Contents

Preface

X
PART 1

1.

Introduction

Introduction to Instruments and Their Representation

1.1 Typical Applications of Instrument Systems 4
1.2 Functional Elements of a Measurement System 7
1.3 Brief Description of the Functional Elements of the Instruments
1.4 Classication of Instruments 18
1.5 Microprocessor-Based Instrumentation 23
1.6 Standards and Calibration 25
Review Questions 28
Answers 32

13

2.

Static Performance Characteristics of Instruments

2.1 Errors and Uncertainties in Performance Parameters 35
2.2 Propagation of Uncertainties in Compound Quantities 38
2.3 Static Performance Parameters 43
2.4 Impedance Loading and Matching 51
2.5 Specications of Instrument Static Characteristics 53
2.6 Selection of the Instrument 55
Review Questions 56
Answers 60

34

3.

Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

3.1 Formulation of System Equations 64
3.2 Dynamic Response 66
3.3 Compensation 93
Review Questions 98
Answers 101

62

4.

Transducer Elements
4.1 Analog Transducers 103
4.2 Digital Transducers 133
Review Questions 139
Answers 143

103

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5.

Contents

Intermediate Elements
5.1 Ampliers 144
5.2 Operational Ampliers 149
5.3 Differentiating and Integrating Elements
5.4 Filters 156
5.5 AD and DA Converters 158
5.6 Terminology and Conversions 162
5.7 Data Transmission Elements 163
Review Questions 167
Answers 168

144
154

6.

Indicating, Recording and Display Elements

6.1 Digital Voltmeters (DVMs) 169
6.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs) 170
6.3 Galvanometric Recorders 173
6.4 Servo-Type Potentiometric Recorders 174
6.5 Magnetic Tape Recorders 174
6.6 Digital Recorder of Memory Type 176
6.7 Data Acquisition Systems 177
6.8 Data Display and Storage 178
Review Questions 180
Answers 181
PART 2 Measurements, Methods and Applications

7.

Motion and Vibration Measurements

7.1 Relative Motion or VibrationMeasuring Devices 185
7.2 Absolute Motion or Vibration Devices 190
7.3 Calibration of Motion or Vibration Measuring Devices
Review Questions 202
Answers 203

169

185
200

8.

Dimensional Metrology
8.1 Linear Dimensional Gauging 205
8.2 Mechanical Type of Dimensional Gauging Devices 205
8.3 Electromechanical Dimensional Gauging Devices 212
8.4 Pneumatic Dimensional Gauging Technique 213
8.5 Hydraulic Dimensional Gauging Technique 216
8.6 Optical Dimensional Gauging 217
8.7 Surface Roughness Measurement 220
8.8 Measurement of Area using Polar Planimeter 221
Review Questions 225
Answers 228

204

9.

Force Measurement
9.1 Balance 230
9.2 Hydraulic Load Cell 231
9.3 Pneumatic Load Cell 231
9.4 Elastic Force Devices 231
9.5 Separation of Force Components
9.6 Calibration 238
Review Questions 239
Answers 240

230

236

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Contents

10. Torque and Power Measurements

10.1 Transmission Dynamometers 242
10.2 Driving Type Dynamometers 246
10.3 Absorption Dynamometers 246
10.4 Calibration 248
Review Questions 248
Answers 249

241

11. Pressure Measurement

11.1 Moderate Pressure Measurement 251
11.2 High Pressure Measurement 263
11.3 Low Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement 264
11.4 Calibration and Testing 267
11.5 Summary 269
Review Questions 269
Answers 271

250

12. Temperature Measurement

12.1 Temperature Scales 273
12.2 International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS)
12.3 Measurement of Temperature 274
12.4 Non-Electrical Methods 275
12.5 Electrical Methods 279
12.6 Radiation Methods (Pyrometry) 289
Review Questions 292
Answers 296

272
273

13. Flow Measurement

13.1 Primary or Quantity Meters 299
13.2 Positive-Displacement Meters 299
13.3 Secondary or Rate Meters 302
13.4 Special Methods 317
Review Questions 328
Answers 331

298

14. Acoustics Measurement

14.1 Characteristics of Sound 333
14.2 Sound Pressure, Power and Intensity Levels
14.3 Loudness 339
14.4 Typical Sound-Measuring Systems 339
14.5 Microphones 344
Review Questions 347
Answers 349

333
334

15. Signal and Systems Analysis

15.1 Analog Filters and Frequency Analysers 350
15.2 Frequency Analysis for Various Input Signals 353
15.3 Digital Frequency Analysers 355
15.4 System Analysis by Harmonic Testing 360
15.5 System Analysis by Transient Testing 361
15.6 Random Force Testing 364
Review Questions 365
Answers 365

350

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Contents

16. Condition Monitoring and Signature Analysis Applications

16.1 Vibration and Noise Monitoring 367
16.2 Temperature Monitoring 373
16.3 Wear Behaviour Monitoring 374
16.4 Corrosion Monitoring 378
16.5 Material Defect Monitoring 378
16.6 Acoustic Emission (AE) Monitoring Technique 382
16.7 Performance Trend Monitoring 386
16.8 Selection of Condition Monitoring Techniques 388
16.9 Diagnosis 389
Review Questions 390
Answers 391

366

17. Miscellaneous Instruments in Industrial, Biomedical and Environmental Applications

17.1 Specic Gravity Measurements 392
17.2 Measurement of Liquid Level 397
17.3 Viscosity Measurements 404
17.4 Measurement of Humidity and Moisture 409
17.5 Measurement of pH Value 411
17.6 Biomedical measurements/Biometrics 413
17.7 Measurement of Environmental Air Pollution Parameters 419
Review Questions 423
Answers 426

392

18. Recent Developments in Instrumentation and Measurements

18.1 Computer-Aided Measurements 427
18.2 Fibre Optic Transducers 432
18.3 Microsensors 435
18.4 Smart Sensors 437
18.5 Smart Transmitters and Field Bus 439
18.6 Virtual Instrumentation 440
Review Questions 442
Answers 443

427

19. Control Engineering Applications

19.1 Types of Control Systems 444
19.2 Examples of Feedback Control System and their Block Diagrams 447
19.3 Transfer Functions of Elements, System and Processes 449
19.4 Block Diagrams of Feedback Control System 456
19.5 Transient and Steady State Response of Control Systems 459
19.6 Effect of Various Types of Control Actions on Dynamic Performance 461
19.7 Stability of Control Systems 469
Review Questions 472
Answers 475

443

20. Electrical Measurements

20.1 Advantages of Electrical Measuring Instruments 476
20.2 Measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance
20.3 Measurement of Voltage and Current 485
20.4 Magnetic Flux Measurements 505

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20.5 Waveform Generation and Measurements 507

20.6 Frequency and Phase Measurement 513
Review Questions 516
Answers 520
PART 3 Data Analysis
21. Basic Statistical Concepts
21.1 Types of Measured Quantities 525
21.2 Central Tendency of Data 532
21.3 Best Estimate of True Value of Data 538
21.4 Measures of Dispersion (Spread or Variability) 540
21.5 Standard Deviation of the Sample Means 544
21.6 Evaluation of Sample Mean and Standard Deviation by Method of Coding 547
21.7 Evaluation of Best Estimate Mean Value and Least Error in a Multiple set of Data
Review Questions 552
Answers 558

523

550

22. Normal Distribution

22.1 Properties of Gaussian Distribution 562
22.2 Area Under the Normal Distribution Curve 564
22.3 Determination of Mean Value and Standard Deviation of the Continuous
Distribution of Gaussian Type 565
22.4 Standardised Normal Distribution 566
22.5 Condence Level 570
22.6 Central Limit Theorem 576
22.7 Signicance Test 578
22.8 Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 580
22.9 Criteria for Goodness of Fit 581
22.10 Contingency Tables 585
Review Questions 587
Answers 592

561

23. Graphical Representation and Curve Fitting of Data

23.1 Equations of Approximating Curves 595
23.2 Graphical Representation of Functional Relationships 596
23.3 Determination of Parameters in Linear Relationships 596
23.4 Least Squares Equations of Second Degree and Higher 610
Review Questions 614
Answers 618
Appendices

594

Appendix A-1

Fundamental and Derived Quantities in International System of Units

623

Appendix A-2

Derivation of Solution for Step Response of Second-Order System

625

Appendix A-3

Auto-Correlation Functions of a Random Signal

627

Appendix A-4

Principal Strain and Stress Relations

629

Appendix A-5

Statistical Properties of a Pair of Random Signals

631

Bibliography

634

Index

636