Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2004
CONTENTS
Contents Authors
Dr Robin Cotton, Stewart Boyle and Jenny Carey-Wood.
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Published by
Chapter 1 - Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Devon County Council, Economy & Regeneration Service,
County Hall, Exeter. EX2 4QD
Chapter 2 - Energy from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Tel: 01392 383543
Email: economy@devon.gov.uk
2.1 Wood Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Website: www.devon.gov.uk
2.2 Energy Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 This document is available on the above website.
February 2004.
2.3 Biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP) . . . 35
2.4 Anaerobic Digestion (AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Funded by
Chapter 3 - Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Devon County Council.
SWRDA.
Chapter 4 - Small-Scale Hydro Power . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Countryside Agency.
Annexes Phil Davis and colleagues from Hydro-Generation Ltd, for input
to the chapter on Hydro; Greenergy and British Sugar staff for
1. Government grants and support programmes advice on the biofuels chapter; Andy Russell for input to the
for renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Biomass CHP chapter; the Energy Savings Trust and Solar
Century Ltd for input to the solar PV chapter; DARE for input
2. Developers, contractors and suppliers of on the Community Renewables Initiative; Regen SW and
renewable energy equipment and services . . . . . . 83 countless individuals who reviewed earlier drafts of this Guide.
Renewable Energy in Devon: The main reason is climate change. The burning of fossil
fuels to create energy is one of the main causes of
A Complete Guide to Renewable climate change. Renewable energy, which does not emit
Energy for Land-based Industries1 greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, is therefore seen
as a key element in combating climate change.
1
‘A Complete Guide to Renewable Energy for Land-based
Industries’ has been produced for Devon County Council by
Renewable Heat and Power Limited with funding from the
South West of England Regional Development and Countryside
Agencies.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Highlights What is Renewable Energy?
◆ Climate change is forcing us to make changes in the Renewable energy will never run out as long as the Sun
way we run our societies in a long-term shift towards shines, unlike the so-called ‘conventional sources’ of
a fossil free energy system. energy which refer to fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas) and
◆ The UK Government has committed to a 60% cut in nuclear energy.
carbon dioxide emissions by 2050.
The use of the term ‘conventional’ when referring to
◆ Shifting to renewable energy is now backed by the
fossil fuels and nuclear power is perhaps surprising,
UK Government, the European Union and the Earth since before the industrial revolution renewable energy
Summit in Johannesburg, August 2002. was the only form of power available apart from labour
◆ Renewable energy comes from natural sources such from human and animals.
as wind, water, sunshine or plants and trees.
They are continually renewed by energy from the Therefore, renewable energy is nothing new. It was
Sun and hence will never run out, unlike fossil fuels overtaken for a century or more by fossil fuels, but
and nuclear power. recently a number of important factors have combined
◆ The global market for renewable energy is now to ensure that renewable energy is again likely to make
worth £50 billion a year and is growing faster than a very substantial contribution to our future energy
conventional fossil fuels. supply.
atmosphere today are already 30 per cent higher than Following on from the regional assessments and targets,
the levels which existed before the Industrial the Government Office for the South West (GOSW) and
Revolution. the Regional Development Agency (RDA) published a
‘Strategic Framework for the Development of Renewable
Global Climate Change is one of the most important and Energy in the South West’ in June 2002, with its strategy
largest threat facing our planet. It is already causing published in April 2003. This will spell out the
changes in weather patterns which are predicted to get mechanisms and support for implementing its targets.
substantially worse over the coming decades with
potentially catastrophic consequences. A growing Renewable energy is gaining in political importance in
number of reports on the impact of climate change on direct relationship to growing concern about Climate
the insurance industry suggest that weather related Change and its impacts. Government has set aside
damage costs could climb massively, leading to many funding for renewable energy projects and has
areas being excluded from insurance protection. Homes introduced mechanisms to encourage its market
in flood-plains are already facing both high premiums development. The first of these support mechanisms
and potential ‘red-lining’ by insurance companies. was the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) which
provided a premium price for up to 15 years for the
2. UK and European Legislation electricity generated from renewable sources. This has
In 1997 more than 160 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to been discontinued and a new approach - the
negotiate binding limitations on greenhouse gases for Renewables Obligation (RO) - is now underway.
the developed nations. The outcome of the meeting was
the Kyoto Protocol, in which the developed nations The Renewables Obligation places an obligation on
agreed to limit their greenhouse gas emissions, relative electricity suppliers to acquire an increasing percentage
to the levels emitted in 1990. Over and above the Kyoto of their supplies from renewable sources and cover the
Protocol, the UK Government also has a commitment to additional costs. Where they are unable to fulfil their
reduce CO2 emissions by 20% of 1990 levels by 2010. In obligation, they may purchase ‘Renewable Obligation
February 2003 it committed the UK to a 60% cut in CO2 Certificates’, or ‘ROCs’ from other suppliers (these relate
emissions by 2050. As renewable energy contributes to metered units of renewable electricity), or buy out
little or no net carbon dioxide, it can play a central role their obligation by making a payment to OFGEM, the
in meeting these targets. industry regulator. It is anticipated that this new
approach will stimulate the development of renewable
The UK now has a target of getting 10% of its electricity electricity generation to replace existing provision. It is
from renewable energy by 2010. Currently the UK likely that the RO will mean a premium in excess of
obtains around 3% of its electricity supply from 3p/kWh for electricity produced from renewable sources
renewable energy, much from older hydro schemes in i.e. a supplier of renewable electricity may be able to
Scotland. For the Government, a strategic approach is obtain 3 pence above the normal wholesale price of
important for the development of renewable energy at electricity. Indeed, due to the shortage of ROCs at this
a regional level. In 1999 it commissioned reports1 on stage of the market, the estimated price is likely to be
the potential for renewable energy in each region. between 4.5-5p/kWh as far out as 2006.
These reports also set regional targets for renewable
energy generation. Devon has been identified as having
significant potential and the target set for the County is
15% generation from renewable sources by 2010.
1
Renewable Energy Assessment and Targets for the South
West’, Terence O’Rourke plc and ETSU - February 2001
At the moment the UK is firmly at the bottom left of the While this would cost more than current sources, there
league table (fig 1.1) with about 1% of our energy is a big potential to reduce costs over time. If renewable
(corresponding to about 3% of electricity) coming from energy was linked to reducing energy demand through
renewable sources. The majority of this comes from a serious energy efficiency effort, the overall energy
large-scale hydropower built in the last 40-70 years and costs to the consumer might in fact be similar or even
from traditional low efficiency log burning in open fires lower than today. This was a conclusion reached by the
or stoves. Government’s Performance and Innovation Unit (PIU) in
its report on Energy Policy in early 2002.
Yet the UK has a huge potential resource to exploit a
range of renewable technologies, the ones most Renewable energy technologies are now beginning to
relevant to land-based industries are covered in this compete economically with fossil fuels and there are a
guide. We concentrate on the main options of wind number of grant programmes available to help
power, small-scale hydro, biomass energy and liquid establish and expand the emerging renewable energy
biofuels. We will not cover offshore wind power and industries. These include:
cover only briefly solar photovoltaics (PV).
• subsidy support for renewable based electricity
• grant support for farmers establishing energy crops
The Potential Role of • capital grant support for a range of technologies
Renewable Energy • enhanced capital write-offs for many renewable
technologies
Renewable energy has the potential to supply the whole
• exemption from the Climate Change Levy
of the UK’s energy needs. It could do this with very low
or zero net carbon dioxide emissions and this would • grant support for community energy projects
enable the UK to be self reliant in energy, with energy A list of programmes is given in Annex 1.
sources being locally derived and locally owned.
Figure 1.1 35
10
0
United Kingdom
Belgium
Luxembourg
Ireland
Netherlands
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Denmark
Portugal
Austria
Finland
Sweden
Renewable energy also has the potential to revitalise diversification and direct job creation such as the more
the rural economy. Local energy supply requires local isolated rural areas. In addition, money spent can stay
skills, creates local jobs and needs local resources. The in a local community with the multiplier effect of
development of a vibrant local rural renewable energy money being re-spent locally providing added benefit.
industry would bring many economic and social
benefits as well as environmental gains. Financial Benefits
While the capital costs are relatively high, renewable
Environmental Benefits energy systems tend to have very low running costs,
Fossil fuels are made up of carbon that was taken out of good reliability, a long lifetime for the equipment and
the atmosphere millions of years ago by a slow, steady low or zero annual fuel costs. Since it uses renewable
process that still goes on today. Burning fossil fuels puts sources of fuel, once a system is installed it is likely to
large amounts of additional carbon dioxide into today’s continue operating indefinitely because the fuel source
atmosphere, which is widely accepted to be changing will always be there. Where fuel costs are applicable,
our climate; we are already feeling the effects of more such as with wood where the fuel needs to be bought
flooding, drought and other extreme and unseasonable in, wood fuel remains very competitively priced
weather conditions. compared to fossil fuels.
Burning wood and other ‘biomass’ fuels does not add With Global Climate Change high on the political and
this extra CO2 to our atmosphere; they are ‘CO2-neutral’. environmental agenda and the need to reduce carbon
By burning wood fuel or using wind or water instead of dioxide emissions, a premium price is likely to continue
fossil fuels, we can avoid adding extra carbon dioxide to to be paid for electricity from renewable sources. This
our atmosphere and reduce our impact on the Global can provide a useful income for those generating
Climate. electricity surplus to their requirements.
At the local level, there is considerable potential for This is an exciting time for businesses, communities and
renewable energy production whilst taking into account individuals across the county to get involved in the
the protected landscapes and population distribution renewable revolution that is changing the way we use
within Devon. This guide aims to demonstrate how this energy in the UK. There are significant opportunities to
can be achieved at both the private level (producing provide energy services in new ways which don’t
heat/power to meet own requirements) and at the damage the environment. Many of these provide
commercial level (selling surplus electricity). Although business opportunities for landowners, farmers, and
domestic scale schemes will not count towards the other entrepreneurs and communities, to use local
regional target, they will make a contribution to resources. This Guide provides a step by step guide to
reducing global warming, especially if combined with using the range of renewable resources and
attempts to reduce overall energy consumption. technologies, as well as insights to successful projects,
the economics of renewables, and a wide range of
contacts and information.
The Current Situation in Devon
Devon currently receives about 1.8% of its energy needs
from renewables. Most of this has come from methane
gas from landfill sites (not really considered a renewable
source) and small hydro schemes. In 2002 the
Holsworthy Biogas Plant began energy production using
animal slurry as fuel. An agricultural co-operative, South
West Wood Fuels Limited, supplies wood fuel to a
growing number of wood heating installations in the
South West. Interest in renewables is growing and the
smattering of small-scale individual and community
projects is slowly increasing.
What it Means
Terminology and Glossary
Units of Power
Kilowatt (kW) = 1000Watts
Megawatt (MW) = 1000kW
Glossary
AD Anaerobic Digestion
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CO2 Carbon Dioxide - a gas given off when fossil and plant
material is burnt and absorbed by plants when they grow.
CRI Countryside Agency Community Renewables Initiative
DARE Devon Association of Renewable Energy
DEFRA Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
EA Environment Agency
EST Energy Savings Trust
EU European Union
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GOSW Government Office of the South West
LA Local Authority
NFFO Non Fossil Fuel Obligation
RE Renewable Energy
REGEN SW South West Renewable Energy Agency
R&D Research and Development
RO Renewables Obligation
SRC Short Rotation Coppicing
SWRDA South West of England Regional Development Agency
Chapter 2
Energy from Biomass
Highlights Biomass Technology
◆ Biomass in this Guide is sub-divided into wood fuel,
General
woodland residues for heat and power generation,
◆ Biomass energy is a term used to describe heat and crops used for liquid fuels in the transport sector,
power produced from wood, forest and agricultural energy crops for heat and power, and wastes
residues and wastes, and a wide range of organic digested to produce power and heat (see Chapter
wastes such as animal slurry and kitchen waste. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 respectively).
◆ Modern technology converts biomass to heat, power ◆ At present, wood fuel in the UK can be cheaper than
and liquid fuels efficiently and conveniently. most fossil fuels, and modern automatic wood
◆ Modern automatic wood heating is very common heating technology is reliable and readily available.
across Europe, particularly in Austria, Denmark, ◆ Power generation from biomass has been proved
Sweden and Finland. economical using straw and chicken litter as well as
◆ Wood and other biomass is a significant resource municipal waste. Some positive experience with
which, as long as re-growth or replanting takes biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP) has also
place, emits no net carbon into the atmosphere as been gained, though most systems are currently
growing biomass absorbs carbon. uneconomic without a large subsidy.
◆ An integrated wood fuel and energy production ◆ Biomass power systems can gain subsidies through
system provides a sustainable and clean approach Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROC) and Climate
that has the added advantage of stimulating local Change Levy (CCL) exemption.
woodland management and local economic benefits ◆ Advanced biomass power systems which gasify
including jobs. special energy crops and pyrolysis, which turns
organic materials into oil, have not proved
The Biomass Resource
economical or fully commercial but may do so in
◆ The global biomass resource is massive. It provides the near future.
11% of global energy use and the potential is ◆ Liquid biofuels, in the form of bio-diesel for
estimated as 65-100% of current global energy use. example, using rapeseed oil, has not yet been
◆ In the UK wood is the biggest renewable energy produced commercially in the UK and is mainly
source at present, but much of this is used in imported from mainland Europe. Diesel with a 5%
relatively inefficient open fires and stoves. The ‘bio’ component is available for local authorities and
potential in the UK for all biomass resources is more other vehicle fleets in the UK, with guaranteed
than one-third of total energy demand. carbon reductions.
◆ Animal slurry and food waste has been digested to
produce heat and power, though only a few systems
exist in the UK.
Chapter 2.1
Wood Fuel
An Introduction countries, Austria and North America. This revolution
has largely bypassed the UK, with a few notable
Wood was the first fuel mankind learned to use. exceptions. Now is the time to expand the wood
The first fires of primitive peoples burned wood for heating industry in the UK, using the latest technology.
warmth and cooking. It is also a natural resource,
which can be regenerated - unlike fossil fuels, which will As well as being able to compete on cost and
eventually run out. convenience with most other forms of heating, wood
fuel has a number of important benefits that should not
Up until 200 years ago, wood was the main fuel for be forgotten.
heating in the UK, and influenced much of woodland
management to meet this demand. However, with the
discovery of coal and then oil and gas, the use of wood The Benefits of Wood Energy
as a serious heating fuel in the UK, as opposed to log
Wood is a renewable and sustainable source of
burning for enjoyment, virtually ceased. However, with
energy. Trees grow every summer using the energy of
the development of high-efficiency, automatic heating
the sun to fix carbon from the atmosphere. Every
systems over the last two decades in mainland Europe a
woodland has a sustainable yield of timber, which can
major industry has grown up, with many hundreds of
be harvested indefinitely without depleting the resource
thousands of systems operational. The UK has been
in any way. Wood is carbon neutral and does not
slow to take up this technology, but over the last few
contribute to greenhouse gasses. Burning wood gives off
years it has become established in the UK and is now
carbon dioxide just like fossil fuels, but this is balanced
being supported by the UK Government.
by the carbon absorbed by the growing trees. Un-
harvested wood will give off the same amount of
It is also important to note that traditionally wood was
carbon dioxide when it eventually decomposes as it
used in open fires or primitive wood stoves, which
would have done if burnt in a boiler. Burning wood
burned very inefficiently. This not only made it
replaces the burning of fossil fuels.
expensive - with up to 85% of the useful heat going up
the chimney - but also polluting with smoky fires. This
Wood is a very clean and safe fuel. Wood chips and
is the image many people have of wood burning -
pellets present no risk if accidentally released into the
smoky, open fires which produce a lot of ash and which
environment, unlike oil which is a serious pollutant and
sometimes go out when most needed.
gas which can explode. There are no harmful by-
products. The flue gas is smoke-free and the ash
However, modern wood heating is clean, efficient,
content of between 0.5% and 3% by volume (depending
convenient and can compete on cost with most heating
on material), is minimal. Unlike coal ash, wood ash is
systems. This has been achieved through controlling
an excellent fertiliser and can be used in the garden or
airflow, using thick boiler insulation and re-burning flue
returned to the forest. Modern appliances burn very
gases. There have been huge advances in wood burning
cleanly with minimal smoke.
technologies in recent years, mainly driven by a number
of European countries, especially Scandinavian
Wood fuel benefits woodland management. It creates many different forms all of which will have different
a market for timber and wood residues which would combustion properties, behave differently in terms of
otherwise have no market or go to landfill. It can handling, and are suited to particular types of boilers.
provide financial support to woodland management
activity, and have a positive impact on flora and fauna if Wood fuels are divided into three main types:
managed appropriately. • Log Wood
• Densified fuels such as pellets (fig 2.1) and
Wood fuel benefits the local economy. Wood as a fuel
compressed logs (briquettes)
can now compete on cost with fuel oil, liquid petroleum
gas (LPG) and electrical heating, and in some cases • Wood Chips (fig 2.2)
mains gas. Supplying wood fuel and associated services
to these emerging markets is a major opportunity for
rural businesses. It can create local jobs and income, Figure 2.2
and can play a key role in diversifying the rural Wood chips from forestry residues.
economy. For example, labour comprises the biggest
element of the cost of wood pellet production.
Therefore, the main cost in fuel supply goes to local
people rather than to remote multinational companies.
Wood Fuels
Wood fuel needs to be refined like other fuel sources
such as coal and oil, but in different ways. It requires
drying to reduce moisture content, and reduced to a
size that makes handling easier. Wood fuel can come in
Figure 2.1
Wood pellets made from virgin sawdust.
Wood Fuel Characteristics
The critical elements in describing a particular wood
type are Moisture Content, Particle Size and Bulk
Density of Wood.
The Carbon Cycle forest the amount of carbon being similar. On balance, wood is never
absorbed by growing trees is the same as removed faster than it is added by new
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is taken from the
the amount being given off by decaying growth. Therefore the CO2 released when
atmosphere and used by trees to grow.
dead trees, and by the animals, microbes the wood fuel is burned is never more
When these trees die and decay or are
etc. that live off the trees as they live and than the CO2 being taken up by new
burned, this CO2 is released back into the
die. For a sustainably managed growth. It is therefore termed ‘carbon
atmosphere. In a mature, unmanaged
woodland, or energy crops, the process is neutral’.
Technical Aspects of Wood Fuel ‘Density’ and ‘Bulk Density’ of Wood Fuel
The ‘bulk density’ of the wood fuel has very important
Calculation of ‘Moisture Content’ (MC)
implications for both storage and transport. This is one of the
There are two different ways of specifying the moisture
major advantages of wood pellets compared to wood chips.
content of wood; on a ‘wet basis’ or ‘dry basis’. The moisture
It is important here to make the distinction between density
content of a single piece of wood will be different using the
and bulk density. For example, good quality wood pellets
two methods and so care must be taken to be clear which
when put in water sink like a stone i.e. they have a Density
method is being used. Generally speaking the moisture
greater than that of water (i.e. >1000kg/m3).
content of wood should always be calculated and specified on
a Wet Basis. However, when put in a container you will find a volume of
1m3 will have a mass of somewhere between 600 to 700kg
The moisture content (on a ‘wet basis’) of a piece of wood is
depending on the density and size (diameter and length) i.e.
given by the mass of water contained in the wood divided by
wood pellets have a Bulk Density of about 600 to 700kg/m3.
the total mass of the piece of wood as found.
Seasoned wood Chips (at 25% moisture content) will have a
Example: A sample of wood chip has a mass of 10kg. It is bulk density of between 150 to 250kg/m3 depending on
dried to an oven-dried condition, and then it has a mass of species.
8kg. What is the moisture content of the wood chip?
Fuel Storage
The mass of ‘wet’ wood (10kg) - mass of oven dried wood Table 2.1 shows a comparison of the storage volumes
(8kg) = mass of water (2kg) between heating oil, wood pellets and wood chips. A typical
oil store for a house would typically be 1,000-1,500 litres,
Mass of Water (2kg) which would be filled perhaps twice a year. An equivalent
x 100 = 20% (MC)
Mass of Wet Wood (10kg) wood pellet store might be twice the volume say 2,000 to
3,000 litres and filled perhaps three times per year. A store
for wood chip would need to be considerably larger. This is a
major factor when considering a wood chip-fired heating
system.
Table 2.1 Comparison of Storage Volumes for Oil, Wood Pellets and Wood Chips
Typical volume of fuel required per
year for various examples Heating Oil Wood Pellets Wood chips
Wood pellets improve the economics of biomass fuel Cost Comparisons of Fuel Types
transportation. A 20m3 trailer/lorry will contain about
12-13 tonnes of wood pellets with about three times as Wood chip fuel is generally the cheapest of all fuels
much energy as the same trailer with wood chips. The including mains gas in many circumstances and all
market value for wood pellets is likely to settle at other fossil fuels. Figure 2.4 shows the cost comparisons
around 80-90% of the price of heating oil for the same between the various wood and other fuels per unit
energy, perhaps £70-80/tonne. Therefore, the 20m3 energy. As is well known the cost of heating oil and LPG
trailer/lorry of wood pellets will have a commercial is subject to substantial fluctuations in price, unlike
value of say £900-£1,000. locally derived wood fuels which should be very price
1.8
Key: 1.6
a Wood chips at £30/tonne at 1.4
25% moisture content 1.2
b Wood chips at £40/tonne at 1.0
25% moisture content 0.8
0.6
c Wood chips at £50/tonne at
0.4
25% moisture content 0.2
d Projected wood pellets at 0.0
£80/tonne
Oil (f)
LPG (i)
Wood Chips (a)
LPG (h)
Oil (g)
However, capital grants are now available for both Wood Pellet Boilers
commercial and domestic systems which could be The principal advantage of wood pellets over wood
between 25% and 40% of the cost of the system chips are the uniform size, the ease of handling in that
depending on site location and status (e.g. community pellets will flow, and their uniformly low moisture
projects can receive higher grant funding). As the content. This combination makes pellets extremely
systems get larger, the variation of cost is largely convenient for the consumer. The only real
determined by the complexity of the fuel handling disadvantage is price, as there is a significant
system. As a basic rule of thumb, the boiler and fuel manufacturing cost for pellets. The cost per tonne of
handling equipment for systems in excess of 50kW pellets will generally be about twice that of chips,
would be in the region of £100 - £120 per installed kW, although the energy content per tonne of pellets is
i.e. a 100kW system would cost in the region of £10,000 about 20% higher than seasoned wood chip as the
- £12,000. This would not include the cost of moisture content is lower.
construction work (e.g. fuel bunker) or installation.
Wood pellet burners are highly automated and are well
Wood Chip Boilers suited to meet variable load demands such as for a
school, where heat is required perhaps only 10 hours
Figure 2.8 shows a picture of a commercial underfed
per day, 5 days per week during the heating season. All
wood chip heating system with fully automated
pellet appliances have thermostatic controls and can be
thermostatic control. The auger feed mechanism which
operated on a timer. The level of automation is
transports the woodchips into the combustion chamber
equivalent to oil fired heating systems, but wood pellets
can be seen. This mechanism allows a precise fuel feed
have added environmental and local economic benefits.
rate to the system. The air is supplied by the
Because the rate of fuel feed and amount of
combustion fan, which allows the amount of air to be
combustion air is controlled precisely, pellet appliances
precisely controlled, ensuring optimum air-fuel ratios to
achieve very high efficiencies (typically 85-90%),
be maintained over a wide range of output, ensuring
comparable to that of an oil system. They have lower
the system runs at high efficiencies. We can also see the
emissions, no tar build up in the chimney and less ash
control panel on the wall and the water jacket
deposition than wood chip boilers.
surrounding the combustion chamber.
The cost of wood pellets on an equivalent delivered
energy basis is generally less than that of oil, although
Figure 2.8 the price of oil fluctuates significantly. A wood pellet
A commercial underfed wood chip heating system. heating system itself will be more expensive than an
equivalent oil-fired heating system. Although wood
pellet fuel is fairly new to the UK, there are now a
number of UK suppliers, including one Devon based
manufacturer of wood pellets.
Automatic pellet stoves
Pellet stoves are fundamentally different from
traditional wood stoves in the fact that they are totally
automated - which means that they offer much more
convenience to the customer on the one hand, but are
far more complex in their operation and maintenance
on the other.
The cost of a pellet stove will typically be from £1400 to Step 1 - Assessing the heat load and usage
well over £2,000 depending on model, which is of current fuels
generally more expensive than the majority of log It is important when evaluating the potential for either
stoves. However, capital grants of £600 are currently installing a biomass heating system or assessing
available under the Government’s ‘Clear Skies’ whether you have wood and other biomass resources
programme. In addition, this cost may be off-set by the suitable for fuel, that you make an accurate estimate of
fact that the appliance will generally be operating at the current heating system. If your building is heated by
about 90% efficiency, and hence fuel will be used very mains natural gas and the boiler is less than five years
economically. Additionally, the pellet stove offers a old, it will be much more difficult for the economics to
much higher level of convenience and ease of operation work in favour of biomass. If however you are not on
not found with a conventional log stove. mains gas and are using coal, oil, electricity or LPG as a
fuel and the boiler is more than 5 years old, then the
economics are likely to be more favourable.
The following questions will help when talking with
potential biomass heating companies about a potential
scheme.
Key Questions for Biomass Heating Systems Step 2 - Potential Wood Fuel Suppliers or
wood for own use. How to estimate the
1. Is the heating system for a purely domestic load or
will there also be office, industrial or leisure sector
potential
heat demand as well? If the heating load is spread In Devon and throughout the South-West there is plenty
throughout the day then biomass heating can be an of fuel available to supply both current and likely future
attractive option. demand for many years. This includes the assumption
that many woodlands are not managed due to the low
2. What is the current energy expenditure for fuel? price of timber. Obviously if prices were to rise, and an
Having bills for the last full year would be a big help expanding biomass energy market would contribute to
here. What are the maintenance costs for your that, woodland coming back into management would
current heating system? bring even more resources into the market. For wood
3. If you are reviewing options for a larger boiler chips, ample supplies are available for example from
system (i.e. non-domestic), do you have reasonable the South West Wood Fuels Ltd, a co-operative of
access both for installing a new biomass boiler landowners, foresters and others.
system and bringing in wood chip and/or wood
While UK produced supplies of wood pellets are more
pellet fuel? This is not an issue for domestic wood
limited and supplies have to be imported from
pellet systems.
Scandinavia and Canada, a domestic wood pellet
Key Questions on the Current Fuel Supplies production fuel cycle is being developed for the South-
West. Ample supplies of raw materials for wood pellets
1. Is your current fuel mains natural gas, LPG, oil, (e.g. sawdust) are available.
electricity, coal or a mixture of several of these?
Key Questions for Wood Fuel Supply
2. Have you assessed all energy efficiency options
recently in order to reduce your fuel demand? 1. Are there local sources of wood chips and wood
pellets? Do you have your own sources from timber
3. Are there any changes likely to your situation which management?
could increase the heat load in future (i.e. business 2. What tonnage of wood supplies or other biomass
expansion, home extensions, or a new leisure resources do you have available?
centre)?
3. What moisture content and consistency of content
Modern automatic biomass heating systems come in all do you have?
sizes, ranging from 6kW to greater than 1000 kW but 4. If you own woodland that is currently unmanaged
sizing a system accurately can ensure that cost- or only lightly managed, what resources might you
effectiveness is maintained. As long as you have utility have available if it was managed and the market for
bills for a 12-month period, a reputable biomass wood chips/fuel available?
heating supplier will work out the size of heating system
needed. For your local supplier of wood fuel contact South West
Wood Fuels 01398 324558.
wood is chipped using a fuel- exhaust cyclone is fitted as an option on the flue which
wood chipper to provide dry makes any fine dust particles drop out of the gases for
fuel of a consistent quality and periodic collection.
particle size.
On startup from cold some smoke is emitted for a short
The boiler is separated from time, but once under normal running conditions the
the existing buildings by 15m exhaust is clear and, using correct quality fuel, the
and so twin heating pipes were emissions are within the strict Austrian and UK
laid underground between regulations for pollution.
them. The pipes are encased in
a flexible insulated conduit Maintenance
similar to large drainage pipe Once a week the ash gate is revolved to let ash drop
and have a very low heat loss. The boiler therefore is from the combustion chamber into the ash store. Then
able to work effectively at large distances. at intervals of approx. 4-6 weeks (dependant on usage)
the ash store is emptied. Other routine mechanical
How it Works service items are attended to on a longer periodic
The silo is a 3m square by 2m deep block-work schedule, such as greasing points on auger bearings.
construction with a central revolving ‘agitator’ with two At two points within the heating season (suggested by
sweeper arms. An auger, in an open inclined trough, manufacturer) the dust from the cyclone is emptied and
receives chip from the sweepers and conveys it into the at the same time the heat exchanger tubes of the boiler
boiler room where the auger continues within a closed are swept.
tube. The chip is dropped through a rotary valve seal
into a horizontal ‘stoker auger’ at ground level which
feeds the boiler with fuel on demand. Technical Details
Boiler Binder - RRK 49-70
The boiler and feed system is operated by the electronic Rated Heat output 70kW
controller which can be interrogated, via a phone Fuel moisture content <35%
connection, by a remote computer. The boiler has Fuel particle size up to 25mm cubes
separate fans for primary air, secondary air and exhaust Building size 6m x 3m x 2m high
gas extraction, all of which are operated by the Chip store volume 18m3
Power supply 3 phase 16Amp
controller.
Distance from buildings 15m in this installation
The feature that enables the
controller to work so well is
the oxygen sensor in the flue.
Using the information this
provides, the controller can
vary the fuel and air supply
rates to allow the most
efficient burning of the fuel,
while giving the heat output
from the boiler that is
required at that time. An
Special energy crops such as short rotation coppice willow (above), rape seed, sugar
beet and miscanthus grass can be grown to be combusted for heat and power, or
processed to make bio-diesel and bio-ethanol.
Chapter 2.2
Energy Crops
Highlights What are Energy Crops?
◆ With significant surplus agricultural land available, Energy crops are specially bred and grown by farmers
and pressure rising to reduce power and transport for use by the energy industry. The crops include
sector CO2 emissions, there is an opportunity for miscanthus grass, short rotation poplar and willow, rape
‘’energy crops’’ to have an important role in the UK seed, sugar beet and cereals. They are used to produce
energy mix. heat and electricity, as well as processed into liquid
fuels for the transport and chemicals industries. Special
◆ Energy crops include those grown for wood and
grower’s grants are available for short rotation coppice
grass products which can be gasified or combusted (SRC) to establish the crop, while reductions in the fuel
for the heat and power market, and those such as duty levy are available for bio-diesel and bio-ethanol
rape seed and sugar beet which are grown for the (currently 20p/litre less than conventional oil-based
biofuels market. fuels).
◆ The economics of energy crops are heavily
The key benefit of energy crops is that the energy
dependent on subsidy regimes and in early 2003
expended in growing them (in planting, herbicides,
were marginal for most growers.
harvesting, drying the crop etc) is much less than that
◆ If biofuel duty tariffs are reduced further and grants released when they are burnt. The rest comes from
increased for crops such as fast-growing willow and energy taken in from the sun during growth. Estimates
miscanthus grass, the market could expand very of this ‘energy ratio’ (energy used to produce the crop
quickly. compared to the potential energy from the crop) for SRC
and miscanthus vary from about 1:10 to 1:90, with a
◆ Around 1500 hectares of short rotation coppice most likely figure of 1:20. This compares with around
willow has been established in Yorkshire, with 400 1:7 to 1:10 if traditional arable crops were burnt in a
hectares of miscanthus grass being established in similar way and with 1:2 to 1:4 for bio-diesel.
East Anglia in 2003.
In addition, these are environmentally beneficial crops.
◆ Parts of Devon would be suitable for energy crops if
Over the whole cycle they are virtually carbon neutral.
the market conditions were attractive.
Studies have identified real potential benefits to
A demonstration biomass gasification plant being
biodiversity and the potential to develop integrated pest
developed at Castle Cary, Somerset, has indicated its
management strategies. Energy crops are a good
wish to use energy crops as a fuel in future.
example of sustainable agriculture.
agriculture, it was thought that energy crops could • A wide range of soil types can be tolerated, from
provide alternative income streams for farmers. While heavy clay to sand, including soil reclaimed from
the assumed biomass target is being revised downwards colliery spoil and gravel extraction.
due to non-performing gasification technology, the • Soil pH should be in the range of 5.5 to 7.
potential for large quantities of energy crops remains.
• Site selection has to meet guidelines under DEFRA
The energy crops have benefits beyond agriculture Establishment Grants booklet (see web site -
through the creation of jobs in rural areas. Estimates http://www.defra.gov.uk/erdp/schemes/projectbased
vary but it is generally accepted by the Government that /energy/energyindex.htm).
5 jobs are created for each MW of electricity generated. • Treated sewage can be used as a fertiliser if
considered feasible by the local water company.
The Crops Harvesting of SRC willow is usually by specialist
Short Rotation Coppice - Willow and Poplar machinery, including direct-chip harvesters, rod
Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) is densely planted, high- harvesting or billet harvesting. Direct-chip harvesting
yielding willow and poplar, harvested on a 2 to 5 year cuts the willow stems, chips them and blows them
cycle. SRC is a woody, perennial crop where the directly into an accompanying trailer. Rod harvesting
rootstock remains in the ground after harvesting, with cuts loose rods of willow, then off-loads these on the
new shoots emerging the following spring. A plantation headlands of fields or on the farm itself. Chipping then
should be viable for up to 30 years before re-planting takes place at a later date when the moisture content is
becomes necessary. lower. Billet harvesting involves cutting stems whole,
cutting these further into billets and then blowing these
Willow SRC is planted in the spring from specialist stock
into a trailer.
and using specifically designed equipment. The osier, a
shrub willow, provides the parent stock to the majority Despite the fact that SRC willow is a monoculture and
of willow used as energy crops. The willow will grow that weeds need to be eradicated during its
rapidly in the first year, often reaching 4 metres in establishment year, the biodiversity of the land is often
height. enhanced compared to other crops such as cereals. This
is due to the retention of the roots after harvesting, and
During the winter after planting the stems are cut back
the far lower use of pesticides.
to ground level to encourage the growth of multiple
stems. About 3-4 years after planting the first crop will Poplar SRC has only been used on a small-scale to date,
be harvested. UK yields are predicted to be about 7-12 often planted adjacent to willow to provide visual
oven dry tonnes per hectare per year (odt/ha/year) diversity. It is grown best in deep fertile soils and grows
depending on site and management. in most conditions except waterlogged and shallow soil
sites. Soil pH should be in the range of 5.5-7.5.
While specialist advice is available from DEFRA, some of
Preparation should be the same as for willow, including
the important issues to be aware of when considering
the removal of weeds in the establishment year.
planting and managing SRC willow include:
Miscanthus Grass
• Adequate moisture is needed by willow within 1
Miscanthus grass is a woody, perennial, rhizomatous
metre of the soil surface. 600-1000mm rainfall per
grass, originating from Asia and which has the potential
year is ideal.
for very high rates of growth. The flowering version is
• Willow can cope with seasonal flooding but not popular with many UK gardeners.
permanent water-logging.
Establishment and other Grants under the Energy Crops Scheme (ECS)
Under the ECS DEFRA will pay the following grants to help For miscanthus:
establish the crop:
• A grant of £920/ha for establishing the crop on land
For short rotation coppice (poplar or willow): which forms part of an agricultural holding.
• An enhanced rate of £1600/ha on eligible agricultural
Set aside land: These crops are permitted non-food crops on
land which is currently forage area for the purpose of the
‘set aside’ land. Land may be planted under the Energy Crops
IACS area aid application, not being AAPS eligible land, for
Scheme and continue to receive set-aside payments under the
which livestock premia are claimed. This means that the
Arable Area Payments Scheme (AAPS) - providing the
forage land must have been declared as part of the
conditions of both schemes can be met.
current or previous years’ IACS application and claims
made to one or more of the Beef Special Premium There are also grants of up to 50% to establish Producers
Scheme (BSPS), Hill Livestock Compensatory Allowance Groups to organise farmers in a region.
(HLCA), Suckler Cow Premium (SCPS) or Sheep Annual
Contact: Government Office of the South-West -
Premium (SAPS) in the current or previous scheme year.
Tel: 0117 900 1923 Fax: 0117 900 1905
• A standard rate on other eligible land, i.e. arable land,
non agricultural land and land which forms part of an Email: trender.gosw@go-regions.gsi.gov.uk
agricultural holding but is neither arable or forage of
£1000/ha.
Miscanthus is planted in spring and canes produced • Changes to the rules for co-firing of biomass and
during the summer are harvested in winter. The lifetime coal in coal-fired power plant may stimulate a
of the crop is usually around 15 years. Yields build up market for energy crops.
over three years to a peak. Yields from a mature crop • A demonstration biomass gasification plant
have exceeded 13 odt/ha/yr in experimental sites, and developed by Bronzeoak Ltd and located at Castle
20 odt/ha/yr in some years. Cary, Somerset, will likely use locally grown energy
crops, within 3-4 years. It is supported by the
Lowland agriculture sites with deep, moisture retentive
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI).
soils are regarded as the best growing options. While
there is only limited experience of growing the crop so Action Points
far, 400 hectares is being grown in East Anglia to feed • While there is uncertainty over the pace and
into a power plant for testing purposes. Planting using direction of energy crops schemes for the heat and
potato planting machinery has been carried out power sectors in the UK, the potential for a
successfully. significant shift to energy crops remains.
• What is currently missing for energy crops is a clear
While there are currently uncertainties over the market
and growing market in the power sector for the
for the energy crops in power plants, there are three
product, and more attractive economics for
promising developments:
establishing and growing the crop.
• It seems likely that the ARBRE gasification scheme in • Farmers should keep a watching brief through the
Yorkshire will be bought by an additional company National Farmers Union (NFU) who have several
and the technical problems overcome. This would non-food crops specialists and who are lobbying
bring confidence back to farmers. both the UK Government and European Union for
more attractive conditions to encourage growing.
Chapter 2.3
Biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Highlights clean-up technology is required to ensure that the
resulting gas is suitable to be burnt in a variety of gas
◆ Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems based on engines, without producing unacceptable emissions.
wood and wood residues are available in a range of
technologies in the UK. The main problem with small-scale gasifiers is that of
ensuring that feedstock (usually wood chips or wood
◆ These include technologies such as a conventional fines) moves through the gasifier. Large-scale gasifiers
gasifier and internal combustion engine/gas turbine, usually employ a series of mechanical devices to
a near market Stirling engine, a high speed steam achieve this but the economies of scale usually mean
engine and an organic Rankin Cycle. that small-scale plant cannot afford this. Gasifiers
◆ A small number of biomass CHP systems are usually require a consistent feedstock in terms of grade
operating in the UK, with a much larger number and moisture content. This type of system has similar
overseas. heat to power ratios as direct combustion plant but is
thermally more efficient.
◆ At present none is truly commercial, though this
situation could improve in the near future. While the technology looks promising many of the
existing sites are experiencing technical difficulties with
the gasifier operating intermittently. There are a
Review of Biomass CHP systems number of UK and European companies designing,
A recent review of biomass CHP systems in the UK supplying and installing small-scale gasifiers. A number
provides the basis of the following review1. Since the of small-scale gasifier based CHP plant were identified
conclusions of the study are that virtually no current during the lifetime of this project, of which 7 are
small to medium scale biomass CHP systems are currently commissioned and in use. A number of others
economic, this chapter will mainly highlight the are being planned or awaiting planning permission. Of
technologies, some examples, and prospects for better the seven projects that use gasifier-based CHP plant
economics in the future. reviewed in the EU-funded report, only 3 are in
operation on a commercial basis.
Conventional gasifier and internal The systems include a 200kWe system operating at
Blackwater Valley Museum in Northern Ireland, plus
combustion engine or gas turbine systems at De Montfort University in Leicestershire, in
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which Londonderry and Broughton. The Blackwater system is a
biomass is heated, in an oxygen deficient atmosphere to wood-chip fuelled CHP unit using a downdraft, moving
produce a low-energy gas containing hydrogen, carbon bed gasifier coupled to reciprocating engine and
monoxide and methane. The gas can then be used as a generator to produce 200kWe of electricity at 415 volts
fuel in a gas turbine or in compression ignition (CI) or and 400kWth of heat. The electricity, sufficient for
spark ignition (SI) engines to generate electricity. Gas meeting the power requirements of 400 homes, is
1
An evaluation of Small Scale Combined heat and Power
(<400kWe) from Biomass within the Wood Processing
Industries, RHPL and ARConsultants, January 2003
transformed to 11kV and supplied into the Northern to drive either a steam engine or steam turbine. On the
Ireland Electricity (NIE) grid. The heat is used by the plus side steam technology is well proven, reliable and
museum for space heating. commercially available, although compared with other
forms of power plant: gas turbines, diesels and petrol
There has been mixed success with the systems, some engines, they have high capital costs.
operating efficiently while others have only operated
intermittently and been used for demonstration Only three small-scale steam engine CHP systems were
purposes. identified in the UK, with one company supplying a
small steam turbine CHP.
Economics
Due to a number of factors, biomass based CHP systems
are currently uneconomic in most situations. An EU-
funded review of CHP systems in the UK concluded that
“no systems which could be said to be fully commercial
were identified”. The factors behind this conclusion
include:
• The low value of electricity for exported power due
to New Electricity Trading Arrangements and the
overall capacity surplus in the power market.
• High capital costs due to the low volume of
equipment sales.
• Some technical problems with systems which
prohibit sustained operation of some plant.
Anaerobic Digestion provides an effective method for turning waste residues from food
and drink manufacturing processes and livestock farming into heat, power and a
valuable liquid bio-fertiliser.
Chapter 2.4
Anaerobic Digestion (AD)
Highlights Introduction
◆ The waste management of livestock (especially Anaerobic Digesters produce conditions that encourage
intensive pig & poultry) and other organic wastes is the natural breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in
a growing problem. Pressure is growing via the the absence of air. Anaerobic Digestion (AD) provides an
European Union Landfill Directive, EU Animal By- effective method of turning residues from livestock
Products Regulations, EU Integrated Pollution farming and food processing industries into:
Prevention & Control Regulations, forthcoming EU
• Biogas. A methane-rich gas, which can be used to
Biowaste Directive and EU Sludge to Land
generate heat and/or electricity. This gas can also be
Regulations to prevent organic waste from being
enriched after cleaning (standard) for use as a
dumped into landfill. These issues are
transport gas referred to as Substitute Natural Gas
interconnected and present opportunities for
(SNG).
exploitation of existing biomass resources.
• Fibre. This can be used as a nutrient rich organic
◆ Anaerobic Digestion (AD) of organic wastes such as compost.
animal slurry, has been carried out for many • Liquor. This can be used as a liquid bio-fertiliser.
decades across the world. The process, which takes
place in the absence of oxygen, is applicable at a The AD process is already used for treating agricultural,
wide range of scales. household and industrial residues and sewage sludge.
It has been used in the UK agricultural sector in the
◆ While few AD systems are in operation in the UK, it’s form of small on-farm digesters producing biogas to
use is growing rapidly in countries such as Germany heat farmhouses, dairies and other farm buildings.
and Denmark, especially for large-scale centralised
systems. Experience has shown that an AD project is most likely
to be financially viable if it is treated as part of an
◆ Modern AD systems which produce heat and power integrated farm waste management system in which the
and leave a valuable fertiliser at the end of the feedstocks and the products from AD all play a part.
process are now being introduced in the UK, with an Larger scale centralised anaerobic digesters (CAD’s) are
innovative system in operation in Devon. also now being developed in the UK, using feedstock
◆ The market for centralised AD systems in the UK has from a number of sources. The first CAD plant is in
been estimated at around 100 units, although this Devon - the Holsworthy Biogas Plant - which generates
will increase with the uptake and possible up to 2.1MWe using a mixture of solid (poultry manure)
‘hybridisation’ of conventional AD systems with and liquid (pig & dairy slurries) farm residues (80%) and
‘front-end’ separation systems, often referred to as waste from a food processing factory (20%), due to the
Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT), such as for requirements under the 15 year NFFO Contract (i.e.
mixed household wastes. <20% waste input).
Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion convert animal manure, food waste and oils, putrescible
fractions of household and industrial waste, algae,
• Provides an Integrated Waste Management system water weeds, pharmaceutical sludges and crop residues.
for agriculture.
• Production of biogas for heating/electricity. There are two types of AD processes
• Production of fertiliser - nutrient rich compost and
1. Mesophilic digestion. The digester is heated to
liquid bio-fertiliser.
between 35-37ºC and the feedstock remains in the
• Reduces land & water pollution, use of fossil fuels, digester typically for 15 - 30 days. Mesophilic
greenhouse gas emissions (methane extraction), digestion tends to be more robust and tolerant (i.e.
recycles nutrients and preserves natural resources. conditions are not so critical) than the thermophilic
• The end-result of anaerobic digestion could be the process, but gas production rate is less, larger
production of a stable bio-fertiliser with little odour digestion tanks are required for a given throughput
(90% odour reduction), which is free from weed and pasteurisation, if required, is a separate process
seeds with no pathogens and can be spread directly stage.
onto farmland and growing crops.
2. Thermophilic digestion. The digester is heated to a
higher temperature of about 55ºC for a shorter
How it Works period, typically 12-14 days. Thermophilic digestion
systems offer a higher methane production rate,
The digestion process takes place in a warmed,
faster throughput (for batch systems), better
insulated container (called the digester), which creates
pathogen and virus sterilisation (when compared as
the ideal conditions for bacteria (either mesophillic or
a singular treatment system, i.e. not combined with
thermophilic) to ferment the organic material in
pasteurisation), but requires more expensive
oxygen-free (anaerobic) conditions. The digestion tank
technology, greater energy input and a higher
must be warmed (37ºC or 55ºC, respectively) and the
degree of monitoring.
raw materials mixed thoroughly to create the ideal
digestion medium for the bacteria to convert organic
matter into biogas. Why establish an AD project?
The biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide The principle reason for developing an AD project may
(in a roughly 2:1 ratio). The carbon dioxide can be come from:
removed to leave Substitute Natural Gas (SNG), which Reduction of land-use pollution through integrated
will have a typical calorific value of 6.5kWh/m3 (1), which waste management:
is approximately half of the energy density contained in
• AD offers the opportunity to reduce odour.
natural (mains) gas. This gas can be used to generate
heat or electricity, while the residual sludge retains its • AD can reduce nitrate (and phosphate) pollution of
nitrogen to yield a good quality soil conditioner and water course because run-off is reduced through
liquid fertiliser. more effective control of nutrient application to
land.
It is a versatile process that can convert a wide range of • AD can help farmers and others to respond to new
‘waste’ products into usable products such as gas and regulations and public pressure to increase the
fertiliser. For example, the process can be used to effectiveness of farm residue management.
1
Assuming a 65% methane content. Source Farmatic UK Ltd
◆ Case Study 2: The manure and food waste are first discharged into a
reception pit in which a ventilation system operates in
Holsworthy Biogas Plant the receiving hall. The air taken from the hall passes
The first large-scale centralised anaerobic digestion through a bio-filter in order to reduce any risk of odour.
plant for cow slurry in the UK has now started operation
The manure and waste are thoroughly mixed before
in Holsworthy, Devon.
being discharged into a larger mixing tank. The mixture
The plant has been built by the German company is then pasteurised by heating to 70ºC through a three-
Farmatic Biotech Energy ag. The company is also the stage heat exchanger. The pasteurisation process takes
main shareholder in Holsworthy Biogas Ltd., which was one hour and kills all weed seeds, pathogens and
established in 1998. The remaining shares are to be viruses (including Foot and Mouth disease, TB and the
held by the entrepreneur and local community and the like). The processed material that eventually leaves the
supplying farmers after full payback. Farmatic are also plant is therefore of higher value for farmers to spread
assisting in the operation of the plant. on their fields, and the risk of disease spread has been
removed.
Holsworthy Biogas has the capacity to process 146,000
tonnes per annum of cattle, pig and poultry manure After pasteurisation the mixture is pumped through the
plus organic food waste (20%). The manure is collected heat exchanger into either of the two 4000m3 digesters
from 30 local farms within a 5-6 miles radius of the located at the plant. Anaerobic digestion takes place at
plant. The food processing waste is collected direct 37ºC with an average retention time of 20 days in either
from food processors in the Devon and Cornwall area of tank. The biogas released by the digestion process is
the South West. methane gas. It is initially cleaned in a
de-sulphurisation unit and then stored in a gas store
above the final digestate in the storage tank. The animal manure, which means that farmers can reduce
digestate (the treated waste mixture) is eventually the use of artificial mineral fertiliser. The extra storage
returned to the supplying farmers as a valuable bio- capacity provided on farms means that farmers only
fertiliser. have to spread the fertiliser during the growing season.
This helps minimise any risk of pollution.
The plant operates its own lorries, transporting the bio-
fertiliser to the supplying farms and then returning with The total gas production is budgeted to 3.9 million m3
raw animal manure. The lorries are specially designed methane per year (this equates to 39 million kWh of
for these operations. energy per year). The methane produced by the plant
will be used by two gas engines to generate electricity
Holsworthy Biogas Ltd has benefited from a £3.85 and heat. They have a combined total power capacity of
million EU grant from the Objective 5(b) programme 2.1 MWe with a budgeted gross power production of
administered by MAFF (now DEFRA) and their local 14.4 million kWh per year.
District Council of Torridge. The total project cost will be
£ 7.7million. The electricity produced will be sold at 5.93p per kWh
(2003 price level) under a 15 year Non-Fossil Fuel
Extra storage facilities to hold the bio-fertiliser are Obligation (NFFO) contract granted to Holsworthy
provided on the farms by Holsworthy Biogas. This has Biogas. The price is indexed linked and will increase or
been possible because of the EU grant. The bio- decrease over time according to the Retail Price Index.
fertiliser has a higher nutrient value than the original
The project is creating a number of local jobs in the The combined pre-pasteurisation and anaerobic
Holsworthy area. Furthermore, the project could help digestion of the waste is a very environmentally
keep some farmers in the farming business due to the responsible form of treatment for these wastes, which at
benefits of joining the project. the same time also gives higher nutrient values to the
farmers. Furthermore, this process is in line with the
It is anticipated that all the excess heat produced by the
new ‘EU Animal By-Products Regulations (Category 3
plant will eventually be sold through a new district
material)’.
heating system to supply the market town of
Holsworthy. The amount of heat available to supply the
The project in Holsworthy, which is based on many
district heating main will be about 15 million kWth per
years of experience gained from the successful
year. Initially, it is planned that the hot water will be
operation of similar plants in Germany and Denmark, is
used to heat the town’s new hospital, schools and other
expected to be the first of several centralised anaerobic
public buildings. This will further benefit the whole
digestion plants in the UK. Farmatic estimate the UK
town because the district heating will provide a
potential as 100 plants.
substitute for oil and other fossil fuels thus reducing air
emissions within the town.
Contact:
The anaerobic digestion of manure and waste not only
Jørgen Fink, Managing Director
has a positive influence on the environment, but also
or Mark Christensen, Project Development Executive.
offers many direct advantages to the farming sector :
Farmatic Biotech Energy UK Ltd.,
• Reduction in the risk of spreading disease.
5 Royal Crescent,
• Reduction in emissions to air, including significant Cheltenham. GL50 3DA
greenhouse gases.
Tel : 01242 242 111
• Reduction in odour problems.
Fax : 01242 243 111
• Reduction in the use of artificial mineral fertilisers.
e-mail: fink@farmatic.com
• Reduction in the need for landfill through the
Website: www.farmatic.com (go to English version)
increased recycling of waste.
• Reduction in surface and ground water pollution.
Wind Power is the extraction of energy from the wind by the use of turbines to
produce electrical power.
Chapter 3
Wind Power
Highlights Developments
◆ Assessment of a site for wind power potential
Introduction
requires analysis of the wind resource through
◆ Wind as a fuel is free and will not run out. existing data sources and site wind measurements.
◆ Globally the industry is worth £5 billion a year and ◆ Smaller developers can get assistance from several
is growing at 30-40% per annum. sources.
◆ The UK has enormous resources - one-third of
Environmental and Planning Considerations
Europe’s potential.
◆ Devon has an estimated onshore resource of 300 ◆ Careful attention needs to be given to visual and
MW by 2010. noise impacts.
◆ Early dialogue with planners and the local
Technology
community is essential if a wind power
◆ Modern wind power turbines use advanced development is to be given planning permission.
aerospace technologies and materials, and can
operate upwards of 20-25 years in a wide range of
environments.
The Benefits of Wind Power
◆ Turbines are available in a wide range of sizes from Wind energy offers the potential to generate substantial
less than a kilowatt acting as a battery charger to amounts of electricity without the pollution problems of
large machines rated at 3MW and with a tower 75 conventional forms of energy. For many centuries wind
metres high. has been used to provide mechanical power for
grinding corn and other industrial uses. It has only
Opportunities been within the last two decades that turbines have
◆ There are significant opportunities for landowners to been used to exploit this energy to generate electricity
work with wind developers because even a small in any significant quantity.
cluster of wind turbines could generate a sizeable
According to the Department of Trade and Industry
rental income.
(DTI), the UK has about 35% of Europe’s total economic
◆ Experienced wind power developers who can offer wind resource, more than any other European state and
turbine guarantees and access to finance are now sufficient in theory to supply the whole of the UK’s
present in the UK. electricity demand several times over. However, Britain
◆ A subsidy for wind power electricity sales is has been slow to utilise this resource, with installed
available, as are exemptions to the Climate Change capacity standing at about 500MW of capacity or about
Levy which can make wind turbines financially 0.5% of the UK’s electricity needs (enough to supply on
viable. average about 325,000 homes). By way of comparison,
Denmark, a country one-fifth the area of the UK and
with an inferior wind resource, currently has some
1
Assessing the GOSW regional Targets and Assessment report, suggests 132MW of onshore wind for Devon by 2010, in order for the
Government to meet the UK’s 10% target by 2010. Report to DTI and DETR, ‘Renewable Energy Assessment and Target for the South
West’, Terence O’Rourke plc and ETSU April 2001 (www.gosw.gov.uk/publications )
Variation of Wind Speed with Height 10 miles per hour) and reach maximum power output
at around 15 metres/second (around 33 miles per hour),
The wind is strongly affected by the friction of the
although these characteristics vary with manufacturer.
ground surface and hence wind speeds are nominally
In sustained very high wind speeds, i.e. gale force
zero at ground level and increase steadily with height
winds, (25 metres/second, 50+ miles/hour) wind
above the ground. For example, the average wind
turbines shut down automatically due to safety
speed at 40m above ground level will be somewhere in
considerations. The power curve described above is
the region of 20% higher than at 10m for a particular
shown in figure 3.1.
site. The variation of wind speed is also highly
dependent on local ground surface conditions.
It is important to note that the energy contained in the
wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed.
Rated Power of a Turbine This means that a doubling of wind speed would result
The maximum electrical power generated from a wind in an increase in the available energy by a factor of 8.
turbine is called the ‘rated power’ of the turbine. This Therefore, the annual mean wind speed of the site is of
will be achieved at the ‘rated wind speed’. At lower critical importance to the economic viability of a
wind speeds the power will vary between the minimum project.
power and the rated power.
The so-called power curve of a wind turbine tells us The Annual Energy Capture from a
how much power to expect from the machine at various Wind Power Development
wind speeds. Wind turbines start operating at wind
speeds in the range of 4 to 5 metres per second (around To work out the annual income from a Wind Power
Project, the annual energy capture must be estimated.
The amount of energy that can be produced each year
Figure 3.1 at a given site is related to the design output of a wind
turbine or wind cluster by the ‘Load Factor’. This is the
The power curve of a typical wind turbine.
relationship between the actual energy produced in a
1400 year, and the maximum that could be produced if the
1300 plant were able to generate at full capacity for the full
1200 8760 hours in the year.
1100
1000 Annual Wind Power Energy Capture =
Power Output (kW)
The Technology:
Economics of Wind Power: Power Generation Systems
An Example
How wind turbines work
A small wind cluster containing 3 wind turbines
Almost all wind turbines producing electricity for the
rated at 1MW each would have a combined rating national grid consist of rotor blades which rotate
of 3MW. If the load factor for the site was around a horizontal hub. The hub is connected to a
estimated to be 30% on average, this wind cluster generator usually via a gearbox. The nacelle is the
would result in a total annual energy capture of name given to the housing at the top of the tower
which houses the electrical and mechanical
Annual Energy Capture = components. This type of turbine is referred to as a
3 x 0.3 x 8760 = ‘horizontal axis’ machine. The typical components of a
7,884MWh or 7,884,000kWh wind turbine are shown in figure 3.2.
Towers are mostly cylindrical (or polygonal) and made Site Issues
of steel, generally painted light grey. Lattice towers are
used in some locations. Towers range from 25 to 75 Practical Requirements
meters in height for large machines.
The main technical requirements of a large wind cluster
site are primarily determined by the need for it to be
Figure 3.2 financially viable.
The cross-section of a wind turbine with numbered
components listed below The Wind Resource
annual mean wind speed throughout the UK. This is One interesting trend is that in virtually all public
useful to anyone wanting to get a rough idea of the attitude surveys, irrespective of who conducts them or
wind resource in any particular area. where they are undertaken, broadly the same result is
found. Around 70% of the population tend to support
NOABL divides the UK into a grid of 1km squares and wind power development, 10% are opposed and 20%
gives the mean annual wind speeds at three heights have no opinion. These ratios change in areas that have
(10m, 25m and 45m). It is based on wind data over 20 experience of wind development where it is typically
years. The NOABL database gives a broad assessment of 80:10:10. In other words, the approval rating goes up
the wind resource within a region, although it does not when people have experienced wind turbines in
take into account any local effects. Despite its operation.
limitations, it enables a good first estimate of the wind
resource in a particular area to be made and has the In 2002 the Scottish Executive commissioned the most
advantage of being very simple and quick to run. extensive study to date which corroborated these
figures.
Computer Models for wind speed prediction
Within the wind industry there has been a continual
Environmental Considerations
evolution in wind resource assessment techniques.
Since future wind speeds cannot be measured, Whilst the majority of the public accepts and supports
predictions must be made from past wind speed the environmental benefits of wind power, visual and
measurements. The most common method used by noise intrusion of wind farms is perceived by some to
developers is called Measure-Correlate-Predict (MCP). be of particular concern. Choosing a site to minimise
This relates short-term measurements at the potential the visual intrusion from houses and settlements is an
wind farm site, to long-term measurements of wind important consideration, but this should not unduly
speeds at a nearby reference site with the same wind compromise performance.
climate. This enables an accurate prediction of the
same long term period at the potential site. Although it is important that wind farms are sited some
distance from centres of population, it is inevitable that
some sites will be close to individual homes and
Public Opinion to Wind Farms in dwellings. It has been suggested that turbines should
not be sited less than a minimum distance of 500m
the UK from the nearest dwelling, depending on the size and
There has been a great deal of controversy in the recent noise emission of the wind turbine and whether the
years over proposed wind power developments. Some property is financially involved in the project or not.
people genuinely do not like any intrusion into well-
loved landscapes. Some has been whipped up by Areas of particular historic, environmental or
pressure groups implacably opposed to wind power at recreational value have special protection which will
all costs, while in other instances local newspaper inevitably make planning permission more difficult to
editors have seen the opportunity to create controversy obtain. For example, National Parks in England and
as a good running story to sell newspapers. There is a Wales have special protection and no large wind farm
balance to be struck between protecting beautiful has ever been built to date in such an area.
landscapes and the imperative to bring on energy
sources which cut UK carbon emissions.
How much space do wind turbines require? Planning Authorisation & Social
The wind is a diffuse form of energy, in common with Issues
many renewable sources. A typical wind cluster of 10
turbines might extend over an area of 1 square Advice on planning issues in the UK is provided by the
kilometre, but only 1% of the land area would be taken British Wind Energy Association (BWEA) in their Best
out of use, the remainder can still be used for other Practice Guidelines for Wind Energy Development. In
purposes, such as farming or as natural habitat. the UK, planning guidelines are set out in the Planning
Policy Guidelines Note PPG22 (Department of Trade and
Wind turbines and livestock Industry). A revision to this, which could have the effect
of making it easier for sensitively planned wind parks to
The installation of wind clusters is popular with
proceed, was promised by the Government for late-
farmers, because their land can continue to be used for
2003. An application by a wind turbine developer for
growing crops or grazing livestock. Sheep and cows are
planning permission, depending on the size and
not disturbed by wind turbines.
location of the proposal, may require an Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA).
Wind turbines and birds
It has been shown that correctly sited wind turbines, for In recent years all forms of development have come
example avoiding bird migration paths, will have a under increasing pressure to consider fully the impacts
minimal impact on birds with very few, if any, that they have on the environment. The technique of
mortalities1. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has developed
(RSPB) has worked closely with the wind energy industry rapidly and continues to be refined. Given the strong
to produce guidelines to minimise bird and habitat environmental credentials of wind energy it is of extra
impacts. The RSPB actually promote a brand of green importance that proposals fully consider and mitigate
energy called RSPB Energy with Scottish Power. the impacts that a wind farm might have.
Noise from wind turbines National and European directives generally require an
EIA to be undertaken for every wind farm proposal in
Virtually everything with moving parts will make some
the UK. Officially in the UK the ‘cut in’ point is for a
sound, and wind turbines are no exception although
5MW project or 5 turbines or more. However, in
modern wind turbines are generally quiet in operation.
practice most planning authorities will require a large
When compared to the noise of road traffic, trains,
amount of information for any application, so the
aircraft and construction activities the noise from wind
proposer will have to carry out some form of
turbines is very low. Outside the nearest houses, which
assessment even for a single large machine.
are at least 500 metres away the sound of a wind
turbine generating electricity is likely to be about the An EIA will represent a very significant cost to the
same level as noise from a flowing stream about 50-100 developer at the initial stages of the project when the
metres away or the noise of leaves rustling in a gentle outcome is far from certain. For a medium size project
breeze. This is similar to the sound level inside a typical this will be in the order of £50,000 to £100,000 in the
living room with a gas fire switched on, or the reading UK. It therefore follows that the developer must have a
room of a library. level of confidence that their proposal is a good one
and is likely to be successful.
1
For further information contact BWEA (see Annex3).
New Approaches to make Local In the UK at present just under 1000 turbines
produce around 500MW of electrical power,
Wind Development Accessible enough to supply more than 325,000 homes. This
Because of the difficulties and expense of gaining corresponds to less than half of the 1% of
planning permission for a wind turbine or group of electricity generated in Britain from renewable
turbines with no guarantee of success, developers will energy sources. Yet the UK has the greatest wind
now offer a ‘risk-free’ option to landowners who have resource in Europe, and the wind energy industry
suitable sites. believe that they could supply 80% of the 10%
renewables target by 2010, both on and offshore.
A new initiative by National Wind Power (NWP), called
‘WindWorks’, is designed to make it easier for The BWEA is committed to supporting the
landowners who have a potential wind power site to continuing development of the wind energy
develop a wind farm or wind cluster. industry, not least because wind is a clean,
abundant and entirely renewable source of
WindWorks provides landowners, whose land is suitable, energy. For more information contact British
with the opportunity, guidance and support to take a Wind Energy Association, Renewable Energy
small wind energy project through planning at no cost House, 1 Aztec Row, Berners Road, London,
to the landowner. Where planning consent is secured, N1 0PW, UK. Telephone: 020 7689 1960.
NWP will finance and operate the turbines and share Or visit the website - www.bwea.com.
the return with the landowner.
“The turbine is very therapeutic to watch” (It’s actually visible while seated at the kitchen table).
Two inverters take power “When approaching a wind power supplier to quote for
from the battery bank a system, the power requirements should be increased
and convert it to usable by half again of the current consumption. This allows
domestic AC at 230V. the site owner to install extra appliances that might not
If the battery voltage have been possible before the turbine was installed (due
drops below a set level to generator size limitations).”
the generator will start
up in parallel. “Quotations should be obtained and carefully compared
between a connection to the mains network and the
The operating hours of proposed system.”
the generator have
dropped significantly Costs
Turbine control unit and
although at present Two thousand pounds were granted by the National
Inverters
there is no kwh meter Park towards the scheme. The total cost of phase 1 of
fitted, and so no calculations the scheme was in the order of £11.5k. After the
of fuel saving have been done. technical improvements this figure became £17.5k.
Maintenance
The access panel on the tower base is removed to check Technical Details
the power cables and unwind as necessary. At the same Wind Turbine Fortis - Montana
time the battery acid levels are checked and topped up Generator 5.8kW DC Permanent Magnet
as appropriate. Service periods for the generator are - no gearbox
Cut-in / Rated Windspeed 2.5m/s / 16m/s
now significantly longer due to reduced usage.
Rotor 3 blades comprising 5.7m
Owner / Operator’s Comments diameter
Blades Mechanical Furling to avoid
The performance of the system has been compromised
overspeed
by the positioning of the tower in such close proximity
Brake Mechanical Disc Brake
to the line of Beech trees at the border of the property.
Storage 12 cell Varta battery bank
The approaching wind is unimpeded but there is a operating at 24V
barrier to the wind leaving the turbine, resulting in a Connection 2x Victron 2.5kW Inverters
reduced power output. The owner remains convinced of giving AC output
the merits of the technology but makes the following Distance from Buildings 10m
comments. Mast Height 12m
Diesel Generator 2.5kW Lister Petter
“You can’t just put up a turbine and expect to get
electricity, it’s got to be in the right place! If the
authorities say it should be inconspicuous and suggest
placing it behind something, then you must argue that
it will not be in a practical position. Don’t back down,
push for an effective installation otherwise there is no
point.”
“Now that the diesel generator hardly ever runs, you can really appreciate the bird song and the beauty of the site. Previously if
someone left the smallest light on, the generator would run all night!”
Owner/Operator’s Comments
Initially Western Power Distribution were approached to Technical Details
quote for providing mains cover at the site but Wind Turbine Proven WT6000
responded that they would be unable to supply the site. Generator 6kW DC Permanent Magnet
By way of compensation, a donation was made towards - no gearbox
Cut-in Windspeed 2.5m/s
making alternative arrangements. The Park authority
Rated Windspeed 10m/s
are keen to duplicate the success of this project at other
Rated rpm 200
sites.
Rotor 3 blades comprising 5.5m
diameter
Costing
Blades Mechanical Furling to avoid
The Pinkery Centre received funding from the following
overspeed
sources: Brake Mechanical Disc Brake
• Exmoor National Park. Storage 24 cell battery bank
operating at 48V
• Western Power Distribution.
Connection 2x 4.5kW Inverters giving AC
• Department of Environment Transport & the output
Regions. Distance from Buildings 150m
• Rural Development Agency. Mast Height 9m
Diesel Generator 13.2kW Lister Petter
The cost of the system (excluding the photovoltaics) was 3-cylinder
£24,000 excluding building works to provide a new
generator building to house the battery bank and
turbine controls. This figure includes the turbine,
storage, inverters, connections and installation. The
foundations and ground preparation for the turbine
were undertaken by a local firm.
Water was once used extensively as a source of motive power in the British Isles.
Government targets for renewable energy and development of modern turbine units
now make re-activation of many of these sites for electricity generation economically
worthwhile.
Chapter 4
Small-Scale Hydropower
Highlights ◆ Planning acceptance and local support remain
critical issues for the success of hydro power in
General Devon. Though the technology is less problematical
◆ Hydropower captures the energy of falling water in planning terms than wind power, involving the
using a turbine and then generates electricity. community directly through investment in the
project is a useful model to follow.
◆ Small-scale hydro schemes used to be common in
the UK both for direct motive power and sometimes
electrical power. Many of these have fallen into Benefits of Small-Scale
disuse, though some parts of the river infrastructure
are often re-usable.
Hydropower
The flowing water in rivers and streams is a valuable
UK Small-Scale Hydro Market
natural resource, which has for many centuries been
◆ There are 30,000 to 40,000 disused water mill sites used to provide mechanical power for grinding corn and
in the UK, though only a handful are currently used other industrial uses. It has only been within the last
for power generation. hundred and fifty years that turbines have been used to
◆ Considerable potential exists in many hilly areas of exploit this energy to generate electricity, with minimal
Britain for hydropower which has not been environmental impact. Despite the existence of
adequately quantified. between 30,000 to 40,000 former mill sites in the UK, a
relatively small number are currently used for power
◆ The last major small-scale hydropower assessment
generation. However, the premium price now being
for the UK found that there was an ‘economic’
paid for renewable energy, combined with advances in
potential of over 300MWe.
technology, means that many potential hydropower
◆ The 300MWe is an underestimate as advances in sites may now be more economic to develop.
low-head micro-hydro technology (i.e. between 2-4
metres of falling water) now means that sites below Many potential hydropower schemes that could be
25kWe may be feasible. economically exploited in Devon will be at mill sites
where civil structures such as weirs and leats still exist.
Devon and Small-Scale Hydro
There is also considerable potential in many hilly areas
◆ The true potential for Devon has not been of Devon for hydropower. Turbines are available which
adequately assessed, but estimates vary from can utilise quite small spring fed streams for power
between 7 and 11MWe, excluding the potential of generation if the fall is sufficient. These sites can often
sites under 25kWe. be developed at reasonable cost since, in this case, civil
◆ This chapter takes you through the five key steps to structures associated with large flows of water, such as
a successful small-scale hydro project. weirs, are often not required.
Flowing water, derived from rainfall, contains A hydro turbine will operate over a range of flows. The
gravitational energy (Potential) and energy of motion maximum turbine flow (or rated flow) will produce the
(Kinetic) which slowly dissipates as the river flows back maximum power, but power will still be generated
towards the sea. down to when the cut-off flow is reached.
35
Figure 4.1
The typical mean daily flow on a 30
Devon River over 1 year.
25
Flow (m3/s)
20
15
10
0
Jan Dec
Where:
Gravity = 9.81 m/s2 (measure of the density of water and acceleration due to gravity).
Head is the vertical height between level of water at the intake to the turbine (‘head race’) and the level
of the water where it exits the turbine (‘tail race’). This is measured in metres.
Flow is the quantity of water per second flowing through the turbine. This is measured in cubic metres
per second (m3/s) 1, often called ‘cumecs’.
Efficiency no turbine will capture all the potential energy contained in the falling water. There will also be
mechanical losses in the rotor and electrical losses in the generator. The overall efficiency, usually
given the symbol ‘η’, is often called the ‘water to wire’ efficiency and has values typically between
60-70% for small hydro schemes, and is somewhat higher for larger schemes.
For a typical run-of-river hydropower scheme the load factor is likely to be between 50% and 70%.
Worked Example: Take the vertical distance between the head race and tail race measured to be 3 metres, and
assume the design flow of the turbine is matched to the mean flow of the river, which might be 1/2 m3/s or 500 litres
per second. Assuming a ‘water to wire’ efficiency of 80%, the electrical power of the turbine at design flow will be:
With a typical load factor of 60% this would give an annual energy capture of:
If this electricity was sold to the grid for 5p/kWh this would result in a gross income for the site owner of about
£3,100 per year.
1
It should be noted that 1 cubic metre per second is equal to 1000 litres per second or 1 ‘cumec’.
In the example FDC in Figure 4.2, the rated flow will be capture.
available approximately 25% of the time at this site, but
the turbine will continue to operate for about 72% of Cross-flow and Kaplan turbines both have high
the time (or 37 weeks). efficiency at low flows and therefore will be able to
operate for most of the year and hence will have a
Because of the large flow variation encountered it is much higher annual energy capture. This must be
necessary to accurately size the turbine, and to predict weighed up against their cost, with some Kaplan and
how much energy could be produced in a given year sophisticated cross flow turbines being relatively
and hence gauge the economic viability. An alternative expensive. A schematic of a crossflow turbine is shown
is to provide water storage. in figure 4.3.
Leat
Intake to penstock with screen
Sluice gate and overflow allowing
excess water past the turbine
Step Two - Estimating the Resource A ten year power purchase contract obviously has a
much greater value to the developer when seeking
If your site fulfils some of the requirements as outlined finance from a bank or other investor.
in Step One, has a head greater than 2 metres and has
some of the civil infrastructure in place from a previous
project, then contact either local companies (see Step Four - Environmental
resources at the end) who can assess the resource for Requirements
you, or contact the British Hydropower Association.
Hydropower schemes need to be developed sensitively
to avoid any detrimental environmental effects.
Step Three - Costs and Economic Schemes would be subject to environmental controls,
Viability primarily imposed by the Environment Agency, which
has responsibility for the environmental protection of
There are many variables in assessing costs and the watercourses in England and Wales. It may be necessary
likely income from a project. Estimates of the costs of to construct approved fish passes/ladders to allow fish
the turbine, generator and civil structures can be migration and to fit fish screens and/or fish guidance
obtained from one of the companies specialising in this systems to ensure that fish are not inadvertently drawn
area. Likely income will vary depending on whether the into the water intake of the turbines installed. Non-
electricity is used on-site, or locally where a higher water related aspects, such as buildings and
electricity price can be obtained, or by selling the power transmission line construction, are regulated by the
to the grid. Although the output in this case will attract local and regional planning authorities.
a Renewable Obligation Certificate and will be exempt
from the Climate Levy, a main supplier will usually only It is unlikely that a hydropower scheme would be
give a proportion of the value of these in return for allowed to use the entire river flow for generation.
making a contract for more than a few years duration. A portion of the flow, termed the ‘compensation flow’,
Though small-scale hydropower projects have proved to Members of the British Hydropower Association have an
be much less contentious than other renewable established and significant export potential offering a
developments such as wind power, local community wide range of skills in services, manufacture,
concerns need to be addressed. Experience has again construction, rehabilitation and refurbishment and
operation of hydropower plants.
suggested that a major focus of concern is the
perception that small-scale hydro will increase the Contact:
chances of local flooding. The reality is that the Kieron Hanson
development is either neutral or will in fact improve Tel. 01202 886609
flooding control on the river. Email: info@british-hydro.org
Technical Details
Turbine type: Ossberger crossflow, rated flow rate 850
litres/second.
Speed increaser: Flat belt and pulley system.
Generator type: Three-phase asynchronous, exited by
the grid.
Site hydraulic head: 4 metres.
Maximum power output: 28kW.
Annual energy capture: 132,000kWh.
Maintenance
The owner is very happy with the system. It has been
running now for 16 years with hardly any problems, just
an occasional bearing to replace or branch to remove
which has floated down the leat.
For example:
A 10kW site may cost between £10,000 and £30,000 to
install. The annual electricity generated would be of the
order of 50,000kWh.
Solar electricity directly from light has been described as the ‘stuff of dreams’ where
homeowners can produce their own power from solar tiles on an ordinary roof.
Chapter 5
Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
Highlights end of 2003. Japan has a 70,000 roofs programme while
a number of US States are supporting PV.
◆ Using special slices or thin films of silicon, solar
photovoltaic (PV) cells convert light directly into Despite having a large proportion of the country in
electricity. Northern latitudes, much of the UK actually receives
significant solar exposure. The year 2002 saw a major
◆ Though currently one of the most expensive turning point in the UK for Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
renewable technologies, commercial niche markets development. After several years of opposing any kind
such as parking meters exist where the costs of of mass subsidy programme for domestic Solar
hooking up to the grid are high. Photovoltaic (PV), in late 2001 the UK Department of
◆ The costs of PV cells are falling as the market grows Trade and Industry (DTI) announced an initial £20
at about 25-30% per annum. million grants subsidy programme over three years.
There was the promise of more to follow if the initial
◆ Demonstration schemes exist around the UK for phase is successful.
large commercial and public buildings, usually
supported by grants. Describing this as: “a major initiative with industry and
others to achieve a UK Solar Photovoltaic demonstration
◆ A growing number of domestic systems are being programme in line with those of our main competitors”,
installed in the UK due to a new grants scheme. the Major Demonstration Programme went live in April
2002 and will last until June 2005.
Solar PV - An Introduction Until recently there were no more than a few score solar
Light falling on special silicon cells causes electrons to PV systems in the UK. These were either erected by
move across the cell and produce electricity. Initially pioneering individuals, or were demonstration schemes
boosted as a key element of the USA space programme, at schools and other public buildings, or commercial
the costs of PV have fallen sufficiently to make buildings where larger systems or ‘arrays’ were
increasing inroads to the commercial market on land. integrated into building facades. European Union or a
Major manufacturers such as BP-Solar, Shell-Siemens, modest amount of UK Government subsidy monies
Sharp, Unisolar and Kyocera have set up manufacturing supported these schemes.
units across the world.
Only where buildings are off-grid or where appliances Energy from the Sun in the UK
require significant investments to hook up to the
Typically a domestic solar PV system will be 1.5-2kWp1
distribution grid is PV currently cost-effective. However,
made up of 20 - 30 modules. It will cover an area of 5-
the costs have been falling and subsidy support around
10m2 for crystalline technologies and 15-25m2 for thin
the world have stimulated a rapid growth in the market.
film technologies depending on the modules used and
In Germany a 100,000 solar roofs programme has been
the orientation of the array to the sun.
hugely successful with the target likely to be met by the
1
kWp refers to the peak output of a photovoltaic cell under
standard light conditions. Over a year, in the UK the average
output of a photovoltaic cell will be about 10-15% of the peak
value.
Progress on the Major Savings Trust, who manage the programme for the DTI:
“prices are drifting down though quite slowly so far”.
Demonstration Programme so far The domestic price is coming in at around £6-7/Wp
In the three grant rounds that have taken place so far, while for the larger-scale schemes, prices at the lower
over 300 domestic applications have been agreed as a end are £4/Wp. They are up to £10/Wp at the higher
result. Many schemes are completed and already end, depending on the end use. Martin Cotterell, boss of
generating power with the majority in the public sector, PV installer Sundog, admits that costs are: “creeping
not surprising with the higher (65%) grant available. slowly down, but then we haven’t got the UK volume to
Ford Motor Company is involved with one scheme to expect big reductions at this stage”.
build a new Engineering and Manufacturing Training
Paul Ruyseveldt, PV Manager for ESD Ltd, has been
Centre in Essex with a 100kWp solar array. Of the grant
watching costs closely and notes that: “prices in the UK
winners so far in the larger programme, a few are based
are still 20-30% higher than in the Netherlands and
in the South West region in Bristol and Wiltshire but, at
Germany for example”. While he thinks that “this will
the time of writing, there is one in Devon at the
change over time, don’t expect a dramatic drop soon”.
National Marine Aquarium, Plymouth which is installing
Bruce Cross, of installation company PV Systems Ltd,
a PV scheme.
thinks that: “until we develop UK equipment such as
Of the schemes where details of the solar cells and the decent inverters and actual PV cell manufacturing, big
installers are available, a few trends are discernible. The reductions in costs will be harder. Without a long-term
companies doing well so far are: Solar Century, BP Solar, market horizon beyond 2005 however, no one will
Dulas, Sundog and PV Systems Ltd. Seven projects had commit serious manufacturing investment”.
no details of the installers available. There are 28
So far there has only been limited visible activity
accredited installers under the scheme so far, with 15
amongst the private sector for the programme. This
granted only partial accreditation until they get
reflects to some extent the lower grant levels available.
additional schemes under their belts. Of these, four are
According to Paul Ruyseveldt: “the reality is that unless
based in the South West Region (see list of supplier
there is some significant public relations value for the
companies in Annex 2).
company, or expensive building cladding is being
Among the solar cells used, BP Solar’s monocrystalline replaced it is still difficult to make a clear economic case
cells are generally thought at present to be the narrow for large arrays of PV”. Bruce Cross candidly admits that:
‘first choice’ leaders, with Unisolar triple junction “at a 40% grant level the economics do not stack up”.
amorphous silicon and Kyocera polycrystalline close Jerry Leggett of leading UK PV installer Solar Century
behind. A further 9 types of cell were involved in at least takes a different perspective and stresses the need to:
one project, with three of these being thin film cells. “watch this space - we are very advanced in dialogue
with a number of private sector companies who are
The premise of the grants programme is that with committed to solar PV”.
increased sales and volumes, the costs of solar PV will
fall. The contrary experience in Germany, where PV
supply was for a period unable to match demand and
costs remained high, means that care needs to be taken
when making such projections. According to Kirk
Archibald, the Programme Manager for the Energy
PV Costs
A 2kWp domestic PV system currently costs of the order
of £8000-10,000 before the application of a grant which
would be 50% of total costs. An accredited installer can
apply for the grant with the home-owner and also
advise on finding a power utility who offers ‘net
metering’ deals to increase the value of any power
exports. It should be noted that payback times are
about 70 years.
Action Points
• Owners of current and planned public and
commercial buildings should assess whether solar
PV might be integrated with the building.
• Domestic home owners interested in generating
their own power and who have a roof that faces
between south-west to south-east should contact
one of the accredited solar PV installers and find out
if their home is suitable for a system.
• If the building is suitable for a system then work
with an accredited installer to apply for grants.
Chapter 6
Community Based Renewable Initiatives
Community Involvement with which may include renewable energy as part of their
sustainable activity, is the Market and Coastal Towns
Renewables Initiative which applies to many of the towns across the
Interest in renewable energy has been increasing South West.
among local communities, as well as among businesses.
At County level, a number of Devon based community
This interest is being stimulated by groups concerned
initiatives have raised the profile of renewable energy
about the environmental impacts of a wide range of
through studies and action plans, whilst others are
economic and social developments at the local level.
moving into a more active phase to develop community
The origins of these groups vary, but many include
based projects. Profiles of the main groups are listed
campaigning from Local Agenda 21 groups, a
below.
sustainability agenda within a group’s broader remit or
a clear local opportunity to benefit from a renewable
energy initiative. The Need for Community
National, regional and local government policies have Involvement
prioritised the involvement of local people in the future
Consultation with and active involvement of local
development of their areas. This is most clearly seen in
businesses and community groups in any renewable
the establishment of local authority led community
energy activity can broaden awareness, understanding
planning processes, support for community
and local support for such activity. Land based
development trusts and the setting up of regeneration
industries interested in pursuing renewable energy
partnerships in rural and urban settings. These locally
initiatives may benefit from active involvement of local
based and locally managed development groups often
communities to achieve their objectives. Further advice
include a focus on sustainability issues - whether social,
can be obtained from some of the advisory groups
economic or environmental. Renewable energy is being
already in existence in Devon and listed below.
included for both economic and environmental reasons,
resulting in some community led renewable energy
initiatives. A new grants scheme for Community Groups, Community Financing of
under the ‘Clear Skies’ initiative, provides monies for
both feasibility studies and capital grants for
Renewable Energy
equipment. Until early 2003 the financing of community-based
renewable schemes had to be carried out in a range of
At the regional level, advice for community led innovative approaches. Pooling monies, selling shares,
renewables is being provided by the Countryside obtaining one-off grants from local authorities, working
Agency’s Community Renewables Initiative (CRI). In with developers, obtaining bank financing and seeking
Devon and Cornwall this is being overseen by the Devon European Union grants were just some of the options
Association for Renewable Energy (DARE) who are tried. However, a new Government grant programme
profiled in this chapter. Another regional initiative, introduced in 2003 will make the development of
South Hams Sustainable Development Project Through the DARE office, advice, information, and
assistance, is provided on all aspects of the
Aim: To educate and inspire people in sustainable living
development of Renewable Energy for community
through establishing a centre for education, training,
benefit. This includes help with public involvement,
demonstration and living.
along with technology, planning, environmental,
Activities: This Project has a range of aims and funding, and energy efficiency issues. The CRI
activities, part of which is focused on renewable energy. undertakes educational and awareness raising events,
Specifically, the Project would include the construction whilst helping to overcome the barriers to decentralised
of practical working demonstrations of alternative Renewable Energy development. All Renewable Energy
energy systems ranging from cheap and effective technologies are covered.
products, to sophisticated hi-tech systems. The centre
The CRI helps to ensure that communities are able to
would be self-sufficient in energy and, if possible, sell
take advantage of the opportunities that Renewable
surplus electricity to the grid. The centre would provide
Energy can create by way of new skills, livelihoods and
accommodation and study facilities, a café and
incomes, in a sustainable and environmentally sensitive
bookshop, using local produce and employing local
manner. It enables local people to appreciate and
people. The centre would be a focus for
understand these opportunities, promote them, and
environmentally conscious people and promote the
then go on to identify and develop local projects, and
efficient use of local resources.
get them incorporated in local plans and strategies.
Membership: The Project has members from statutory, Local people, creating local power for local benefit.
voluntary and community organisations and is currently Anyone interested should contact DARE.
seeking an appropriate site for development of their
centre.
Trans-Send
Contact Details Trans-Send is a community environmental group set up
Tony Lyle, Broad View, Portlemore Close, Marlborough, to promote sustainable living and the use of renewable
Kingsbridge, Devon TQ7 3SX. energy in Ilfracombe and surrounds. It achieves this by
Tel: 01548 561264. undertaking community-based projects and providing
Email: cft-rlyle@supanet.com information, training, education and advisory services.
Fuelwood Harvesting
Annex 2 Suppliers of automatic wood chip boilers and log/joinery
waste space heaters ranging from 20kW - 100kW.
PV Systems
Unit 2, Glan-y-Llyn Industrial Estate, Taffs Well. CF15 7JD
Wales, UK
Tel: 029 2082 0910 Fax: 029 2082 0911
Website: www.pvsystems.com
Regen SW
Green Power and Carbon Trading The renewable energy agency of the South West.
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Tel: 01392 229394
Excellent website on Green Power developments across
Email: admin@regensw.co.uk
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