ni)
(16-18Cr, 10-14Ni + 2-3Mo)
(316 with Titanium Added)
(Same as 316Ti)
(17-19Cr, 9-12Ni + Titanium)
(17-19Cr, 9-13Ni + Niobium)
(19-22Cr, 9-11Ni)
(22-24Cr, 12-15Ni)
304 + Molybdenum
304 + Moly + Titanium
304 + Titanium
304 + Niobium
304 + Extra 2%Cr
304 + Extra 4%Cr + 4% Ni
All the above stainless steel grades are basic variations of a 304. All are
readily weldable and all have matching consumables, except for a 304
which is welded with a 308 or 316, 321 is welded with a 347 (Titanium is
not easily transferred across the arc) and a 316Ti is normally welded with
a 318.
Molybdenum has the same effect on the microstructure as chrome, except
that it gives better resistance to pitting corrosion. Therefore a 316 needs
less chrome than a 304.
310
904L
The Nickel and other elements that form Austenite, are plotted against
Chrome and other elements that form ferrite, using the following
formula:Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn
Examples
The Shaeffler diagram above illustrates a carbon steel C.S , welded with
304L filler. Point A represents the anticipated composition of the weld
metal, if it consists of a mixture of filler metal and 25% parent metal. This
diluted weld, according to the diagram, will contain martensite. This
problem can be overcome if a higher alloyed filler is used, such as a 309L,
which has a higher nickel and chrome equivalent that will tend to pull
point A into the austenite region.
If the welds molten pool spans two different metals the process becomes
more complicated. First plot both parent metals on the shaeffler diagram
and connect them with a line. If both parent metals are diluted by the
same amount, plot a false point B on the diagram midway between them.
(Point B represents the microstructure of the weld if no filler metal was
applied.)
Next, plot the consumable on the diagram, which for this example is a
309L. Draw a line from this point to false point B and mark a point A
along its length equivalent to the total weld dilution. This point will give
the approximate microstructure of the weld metal. The diagram below
illustrates 25% total weld dilution at point A, which predicts a good
microstructure of Austenite with a little ferrite.
martensite present will tend to cause the test piece to break rather than
bend.
However the presence of martensite is unlikely to cause hydrogen
cracking, as any hydrogen evolved during the welding process will be
absorbed by the austenitic filler metal.
Evaluating Dilution
High Travel Speed. Too much heat applied to parent metal instead
of on filler metal.
Thin Material. Thin sheet TIG welded can give rise to high
dilution levels.
http://www.avestapolarit.com/upload/steel_properties/Schaeffler_l
arge.jpg
Large Schaeffler/Delong Diagram (Outokumpu.com)
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Last Modified 19 Jan 2004
Standard Duplex
S31803 22Cr 5Ni 2.8Mo 0.15N PREn = 32-33
Super Duplex: Stronger and more corrosion resistant than standard
duplex.
S32760(Zeron 100) 25Cr 7.5Ni 3.5Mo 0.23N PREn = 40
The main problem with Duplex is that it very easily forms brittle
intermetalic phases, such as Sigma, Chi and Alpha Prime. These phases
can form rapidly, typically 100 seconds at 900C. However shorter
exposure has been known to cause a drop in toughness, this has been
attribute to the formation of sigma on a microscopic scale.
Prolonged heating in the range 350 to 550C can cause 475C temper
embrittlement.
For this reason the maximum recommended service temperature for
duplex is about 280C.
Sigma (55Fe 45Cr) can be a major problem when welding thin walled
small bore pipe made of super duplex, although it can occur in thicker
sections. It tends to be found in the bulk of the material rather than at the
surface, therefore it probably has more effect on toughness than corrosion
resistance. Sigma can also occur in thick sections, such as castings that
have not been properly solution annealed (Not cooled fast enough).
However most standards accept that deleterious phases, such as sigma, chi
and laves, may be tolerated if the strength and corrosion resistance are
satisfactory.
Nitrogen is a strong austenite former and largely responsible for the
balance between ferrite and austenite phases and the materials superior
corrosion resistance. Nitrogen cant be added to filler metal, as it does not
transfer across the arc. It can also be lost from molten parent metal during
welding. Its loss can lead to high ferrite and reduced corrosion resistance.
Nitrogen can be added to the shielding gas and backing gas, Up to about
10%; however this makes welding difficult as it can cause porosity and
contamination of the Tungsten electrode unless the correct welding
technique is used. Too much Nitrogen will form a layer of Austenite on
the weld surface. In my experience most duplex and super duplex are TIG
welded using pure argon.
Backing / purge gas should contain less than 25ppm Oxygen for optimum
corrosion resistance.
Fast cooling from molten will promote the formation of ferrite, slow
cooling will promote austenite. During welding fast cooling is most likely,
therefore welding consumables usually contain up to 2 - 4% extra Nickel
to promote austenite formation in the weld. Duplex should never be
welded without filler metal, as this will promote excessive ferrite, unless
the welded component is solution annealed. Acceptable phase balance is
usually 30 70% Ferrite
Duplex welding consumables are suitable for joining duplex to austenitic
stainless steel or carbon steel; they can also be used for corrosion resistant
overlays. Nickel based welding consumables can be used but the weld
strength will not be as good as the parent metal, particularly on super
duplex.
Position 6G
Temperature at the end of welding < 250C
Recommended Testing
1. Ferric Chloride Pitting Test To ASTM G48 : Method A
2. Chemical analysis of root
3. Ferrite count
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REFERENCE SITES
Material Properties :
Matweb
Calculation Software:
Xcalcs
MDSOLIDS
Excelcalcs.com
Weld Calculations
Uk welder This site access some of the practical articles from TWI's web
site; also includes a list of welding related jobs.
ESAB University Free online handbooks and a courses in basic welding filler
metal technology
Weld Reality A web site where you will find practical Welding solutions for
manual / robot welding issues.
Bolting The science of bolting and gasket factors explained. Also try
Tribology-ABC Lots of information on: - screw threads failure analysis and
lubrication + online calculators
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