Student Motivation:

An Annotated Bibliography
By
Angela Shaw
June, 2014
ED7999 Masters Project

Introduction
As a nurse, I always had a captive audience of patients and family members. They
listened to the words you said, asked many questions and would then go home and learn more
about their health issues. As a teacher, I want to learn how to create that captive audience that is
motivated to form inquires, excited about learning, and sustains an inspired attitude. I would like
to create a classroom of students that cannot wait to come to class and has that same desire to
learn while in the classroom.
This annotated bibliography will look at numerous sources and the research that has been
conducted on student motivation. I will be looking at the importance of student motivation and
how to motivate students throughout the school year. Newtons first law of motion says that an
object in motion will stay in motion. I believe that is true for motivation as well. Once you
spark that interest, that willingness to engage, you start building momentum that will coalesce.
The law goes on to say that the motion will stop based on other forces. The same can be said of
motivation. I have seen motivated students start the school year strong, but somewhere along the
line that motivation is lost. Based on the possibilities of sparking that motivation or encouraging
motivation to continue to grow, I think this is a very worthy topic to explore. In addition to this,
it is important to be aware of possible triggers that could lead to demotivation so that those can
be avoided.

Research
Witzel, B. S., & Mercer, C. D. (2003). Using Rewards to Teach
Students with Disabilities: Implications for Motivation.
Remedial & Special Education, 24(2), 88-96.
In the article Using Rewards to Teach Students with Disabilities, Witzel and Mercer explore the
use of extrinsic rewards to help children build intrinsic motivation. The article discusses
distractions and behavior issues that are apart of most classrooms and how these issues can be
even more challenging when working with special needs learners. When teaching students with
disabilities, rewards must be used in such a way that they help students to find their own intrinsic
motivation rather than making them become dependent on extrinsic rewards. Witzel and Mercer
outline some common issues with disabled students. How they can at times resort to acting out
for attention and tie their own self-worth to their competence in school. Extrinsic rewards are
often used by teacher to help these students stay on tract but this can lead to special needs
learners becoming dependent on others for motivation and create feelings of helplessness in
students. So the two questions are asked, how do we create an environment where a student
develops intrinsic motivation? and how do we use extrinsic rewards in such a way that a
student will develop intrinsic motivation? The article details research that shows how verbal
rewards can have a positive effect on a students intrinsic motivation. The article encourages
teachers to become researchers of their own students. Find what extrinsic rewards produce the
most intrinsic motivation for each student. Teacher need to walk that fine line of providing
enough of the right kind of extrinsic motivation to put the student in the right mind frame of
developing their own intrinsic motivation.

Pottaco, D., Chen, P., Desroches, D., Chisholm, D., & De Young, S. (2013). Coupons for
Success: A Marketing Incentive in Academic Support. Learning Assistance Review
(TLAR), 18(1), 29-45.
This article discusses the use of an extrinsic motivation, incentive program to increase academic
performance. The article explains how positive behavior can be sustained by a well-run rewards
system even after a students interest has faded. A study was conducted on 311 students over a
period of three semesters. Students received coupons for attending lecture study groups and
lecture tutoring. The coupons earned could be used toward exam points. The results indicated
that carefully designed reward programs can be great incentive and motivation for student
efforts, especially in high-risk populations.

Pickens, M., & Eick, C. J. (2009). Studying Motivational Strategies

Used by Two Teachers in Differently Tracked Science Courses.
Journal of Educational Research, 102(5), 349-362.
This article discusses a study that was conducted at a large suburban high school on two highly
motivational science teachers that attempted to increase student motivation. Motivation strategies
used by Mr. Benson included teacher enthusiasm, creating a nonthreatening environment,
storytelling, and popular media connections to concepts. Mrs. Hatch used encouragement,
making lessons relevant, building students self-confidence, and using hands-on inquiry. Students
were surveyed and perceived the motivational strategies as positive because they felt teachers
cared about them, the praise built their self-confidence, lessons were relevant, and hands-on
inquiry kept them engaged. The students responses stated enjoyment and interest in science.

Ahmad, I., Said, H., & Khan, F. (2013). Effect of Corporal Punishment on Students' Motivation
and Classroom Learning. Review Of European Studies, 5(4), 130-134.
The research conducted in this article focused on whether corporal punishment had positive or
negative effects on student motivation in the classroom. The foundation of this study was based
on Maslows hierarchy of needs, in which a person has to have all of their basic need meet before
they are able to motivate to reach their own potential. Researcher wanted to prove how the
presents of fear, regarding the possibility of physical punishment, negatively affected a students
ability to learn and reach their potential. Two hundred and fifty Pakistani teachers were surveyed
on their perceptions of whether use of physical punishment worked for producing the desired
classroom behavior or if it negatively affected a student motivation to learn. The results of the
survey concluded that students motivation to learn and reach their potential was negatively
impacted by the presents of corporal punishment. The research suggests that teachers should
avoid physical punishment of any kind and work to provide an environment that helps meet
students needs so that they are motivated to learn and grow.

Lesaux, N., Harris, J., & Sloane, P. (2012). Adolescents' Motivation in the Context of an
Academic Vocabulary Intervention in Urban Middle School Classrooms. Journal Of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(3), 231-240.
This article explains a study conducted with sixth grade, English students from an urban school.
These students were broken up into twenty focus groups and participated in an academic
vocabulary intervention to see what instructional approaches increased their academic

motivation. The intervention was based on four principle of being text-based, emphasized word
knowledge, developed word learning abilities, and had a culminating activity. Academic
vocabulary interventions included role play and word play discussions to increase classroom talk
and boost language development. The results indicated that the key ingredients for a motivating
learning environment included academic support, opportunities to feel progress, and having
rigorous, thought-provoking curriculum.

Hardr, P., Sullivan, D. W., & Roberts, N. (2008). Rural Teachers'

Best Motivating Strategies: A Blending of Teachers' and
Students' Perspectives. Rural Educator, 30(1), 19-31.
This article explains a study that was conducted using 19 rural public high schools to find the
best motivating strategies used by teachers. 625 students and 75 teachers were surveyed. There
were motivational strategies identified by both the students and the teachers. The first strategy
was supporting learning and future goals by linking class content to the students future
goals. The second strategy was establishing relevance and connecting to students interests to
increase motivation and engagement in class. The third strategy identified was treating
students as uniquely valued individuals by showing them you care about them and respect
them. The last strategy was fostering student valued and perceived competence so they
believe they are capable of achieving success.

Gan, S. (1999). Motivating at-risk students through computer-based cooperative learning

activities. Educational Horizons, 77(3), 151-156.

This article explains a study that was conducted on at-risk Malaysian secondary students. The
intentions of the study were to determine if unmotivated, underachieving students would increase
their motivation if they were given the responsibility of becoming a leader on computer based
learning activities. Students were trained in IT skills and then were appointed as the expert in
their cooperative learning group. Results indicated that the at-risk students chosen to be the
experts had improved attitudes toward learning over the school year. The results also showed that
their interest in schoolwork improved as well as their self-confidence.

Theory
Petkov, M., & Rogers, G. E. (2011). Using Gaming to Motivate Today's Technology-Dependent
Students. Journal Of Stem Teacher Education, 48(1), 7-12.
This article discusses how the usage of outdated, traditional instruction does not motivate
students and how games that use technology in the classroom will increase student motivation.
The article states that games have the ability to create a fun and engaging classroom
environment. The suggestion is made to introduce video games as the classroom instructional
methodology because it has the ability to present educational material in an engaging way.
Research conducted by Mayo showed a 40% increase in student learning from traditional
methods of teaching. The article suggests still using traditional instructional methodology, but to
integrate video games to create a motivated, engaged student. By using both methods, the student
will learn the material as well as stay motivated to learn.

Desrochers, C., & Desrochers, M. (2000). Creating Lessons Designed To Motivate Students.
Contemporary Education, 71(2), 51-55.
This article discusses three factors that create student motivation: student interest, student
success, and student feedback. Desrochers explains how relevance is key to curiosity and interest
which leads to motivation. He also states that motivation comes from clearly defined goals and
knowing how to be successful as well as knowing they have the ability to succeed. The last
factor discussed was student feedback. In order to stay motivated, frequent and timely feedback
is necessary. The article ends with stating that student interest, student success, and student
feedback are all part of the planning process for each unit to create a motivated student.

Bowman, R. (2007). How Can Students Be Motivated: A Misplaced Question?. Clearing House,
81(2), 81-86.
This article begins with differentiating between motivation as being self-focused, something a
teacher does to a student, and inspiration as other focused, a result of a caring mentoring
relationship with a student. The goal should be to inspire the students rather than motivate the
students for personal gain. The article states that motivation is important to performance, but that
students are already highly motivated when they begin class and that the question should be how
to sustain that motivation and inspire students. Bowman discusses how pride is what motivates
students and that tangible rewards can actually limit the students ability because they will focus
on the reward rather than the internal pride. The article suggests teachers do the following:
recognize students actions, foster positive expectations, provide precise feedback, aid students in
finding meaning, and provide new prospective. Intrinsic motivation and inspiration lead to
success.

Bartholomew, B. (2007). Why We Can't Always Get What We Want. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(8),
593-598.
Barbara Bartholomew takes a look in to classroom behavior and makes a case that increasing
student self-motivation is more important than teaching the actual contend of the class. The
authors interest in the subject was amplified when she witnessed a struggling student of hers
playing basketball. This student whom she had trouble motivating was transformed before her
eyes when under the guidance of a skilled leader, his basketball coach. The coach had been able
to enhance this students intrinsic motivation for the sport of basketball. She took the lessons

learned from the basketball coach and applied to her classroom with fantastic results.
Bartholomew discusses the lack of leadership and motivation training teacher receive in college.
Bartholomew adds that teacher are expected to lead and motivate based on their own
understanding of human behavior. She believes that courses related to teaching should include
psychology, sociology, linguistics and speech studies. Using these tools learned in their own
education would then help them in the education of others. In the article is details how relevance
plays a part in a students interest in the subject matter. Bartholomew makes that argument that
even if a student in not peculiarly interested I the subject they will still but forth effort to learn if
it relevant to their lives. In the same area we need to have a better understanding of those who we
are teaching so that we are able to provide the correct motivation. Having a better understanding
of those we teach will provide the clues on how to better motivate. Enhancing intrinsic
motivation depends on a number of elements. First, methods that work will continue to work and
can be improved upon, things that dont work should be discarded. Next a childs age and
experience with success or disappointment can play factors in motivation. A teacher must be an
effective leader, organized, and trusting. Students need to be given freedom to create their own
goals, strategies to reach those goals and rewards for achieving those goals. Some of these
rewards that students can choose from can also provide moments for them to become even more
engaged in their studies, examples would be class trips and games. Bartholomew sums up her
article by concluding whats good for the students is good for the teacher, the feeling of control
over your environment will enhance motivation to improve ones skills.

Opdenakker, M., Stroet, K., & Bosker, R. (2013). Changes in Teachers' Involvement Versus
Rejection and Links with Academic Motivation During the First Year of Secondary

Education: A Multilevel Growth Curve Analysis. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 42(9),
1348-1371.
This article looks at numerous theories related to classroom motivation strategies for prospective
teachers. The reader is able to lean the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic learning which comes from a students own desire to learn, extrinsic coming in the form
of a reward. The author discusses how most human behaviors are driven by both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. A reoccurring theme of the article is the blending of both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation to accomplish desired behavior, academic skill, or a combination of both.
Intrinsic motivation is the desired motivation for student, teacher want their students to be self
motivated. The use of extrinsic motivation can be used to supply student with the tools to
become intrinsically motivated later in their academic career. When using external rewards to
motivate students, a teacher must be careful not to spoil a student inner drive for success but
rather feed that internal drive. When looking at intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the
classroom, the author details how and when each method of motivation should be used to gain
the desired effect. The article suggests rewarding success rather than rewarding the simple
completion of the task.

Rowell, L., & Eunsook, H. (2013). Academic Motivation: Concepts, Strategies, and Counseling
Approaches. Professional School Counseling, 16(3), 158-171.
This article exams several theoretical perspectives on academic motivation and how motivation
is needed for school success. Because motivation is very complex this article details all the
different aspects of motivation as it relates to students in school. The components of motivation
described in this article include beliefs and perceptions of a students own abilities, control over

their learning, and having initial success. The self-determination theory suggests humans are
naturally curious and motivated to learn. It identifies a need for students to choose what and how
they will learn, believing they are competent and by having a connection to the teacher.
Teaching strategies to promote academic motivation include self-efficacy beliefs,
encouragement, relationships, realistic goals, and autonomy. This article also discusses how
counselors can promote academic motivation by having small group counseling sessions once
teacher have referred students lacking in motivation. By identify in those students, counselors
can intervene by leading small group guidance activities.

Rassuli, A. (2012). Engagement in Classroom Learning: Creating Temporal Participation

Incentives for Extrinsically Motivated Students Through Bonus Credits. Journal Of
Education For Business, 87(2), 86-93.
In this article the author takes a look at how extrinsic motivation can enhance a students
motivation to learn without damaging their intrinsic motivation. The author discusses how some
theorists believe that extrinsic reinforcements can have negative ramifications on a persons
overall motivation toward lifelong learning. He makes an argument against those clams by
holding studies where students are rewarded based on voluntary participation and time spent on a
learning task. By providing these bonus rewards the author is extrinsically motivating students
that are showing intrinsic motivation. He couples this study with another regarding workers and
incentives on willingness to engage in overtime work.

Jacobs, G. (2012). Rethinking Common Assumptions About Adolescents' Motivation to Use

Technology In and Out of School. Journal Of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(4), 271274.
Gloria E. Jacobs explores the world of student motivation through multiliterate practices. Jacobs
describes difficulties with student motivation when it comes to the reading and writing
expectation for any given class. She has come to the conclusion that students want to learn more
through reading and writing but want to do so in their own comfortable environment. When it
comes to views on motivation the author believes that students need to be intrinsically motivated.
With intrinsic motivation student become more engaged in the learning process and will continue
to grow intellectually. Jacobs describes how students become engaged in multiliterate practices
and become intrinsically motivated through digital media and social networking sites. Students
first become engaged with peers based on common interests, goals and actives. They then start
exploring and playing with a new active, sharing experiences and tips. Then they move on to
become experts at these actives though this exploration and practice. Some are recognized as
experts and often help lead other though their journey of exploration. The author wants to use
this common practice among students and create ways of harboring this intrinsic motivation to
learn for school subjects. She envisions a learning environment where students have a sense of
confidence, are studying subjects they are interested in and connecting to their community in
large numbers.

Brunsma, D. L., Khmelkov, V. T., & McConnell, E. E. (1996). Increasing the motivation of
secondary school students. American Secondary Education, 2510-15.

This article describes how motivation is positively related to performance and how increased
performance can lead to increased learning. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators must be combined
for optimal success. The article identifies and explains five models of motivation. The first
model is earning nationally recognized credentials or certificates to help students prepare for
high-skill/high-wage professions and motivate them to work harder. The second model is
providing opportunities for students to earn monetary rewards based on being productive in the
classroom. The third model is interscholastic team competition to provide interaction between
students with similar goals. The forth model is interscholastic cooperation to motivate students
by working with peers. The fifth and final model is community service which develops their
interest in the community.

D'Angelo, F., & Zemanick, R. (2009). The Twilight Academy: An Alternative Education Program
That Works. Preventing School Failure, 53(4), 211-218.
This article identifies the differences of todays students as those that are growing up in broken
homes leading to an increase of unsupervised time. It states that educators need to adapt to the
modern-day student. The article discusses the need for alternative schools like The Twilight
Academy that strives to motivate and create success for failing students. An explanation of what
works for failing students is having teachers with positive attitudes that believed in their
students, access to transportation to and from school, weekly counseling sessions, small class
size, and computer programs that allow students to work at their own pace. In order to create
more successful programs, the article states that a collaborative approach where the community,
board members and all stakeholders support the program because input is received and data is
continually shared.

Dev, P. (1997). Intrinsic Motivation and Academic Achievement What Does Their Relationship
Imply foe the Classroom Teacher. Remedial and Special Education, 18(1), 12-19.
In this article the authors look at the effects of different motivational methods. It also takes a
look in to the multiple variables that can play a part in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The
article explains how intrinsically motivated students complete task out of curiosity and sense of
accomplishment, while extrinsically motivated students compete tasks for good grades, money,
or other outside rewards. The issue with learning disabled students is that they have to work hard
to gain the certain skills needed to complete task that could supply them with intrinsic rewards
(personal sense of accomplishment). For example a student might become very curious about
computer programming and find it very self-satisfying to type away and create programs, but
lack the intrinsic motivation to complete the initial task of learning the basics programming.
Here certain extrinsic rewards need to be supplied to help the student realize their own intrinsic
motivation toward a certain subject. We dont want to provide so much extrinsic motivation that
the student becomes dependent on it, but rather provide enough artificial motivation for a student
to reach a level where they find their own internal motivation.

Practice
Metcalf, L. (1999). Can a new, solution-focused approach solve an old problem? Motivating
students by believing in their competency. American Secondary Education, 28(1), 3-9.
This article describes a story about a competent student that had struggled in class because of
many outside factors. In the story, the student was failing his class and would not qualify for a
track scholarship because of the grade. Rather than failing the student, the teacher looked at him
as an individual, took a risk and passed him to show she believed in his potential. The article
describes the benefits to using solution-focused approaches just at the teacher in the story did,
rather than a behavior modification, problem-focused approach with struggling students. The
author believed a solution-focused approach will increase student motivation. The strategies
described in the article, included believing in the students abilities, encouraging them, giving
attention and reminders, and believing in them so that they see school as a place they can feel
competent.

Hardr, P. (2012). Standing in the Gap: Research that Informs Strategies for Motivating and
Retaining Rural High School Students. Rural Educator, 34(1), 12-18.
This article addresses the need to focus on motivational dropout, staying in school without being
engaged and interested more than physical dropout because motivational dropout poses a threat
for student success and is under researched. It looked at the need for teachers to know how to
identify unmotivated students and why they are as well as effective strategies to motivate these
students. This article emphasizes the importance knowing the signs of and unmotivated student,
understanding why they are unmotivated, and knowing the students as individuals. Once these
students have been identified, the four strategies to improve motivation were listed as two that

were consistent with goal theory as supporting future goals and making learning relevant, and
two that were consistent with self-efficacy by showing respect and encouraging competence.

Reflection
I have learned that student motivation is a multifaceted topic. It is a necessity for student
success. Without motivation, students do not have the same chances of success. Unmotivated
students are less likely to act and put forth energy and effort into what they do. As a
consequence, there are fewer chances for success.
Throughout the research I conducted, I saw many common themes about how to motivate
students. I learned the following:

Students need to see relevance to what they are learning

Students need to know that the educator cares about them as individuals
Students need to perceive that they have the ability to succeed.

It is always easy to focus on what we are not doing. With limited time and resources, we
can be overwhelmed with too much to do and too little time. As a new parent, I felt the pressure
of wanting to make sure I knew everything about raising a happy, healthy child and would be
overwhelmed about all the suggested parenting strategies in my plethora of baby books. As a
teacher, I have a similar feeling of concern for my students, a responsibility to impart them with
all I can to assist them during their year with me, and onto adulthood. I want to make sure I
equip them not only with relevant information, but also with a spark, a spark that will assist them
long beyond their time in my classroom. In doing this research, I was pleased to see many of the
successful trends and patterns of what worked are already present in my classroom. My
classroom instruction is consistently relevant because all of our students want to become
healthcare workers. I am able to tie current health issues to daily lessons. I also genuinely care
about the students well-being and care for them as individuals.
However, like the many views on sleep schedules, motivation is not cut and dry. Perhaps
the most contradictory articles I read were about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. As a teacher,

I have used extrinsic motivators such as candy for a game and bonus points for a test. Based on
what I read, I will be more aware of the pitfalls mentioned with using extrinsic motivation. Will
I discontinue this? No! Because of the studies that resonate with me and intuition about what
works, I think certain types of extrinsic motivation can add a fun dimension to the classroom. I
will try to transition into more intrinsic motivation by sparking their curiosity daily. I would like
to create an environment where there is a love of learning rather than solely a love of external
rewards.
Going forward, I am still interested in learning more about motivation. I would like to
further my investigation to answer questions such as what are the long lasting effects of
motivation. I would also like to learn more about whether motivation has to come from self or if
the motivator can always find methods of motivation no matter what or where the person is
coming from.