Happiness:Origins,Forms,andTechnicalRelevance

The American Journal of Psychoanalysis (2010) 70, 219244. doi:10.1057/ajp.2010.13

SalmanAkhtar1
Correspondence:SalmanAkhtar,MD,33South9thStreet,Suite210C,PhiladelphiaPA19107
1

MD,ProfessorofPsychiatry,JeffersonMedicalCollege;TrainingandSupervisingAnalyst,
PsychoanalyticCenterofPhiladelphia.
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Abstract
BycriticallyreviewingFreud'sviewsonhappiness,andalsothoseofHeleneDeutsch,BertramLewin,
MelanieKlein,andHeinzKohut,theauthorevolvesacomplexandmultilayeredperspectiveonthe
phenomenon.Hecategorizeshappinessintofourrelatedandoccasionallyoverlappingvarieties:pleasure
basedhappiness(elation),assertionbasedhappiness(joy),mergerbasedhappiness(ecstasy),and
fulfillmentbasedhappiness(contentment).Afterenteringsomecaveatsanddrawingfromhisclinical
experience,theauthorthendemonstratestherelevanceoftheseideastotheconductofpsychotherapyand
psychoanalysis.

Keywords:
elation;joy;ecstasy;contentment;happiness
Wepsychoanalystsarealittlewaryofhappiness.Deeplyinfluencedbythepessimisticworldviewofthe
discipline'sfounder,SigmundFreud,weapproachmomentsofjoywithtrepidation.Weremainalertto
theirtransientnatureanddoubteventheirveracity;therepudiatedanguishorwardedoffanxietythatwe
suspectlurksunderneaththemisourprimeconcern.Thisisespeciallytrueofourprofessionallives.Forus,
apatient'sjovialbanterismerelyadefensivecloakforthedarknessinhisheart,hisgoodmoodathinveil
overinnersadness.Letmeputitbluntly:wearecliniciansofdespairandmiseryisthemothertongueof
ourprofession.
However,itisalsotruethat,inourpersonallives,weseemcapableofrelaxingandofexperiencing
happiness.Makinglove,havingalivelydinnerconversationwithfriends,playingwithourdogs,readinga
goodbook,watchingourgrandchildrengrow,andreceivingthenewsthatsomethingwewrotehasbeen
acceptedbyaprestigiousjournalareallcapableofstirringupthesortofpleasurablefeelingsinusthatwe
associatewithhappiness.Cometothinkofit,therearemomentsinourclinicalworkalsothatbringus
deepsatisfactionandagratifyingsenseofmutualityandgrace.Despiteallthis,ourliteratureonthe
phenomenology,origins,metapsychology,andtechnicalsignificanceofhappinessismeager.
Inthispaper,Iwillattempttobringthescatteredwritingsonthistopictogetherwiththeaimofdeveloping
awellanchoredandcomprehensiveunderstandingofthephenomenathatfallundertherubricof
happiness.IwillbeginwithFreud'sviewsandthenmoveontosubsequentpsychoanalyticcontributions.
Poolingthevariousobservationstogether,Iwillcategorizethefeelingsofhappinessintofoursubtypesand
elucidatetheirnatureaswellastheoverlapsbetweenthem.Followingthis,Iwilldiscussthetechnical

implicationsofthesefindings.Iwillconcludebymakingafewsummarizingremarksandpointingout
areasthatwarrantfurtherattention.
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FREUDSVIEWS
SigmundFreudusedthewordhappiness130timesinhiswrittenwork(Guttman

etal.
,1980).Morethan
athird45tobepreciseoftheseusagesarecontainedinCivilizationandItsDiscontents(Freud,1930),a
textdevotedtoinvestigatingtherelationshipbetweensocietalconstraintsonpleasureseeking,andthe
consequentunhappinessandsearchforhappiness.Earlyoninthisbook,Freudlaiddownhisdefinitionof
happiness.Hesaidthatwhatwecallhappinessinthestrictestsensecomesfromthe(preferablysudden)
satisfactionofneedswhichhavebeendamneduptoahighdegree,anditisfromitsnatureonlypossibleas
anepisodicphenomenon(p.76).Theimplicationsthatthedischargeofadamnedupimpulseproduces
greaterhappinessbecomesclearwhen,alittlelaterinthetext,Freudidentifiedhappinessasaproblemof
theeconomiesoftheindividual'slibido(p.83)anddeclaredthatThefeelingofhappinessderivedfrom
thesatisfactionofawildinstinctualimpulseuntamedisincomparablemoreintensethanthatderivedfrom
satinganinstinctthathasbeentamed(p.79).
TheinstincttheorythatpervadesthesecommentstemptsonetoregardFreud'sviewsonhappinessin
simplisticterms:instinctualdischargecauseshappinessandinstinctualtensioncausesunpleasure.Thefact
isthatFreud'stakeonhappinessiscomplexandmultifaceted.And,itcannotbeproperlyunderstood
withouttakingintoaccountwhatheregardedastheunavoidablesourcesofunhappinessinman'slife:(a)
theongoing,evenifslow,decayofthehumanbody,(b)theunfathomablechallengesanddisasterscaused
bynature,and(c)thepainandsufferingthatisinherentininterpersonalrelationships.Weareneverso
defenselessagainstsufferingaswhenwelove,neversohelplesslyunhappyaswhenwehavelostaloved
objectoritslove(p.82),Freudstated.
Miredinpervasivevulnerabilitytounhappiness,mannonethelessvaliantlyseekshappiness.InFreud'sown
words:theprogrammeofbecominghappy,whichthepleasureprincipleimposesonuscannotbe
fulfilled;yetwemustnotindeedcannotgiveupoureffortstobringitnearertofulfillmentbysome
meansorother(p.83).Therearemanypathwaystoarriveathappiness,accordingtoFreud.However,
sincehappinessissomethingessentiallysubjective(p.89),theroadstakenbyoneindividualdiffer
considerablyfromthatchosenbyanother.1Freud'slistofthevariouswaysinwhichpeopleseekhappiness
included(a)useofintoxicants,(b)enjoymentofbeauty,(c)devotiontowork,and(d)friendships,and,
paradoxically,(e)withdrawalfromhumanrelationships.
Freudreiteratedtheideashehadexpressedinanearliermonograph,TheFutureofanIllusion(1927),
dealingwithreligion.Hestated:Aspecialimportanceattachestothecaseinwhichtheattempttoprocurea
certaintyofhappinessandaprotectionagainstsufferingthroughadelusionalremouldingofrealityismade
byaconsiderablenumberofpeopleincommon.Thereligionsofmankindmustbeclassedamongthemass
delusionsofthiskind.(1930,p.81)
Regardlessofwhetheritisdrugsorwork,beautyorreligion,friendshiporahermitlikewithdrawal,
nothingseemstooffersustainedhappinesstoman.Eachmethodprovidesonlymomentaryandpartial
relieffromtheunhappinessthatgnawsatthehumansoul.PertinentinthisregardisThompson's(2004)
reminderthatFreud'sconceptionofpleasureismorethanatheoryofaffect,anontologicalcategorythatis
concernedwithamuchlargerquestion:whatitmeanstobehuman(p.142).And,itisinthiscontextthat
theproblematthecoreofCivilizationandItsDiscontentsbecomesclear:theveryinstitutionsthatmake
manhumanarethesourceofhisinescapableanguish.Theyforcehimtochoosebetweenhispleasureand
hiscontributingtothestabilityofthesociety.Thedevelopmentoftheindividualseemstoustobeaproduct

oftheinteractionbetweentwourges,theurgetowardshappiness,whichweusuallycallegoistic,andthe
urgetowardsunionwithothersinthecommunity,whichwecallaltruistic.(p.140)
Therestrictionsposedbycivilizedsocietyuponman'scoprophilic,sadistic,andincestuoustendenciesalso
takeahugepsychictoll.Theneedtorelatetofellowhumanbeingsevendependuponthemaddstothe
possibilityoffrustration.Theneuroticresortstoplayingitsafe,withdrawsintofantasy,andthusminimizes
hisriskofdisappointment.Butpsychoanalysisofferstheneuroticasecondchanceathappiness,by
comingoutofhisselfimposedexileandplacinghisfutureprospectsatrisk.ImplicitinFreud's
technicalwritingsistheviewthattoincreaseourchancesofhappiness,wemustplaceourselvesatrisk,
includingourchancesatlove,theriskneuroticsfearmost.Fromthisangle,happinessdependsnotonthe
growthofoursuccessbutonthesatisfactionderivedfromknowingthatwearewillingtobeatrisk,inthe
firstplace,winorlose,orasPlatoputit,tosimplybeinthegame.(Thompson,2004,p.151)
LestthefocusonFreud's1930monographleavesthereaderwiththeimpressionthatideasexpressedinit
exhaustwhatFreudhadtosayabouthappiness,thefollowingimportantobservationsfromsomeofhis
otherwritingsshouldworkasacorrective.Onmoneyandhappiness:Happinessisthedeferredfulfillment
ofaprehistoricwish.Thatiswhywealthbringssolittlehappiness;moneyisnotaninfantilewish.(1898,
p.244)
Onconcurrenceofchildhoodandhappiness:Thereisreasonforsomedoubtinregardtothehappinessof
childhoodasithasbeenconstructedbyadultsinretrospect.(1900,p.130)
Onphysicalwellbeingandhappiness:Undertheinfluenceofjoy,ofhappiness,wefindthatourwhole
bodyblossomsoutandshowssignsofarenewalofyouth.(1905,p.287)
Ontheavailabilityofloveobjectandhappiness:Thesubjectwashealthyaslongashisneedforlovewas
satisfiedbyarealobjectintheexternalworld;hebecomesneuroticassoonasthisobjectiswithdrawn
fromhimwithoutasubstitutetakingitsplace.Herehappinesscoincideswithhealthandunhappinesswith
neurosis.(1912,p.23)
Ontherelationshipbetweenphantasyandhappiness:Thebestknownproductionofphantasyaretheso
calleddaydreams.Imaginedsatisfactionsofambitious,megalomanic,eroticwisheswhichflourishall
themoreexuberantlythemorerealitycounselsmodestyandrestraint.Theessenceofhappinessofphantasy
makingtheobtainingofpleasurefreeoncemorefromtheassentofrealityisshowninthem
unmistakably.(1917,p.372)
Onfetallifeandhappiness:Theideaofintrauterinehappinessisfarfetched.(1926,p.136)
Insummary,Freud'sviewsonhappinessunderscorethefollowingpoints:(a)happinessresultsfrom
satisfactionofinstincts,(b)thepleasureresultingfromuntamedinstinctsgratificationisgreaterthanthat
associatedwithcivilizedsexuality,(c)happinessisalwaysepisodicandincomplete,(d)itisdifficulttobe
happybecausepowerfulforcescausingunhappinessareinherentinbeinghuman,(e)happinessis
subjectiveandthereisgreatindividualvariationinseekingit,and(f)psychoanalysiscannotpromise
sustainedhappinessanditshouldberegardedassuccessfulifitcantransformhystericalmiseryinto
commonunhappiness(BreuerandFreud,1895,p.305).2
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SUBSEQUENTCONTRIBUTIONS
Tothebestofmyknowledge,only11psychoanalystshavemadedirectcontributionstotheunderstanding
ofhappinesssinceFreud.TheyincludeHeleneDeutsch(1927),BertramLewin(1932,1937,1941,1950),

MelanieKlein(1935,1946,1952a,1952b),HannsSachs(1941),LudwigEidelberg(1951),Oscar
Sternbach(1974),ReubenFine(1977),HeinzKohut(1977),StanleyOlinick(1982),IsadoreSilberman
(1985),andMichaelGuyThompson(2004).Suchlistingofnamesis,however,misleadingsincethe
contributionstheseanalystshavemadearenotcomparableintheirextent,novelty,ordepth.Asaresult,I
wouldcommentupontheworkofthefouroutstandingcontributorsamongtheseandrefertotheviewsof
mostothersbrieflyatappropriateplacesintheremainingpartofthispaper.Thefourmajorcontributorsare
HeleneDeutsch,BertramLewin,MelanieKlein,andHeinzKohut.

HeleneDeutsch
InapapertitledOnsatisfaction,happiness,andecstasy,Deutsch(1927)proposedthathappinessresults
fromaharmoniouscooperationofallthecomponentsoftheegoand,indeed,ofthewholepersonality.3
Whileemphasizingthedissolutionofintrapsychicsplitsandafeelingofonenesswithintheselfasthe
originofhappiness,Deutschincludedmergerbetweenselfandnonselfasanimportantvariableinthe
genesisoftheaffect.Everyaestheticpleasure,whetheritarisesfromcontemplationofalandscapeoranart
object,fromreadingapoemorlisteningtomusic,isalwaysmarkedbyasenseofidentitybetweentheego
andtheoutsideworldarisingfromempathybetweentheegoandtheimpressionsfloodinginfromthe
latter.Thehappinesscreatingfactoristobesoughtinthatidentity.(p.717)
Deutschfeltthatmomentsofhappinesswereinevitablyshortlastingsincetheegohastosoonerorlater
confronttherestoftheunconqueredworld(p.720)andreturntoitsdefeatedanddivided(betweenthe
actualandthewishful)state.Nonetheless,momentsofselfobjectmergerdidgiverisetointensebliss.
Deutschdescribedtwopatientswhoachievedsuchtransientbutsupernormalpleasure(p.717)and
ecstasy(p.718)instatesofselfdissolutionduringsexualintercourseandreligiousmeditation. 4Her
conclusionwasthatHappinessisanendogenous,narcissisticallydeterminedegofeeling;itmaterializes
whentheboundariesoftheegohavebeenexpandedbytheestablishmentofunitybetweenegoandthe
worldasaresultofobjectcathexis,sublimation,ortheattainmentofunityintheegoitself.(p.721)
Inasubsequentcontribution,Deutsch(1933)distinguishedgenuinehappinessfromchronichypomania.
Theformerwasfleetingalthoughbasedupondeepobjectrelationsandsublimation.Thelatter,more
drawnoutandresultedfromadenialanddepreciationofobjectloss.AccordingtoDeutsch,ifwelook
closelyatindividualswhoseemperpetuallyhappy,wenote:thehollownessoftheirsuccessin
comparisonwiththeenergyexpended,howtheloverelationshipslackwarmthinspiteoftheirpassion,
howsteriletheperformanceisinspiteofcontinuousproductivity.Thisresultsfromthemonopolizationof
psychicenergyinserviceofthegoalwehavedescribed:thesilencingofthenarcissisticwound,of
aggression,andofguiltreactions.(p.215)
OfimportanceinDeutsch'scontributionare(a)thepremiseofauniversalstrivingforinneronenessand
psychologicalunity;5(b)afarmoreaccommodatingandrespectfulattitudetowardsreligiousfeelingsthan
thatdisplayedbyFreud(1927),(c)thepossibilitythathappiness,evenifshortlasting,canbeachieved
throughbothinstinctualgratificationandsublimation,and,(d)theproposalthatpersistentandexaggerated
happinessisdefensiveagainstfeelingsofloss,andthesubsequentangerandguilt.

BertramLewin
Lamentingtherelativeneglectofthetopicbypsychoanalysis,Lewin(1932,1937,1941,1950)undertooka
comprehensivestudyofelation.Heconcurredwiththeviewthathypomanicaffectwasusuallyadefense
againstdepression(Abraham,1924;Fenichel,1945)butwentfurther.Hedescribedcertainspecific
syndromescharacterizedbyelatedmood,includingthefollowing:Neurotichypomanicpersonalitieswhich
showimmenseenterprise,chronicactivitythatisoftenfollowedbysuddenlossofinterest,hypersexuality,
anddistractibility.Theiranalysisshowsalatencyperiodinwhichstrongidentificationsarebuiltupwitha
usuallydeadorabsentparent,andasharp,oftenconsciousrecrudescenceofincestuouswishesatpuberty,

followedbyavehementplungeintoactivitiesasadistraction.(1950,p.59)
Hypomanicobsessionalneuroticswhoshowanadmixtureofobsessionalityandcheerfulness.Theydeploy
adeadpanwittoavoidencounteringtheirinnerselvesinameaningfulmannerandtowardoffany
analyticinterventions.
Technicalelationreferstothehypomanicmoodthatis,attimes,evokedbyentryintopsychoanalytic
treatment.Lewinnotedthatuponbeginninganalysissomeindividualsdisplayanincreaseindepression
sincethefactsthatareuncoveredoffendtheirnarcissism.Others,however,respondtosuchoccurrenceby
denialandaflightyanddispersedattention.Lewin(1950)calledthisstatetechnicalelation(p.70)or
technicalhypomania(p.71).
Falseelation,whichincludestechnicalhypomaniabutisnotrestrictedtoit.Theincongruoushappiness
thatcharacterizedfalseelationisfoundnotonlyinassociationwithclearlypsychopathologicalstatesbut
alsoinchildrenanddreamerswhoreplaceunpleasantfactsbycontradictoryfictions.Whatgivesawaythe
falsenatureoftheseaffectsistheirlackofsignalingfunctionandtheirincongruitywithobjectivereality.
Ecstasy,whichisaprofoundlyblissfulstatewherethegoodbreastiscondensedpsychologicallywitha
superego,adeathlessonewithwhichtheegoidentifiesitself,sothatitcanparticipateinitsimmortality.
Alongwiththeactivedevouringfantasiesgoesthesenseofyieldingtothedeathlessfigure,relaxingintoit,
andultimatelyjoiningitinsleeporasleeplikestate.(1950,p.144145)
ThisbringsupthedynamicgeneticaspectofLewin'scontribution.Hetracedtherootsofelationtothe
oraltriadofthewishtoeat,thewishtobeeaten,andthewishtosleep,allofwhichariseinconnection
withasatisfactoryexperienceatthematernalbreast.Inmanichappiness,thefirstwishisobvious(e.g.
wantingtodevourtheworldofobjectsandexperiences)whilethelattertwo,havingbecomecontaminated
withoralaggression,becomeequatedwithbeingmurderedandwithdying.Thereforethesewisheshaveto
bedeniedthroughinsomniaandoveractivityorexpressedviaraptabsorptioninwork,whichrepresentsa
stateofgivinguptheself.Innormalhappiness,thethreewishesarefelttobecomfortableandaretherefore
expressedinaharmoniousfashion.

MelanieKlein
Inaseriesofpublications,Kleindistinguishedbetweenthesubjectiveexperienceofmanicdefense
(1935)andactualfeelingsofhappiness(1946,p.17).Theformerarosefromthetrioofidealization,
denial,andomnipotence,which,actinginunison,upheldthecardboardfigureofanallgoodworld
whereeverythingwaspossibleandwhereonedidnothavetodependuponothersforloveandsupport.The
latteremanatedinthecontextofdeepobjectrelationsandthecapacityforreparativeconcernandgratitude.
Notingthatthefundamentalexperiencesofhappinessareinextricablylinkedwiththemother'sbreast
(1952a,p.99),Kleintracedtheoriginsofhappinesstotheexperiencesofneedsatisfactionduringearly
infantilelife,andunderscoredthedialecticalrelationshipbetweenpleasurableinternalizationsandego
strength.Shestatedthatthegoodbreast,introjectedinsituationsofgratificationandhappiness,becomesin
myviewavitalpartoftheegoandstrengthensitscapacityforintegration.Forthisinternalgoodbreast
formingalsothehelpfulandbenignaspectoftheearlysuperegostrengthenstheinfant'scapacitytolove
andtrusthisobjects,andheightensthestimulusforintrojectionsofgoodobjectsandsituations.(1952b,p.
67)
Klein(1957)emphasizedthatenvyadverselyimpactsuponthedevelopmentofthecapacityforgratitude
andhappiness.Lackofenvy,incontrast,makesitpossibleforonetoadmirethecharacterorachievements
ofothers.Thissourceofhappinessbecomesparticularlyimportantasonebeginstogrowoldandthe
pleasuresofyouthbecomelessavailable;identificationwiththeoffspringandotheryoungpeoplethen
providesanaccesstofeelingsofhappiness.Allinall,Klein'sperspectiveonhappinessemphasizes(a)its

originsinearlyexperiencesofsatisfactionatthematernalbreast,(b)itsassociationwithsolidreality
testing,feelingsofgratitude,andawellintegratedego;(c)itscapacitytoovercomeenvyandenjoyothers
achievements,and(d)itsdrawinguponidentificationsnotonlywiththegoodobjectsofchildhoodbut,as
onegrowsold,withthoseyoungerthanoneself.

HeinzKohut
AsKohut(1977,1980,1982)broadenedhisselfpsychology,elevatedtheselftoasuperordinate
motivationalsystem,anddeclaredthathisperspectivehasfreeditselffromthedistortedviewof
psychologicalmanexposedbytraditionalanalysis(1982,p.402),hisvocabularyalsounderwenta
noticeablechange.Thewordjoynowbegantoappearfrequentlyinhiswritings.Kohutemphasizedthat
joywasdistinctfrompleasure.Joywasmoreencompassingthanpleasure.Joyresultedfromself
realization,selfexpression,selfassertion,andcreativesuccess.Pleasureresultedfromsensualsatisfaction.
Joyandpleasureexistedondifferentlevels.Moreover,Theexperienceofjoyhasageneticrootdifferent
fromthatoftheexperienceofpleasure;eachofthesemodesofaffecthasitsowndevelopmentallineand
thatjoyisnotsublimatedpleasure.Joyrelatestoexperiencesofthetotalselfwhereaspleasure(despitethe
frequentlyoccurringparticipationofthetotalself,whichthenprovidesanadmixtureofjoy)relatesto
experiencesofpartsandconstituentsoftheself.(1977,p.45)
Kohutproposedthatjoyresultedfromthesenseofcohesionandconfidencethatdevelopedinassociation
withadequatemirroringbyparentsduringchildhood.Parentaldelightinthechild'sagespecificcapabilities
andnewfoundegofreedomsledthechildtofeelvital,firm,andpurposeful.Eventherivalryand
competitivenesstowardsthesamesexparentandsexualcuriosityandinteresttowardstheoppositesex
parentshownbythechildduringtheoedipalphaseaddedtotheexperienceofjoy.AccordingtoKohut,this
joyisfedfromtwosources.Theyare(1)thechild'sinnerawarenessofasignificantforwardmoveintoa
psychologicalrealmofnewandexcitingexperiences,andofevengreaterimportance(2)his
participationintheglowofprideandjoythatemanatesfromtheparentalselfobjectsdespiteindeed,also
becauseoftheirrecognitionofthecontentoftheirchild'soedipaldesires.(p.236)
Kohutextendedthedevelopmentallineofjoytoadulthood,underscoringthefactthatafirmandcoherent
selfthatiscapableofsublimationsandhealthyparticipationinthehappinessofthenextgenerationmakes
thetransitiontomiddleandoldageeasier.ThisisapointalsomadebyMelanieKlein(1957),as
mentionedabove,andsuchviewsofbothKohutandKleinhaveanunmistakableresonancewithErik
Erikson's(1950)notionofgenerativityorthecapacitytosupport,nourish,andguidethenextgeneration.
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FOURKINDSOFHAPPINESS
Synthesizingtheliteraturesurveyedaboveyieldsaviewofhappinessthatisbroad,complex,multilayered,
andoftencontradictory.Inanycase,theattempttoorganizethismaterialleadstoitsbecomingmore
schematicandorganizedthantherawdatathatliesatitsorigin.Anotherdifficultyarisesfromtheexistence
ofcertainbinariesintheconceptualizationofhappiness,whichpervadetherealmandyethaveremained
unresolved.Thesebinariesgiverisetothefollowingquestions:(a)doeshappinessresultfromthemerger
oftheselfwiththeobjectworldordoesitresultfromthedissolutionofschismsandsplitswithintheself?
(b)ishappinessaregressiveemotionthatcapitalizesonreawakeningtheblissofearlyinfantmotherunity
oritistheproductofaprogressiveadvanceinego'sdominanceoverdifficultinternalandexternal
realities?(c)ishappinessadefenseagainstunhappinessorisitasubjectivestateinitself?and,(d)does
happinesscomefromtherepudiationofthecomplexityanduncertaintyofdeepobjectrelationsordoesit
becomeavailableonlyaftersuchambivalenceshavebeenworkedthrough?andsoon.

Theanswerstosuchquestionslieinthefactthatmostemotionalexperience,atitspointoforigin,carriesa
certainselfevidentsimplicityaboutit.Soon,however,thedictatesofinternalandexternalreality
challengesuchonesidedness,yieldingastateofcontradiction.And,withfurtherworkingthrough,a
thirdpsychicconfigurationarrivesonthescene.Nowonecanseenotonlythecoexistenceoftwoaffective
polarities(e.g.loveandhate,joyandfear),butalsothateveninwhatappearstoonepoleofexperience
subtlereverberationsoftheotherarepresent.Thissimplicitycontradictionparadoxsequence(Akhtar,
1998),whilehavingmanyotherramifications,isconceptuallypertinenttoresolvingthebinariespertaining
tohappinessaswell.Putsimply,thismeansthatbothpolesofthedialecticsimplicitinthebinariesoutlined
abovearesimultaneouslypresentintheexperience,thoughinvariousdegreesofintensitiesandinvarying
arrangementsoffiguregroundrelationships.Thismightappearquestionablewhenitcomestotrulyintense
momentsofhappiness(e.g.duringsexualunionorreligiousecstasy)thatseembaseduponregressive
mergerwithidealizedpartobjects.Closeexamination,however,revealsthesituationtobethecontrary.All
suchexperiencescontainafineadmixtureofmergerandmurder,thatislibidinalfusionandaggressive
takeoveroftheobjectandasimilar,doublyinstinctualizedsurrenderoftheself.ThisiswhatI(1998)have
calledthelevelofparadoxandthisiswhereallgenuinehappinessresides.
Thatsaid,thephenomenonofhappinessseemstobecomprisedoffourtypesofexperiences:(a)pleasure,
(b)joy,(c)ecstasy,and(d)contentment.Distinctinmanyways,theseexperiencesalsohavepotential
overlapswitheachother.Inthefollowingpassages,Iwilldescribethesefourtypesofexperiencesinsome
detail.

Pleasurebasedhappiness:Elation
Freud's(1930)statementthathappinessconsistsofaccumulationofpleasureandavoidanceofunpleasure
leadsonetothinkthatelationresultsfromthepleasureofinstinctualgratification.Lewin's(1950)tracing
theoriginsofelationtoagratifyingexperienceduringtheoralphasesupportssuchconclusion.The
experienceofinstinctualgratificationisseentoincludeelevatedmood,asenseofwellbeing,andfreedom
fromirksomemoralandpsychosomatictensions.Onecanreadilyfindillustrationsofsuchexperiencefrom
thelibidinalrealm.Ahungryman'spleasureatfindingfoodandawornoutman'spleasureatfindinga
comfortableplacetosleepareassociatedwithfeelingsofhappinessthatcanbecalledelation.While
logicallyspeaking,thesameshouldapplytothedischargeofaggressiveimpulses,itisnotcustomaryto
associatethewordhappinessorelationwiththepleasureofsadism,revenge,andretaliation.
Mattersseemmorecomplex.Tobeginwith,instinctualpleasureturnsouttobesomethingmorethanmere
removaloftheunpleasurecausedbyaccumulatedtension.Tobesure,onecangratifyaninstinctualdesire
inawaythatdoesnotresultinpleasure(e.g.byhavingahungrypersoneatfoodthatisgivenwithanger
andcontempt).Itseemsthenthatinordertofeelpleasure,onerequiressomethingmorethaninstinctual
discharge.Elationmightberelatedtoinstinctualdischargebutthelatterisnotsufficienttoelicitit.
Asoneexaminestheissueathand,itbecomesclearthatitisthemeetingofegoneeds,alongsidewith
gratificationofidwishes(seeAkhtar,1999,foradetaileddiscussionoftheneedwishdistinction)that
resultsinpleasureandtheassociatedexperienceofelation.Thisrealizationleadstotheinevitable
conclusionthatsatisfactionofthissortcanhardlycomefromoutsidethecontextofanempathicandwell
attunedrelationship.Ineffectthen,thefeelingofelationturnsouttobetheemotionalconcomitantof
findingpleasurableinstinctualdischargeinthecontextofapositiveandegosupportiveobjectrelationship.
InEidelberg's(1951)words,happinesscanonlybeexperiencediftheindividualsucceedsinfindingan
objectsuitableatthesametimeforthepurposeofthesatisfactionofobjectandnarcissisticlibido(p.243).
Eventhismightnotbeenoughsinceatrulyattunedobjectrelationshipcannotevolvewithouttheadequate
blendingoflibidoandaggressionwithinthesubject,withintheobject,andwithinthedyad(Silberman,
1985;Kernberg,1974b).Elation,afeelingthatappearedsimpletograspanddescribe,turnsouttobea
complexstateindeed.

Assertionbasedhappiness:Joy
Joyreferstothehappinessthataccompaniesfromtheexperienceofselfconfidenceandselfassertion.
Pleasurableexerciseofegofunctionsandfindingefficacyinone'sactionsalsogiverisetojoy.The
experienceofjoyisnotrestrictedtoanyagegroupandcanoccuratanypointinlife.However,certain
developmentalphasesareespeciallysuitableforcreatingcertainkindsofjoyousexperience.Theearliest
prototypeofjoyistobefoundinthechildhoodgameofpeekaboo.Thatthechildexperiencesaburstof
happinessatrefindingthemother,afterhertemporarydisappearance,isduetotwofactors:(a)the
rediscoveryofmotherfirmsuphisfragileselfsinceitscoherenceisdependentuponcontactwithher,and
(b)thediscoverybythechildthathehasbeenabletotoleratetheseparationandsurviveit(seealso
Kleeman,1967).Alittlelaterinlife,joyappearsintheformoftheexhilarationfeltatgainingupright
locomotion.Here,too,adualityofcausativefactorsisoperative.Thechildfeelshappyatescapingthe
symbioticorbit(Mahler

etal.
,1975)andatmakinguseofhisnewlyfoundmotorskills.Duringthe
latencyperiod,confidentexerciseofegofunctionsintheserviceofmasteringexternalrealityandplaying
createsjoy.Then,duringlateadolescenceandyoungadulthood,theconfidencederivedfrombeginningto
liveonone'sown(say,inacollegedorm)orfromlandingone'sfirstfulltimejobbecomeimportantjoy
producingevents.Becomingaparentforthefirsttime,infavorablecircumstances,isyetanother
developmentalepochthatisassociatedwiththeexperienceofjoyduringadulthood.
Asimilarkindofhappinessresults,thoughatamoresublimelevel,fromtherobustuseofobjectrelated
egofunctions(G.Klein,1976).Thedelightonefeelsinpleasingthoseoneloves,andtheegopleasurein
synthesisandeffectivenessbelonginthisrealm.Thelastmentionedhasfoundgreaterexpositioninthe
workofWolf(1994).Accordingtohim,efficacyexperiencesemanatefromtheawarenessofhavingan
initiatingandcausalroleinbringingaboutstatesofneededresponsivenessfromothers(p.73).Such
experiencesstrengthentheegoandprovideasenseofvitalitytotheself;theiraffectivecounterpartisjoy.

Mergerbasedhappiness:Ecstasy
Thethirdvarietyofhappinessisecstasy.ItisdefinedbyWebster'sasastateofoverwhelmingemotion,
especiallyrapturousdelight;mysticorprophetictrance;intenseexaltationofmindandfeeling(p.366),
andsoon.Otherattributesincludedinthedefinitionofecstasyarebeingbeyondreasonandself
control;astateoftranceorimmobility;intenseblissorbeatitude(p.366).Fromthis,itisclearthatthe
experienceofecstasyinvolvesemotionsofblissthataresopowerfulastooverwhelmtheordinaryego
functionsofreason,motility,andclearconsciousness.Thedictionarydefinitionimpliesthatthereis
somethingtrulyextraordinaryabouttheexperience.
Fromapsychoanalyticviewpoint,suchextraordinaryfeelingresultsfromthemergeroftheselfandobject,
provided,ofcourse,thattheunionisprimarilyundertheinfluenceoflibidinaldrive(eventhoughacertain
amountofaggressionisalwaysdiscernibleintheexperience).Thefiercecomingtogetherofthetwosexual
partnersandthetranscendentlossofselfboundariesatthemomentoforgasmconstituteecstatic
experienceparexcellence.Thefrenziedexaltationandevenmartyrdomduringapoliticaluprising,the
oceanicfeeling(RomainRolland,citedinFreud,1930)ofmergerwiththeuniverseatlarge,andtherapt
absorptionofamendicantinreligiousworshipcanallbeassociatedwithecstasy.Thecommon
denominatorhereisthefusionoftheselfwiththeobjectworld.Whetherthisfusionisregardedas
regressiontoinfantilestatesofnondifferentiation(Freud,1930)orprogressiontoanadvanced,morecivic
minded,andworldrelatedstatedepends,inpart,onthetheoreticalperspectiveoftheinterpreter.

Fulfillmentbasedhappiness:Contentment
Contentmentisaquietertypeofhappinessthatemanatesfromafeelingofsatisfaction.Itisaccompanied
byadiminutionineffortsatseekingachangeintheintrapsychicsituation.Developmentallyspeaking,the

originofcontentmentcanbetracedtothephaseofquietudethatfollowsinstinctualgratification;itisa
postpleasureexperience.Inevitablyrupturedbythecyclicalawakeningsofinstinctualpressure,
contentmentnonethelessgetsstructuredovertime,givingrisetotheegocapacitytobecontented.In
adultlife,theprototypesofcontentmentaretobefoundinpostparandialandpostcoitalcalm(Olinick,
1982,p.468).6
Suchdrivepsychologybasedunderstandingofcontentmentisenrichedbyaddingtheperspectivesof
structuraltheory.Contentment,fromthisviewpoint,isthefeelingstategeneratedbytheclosureofthegap
betweentheegoandtheegoidealor,perhapsmoreaccurately,betweentherealisticandwishedforself
representations.Generallyspeaking,thisdevelopmentalachievementoccursduringmiddleage;thatisthe
periodwhen,ifallhasgonewell,wearriveatthegoalswehadsetforourselvesandouractualselfbegins
toapproximatethedesiredviewofourselves.
Threequalifiersmustbeaddedhere.First,sincecontentmentdepends,atleastinpart,upontheclosureof
egoegoidealgap,thetiminganddegreeofitsachievementshowsgreatvariability.Thosewithlessexalted
egoidealsexperiencecontentmentwithlessereffortandearlierinlife,whilethosewithmoreelevatedego
idealshavetostriveharderandlongerbeforetheycanfeelcontent.Second,whileremainingdiscontent
owingtotheunrealisticdemandsonehasputupononeself(e.g.,inthesettingofanarcissisticpersonality)
isclinicallywellknown(Kernberg,1975,1984;Akhtar,1989,1992),thesyndromeofpremature
contentmenthasachievedinoptimalattention.Thefateofoverlyindulgedandundulypraisedchildren,
thissyndromeconsistsofsmugnessandlackofambitioninthefaceofminimalachievement.Third,while
contentmentisadesirableandgratifyingstateofmind,completeandsustainedcontentmentisanideal
fiction.Permanentlyeffectedattheircorebythechildhoodfeelingsofsmallnessandinferiority,trappedin
thewarpoftime,unabletoescapetheviceofmortality,andbelongingtoonegenderalone,theyalways
longfortheidealselfstate(regressiveortranscendent)andthereforeremaindiscontent.Freud's(1930)
monographCivilizationandItsDiscontentselucidatesthesemattersindepth,includingtheburdensthat
civilizedsexualityplacesuponman'sinstinctuallife.
Topofpage

SOMECAVEATS
Thedescriptionofhappinessprovidedhere,especiallythewayithasbeencategorized,needstobe
softenedbyenteringsomecaveats.Theseincludethefollowing.
Firstandforemost,psychologyandpsychoanalysisarenottheonlydisciplinesthatoffermeaningful
perspectivesonhumanhappiness.Evolutionarystudies,neurophysiology,philosophy,economics,and
religionallhavemadesignificantcontributionstothisrealm.Asaresult,theportrayalofhappinesshereis
incompleteatbest.
Second,withminorexceptions,theliteraturecoveredheredoesnotdistinguishthedifferencesinthe
experienceofhappinessoverthehumanlifespan.Totalkofhappinessinbroadtermswithoutpaying
attentiontothefactthatachild'shappiness,anadolescent'shappiness,ayoungadult'shappiness,amiddle
agedindividual'shappiness,andanelderlyperson'shappinessmightbedifferentdoesdisservicetothe
spectrumofthephenomenainvolved.
Third,happinessisahighlysubjectiveexperienceanditsnature,aswellasitssources,varygreatlyfrom
individualtoindividual.Ageneralizedpicture,evenwiththeprovisionofsubcategories,runstheriskof
missingindividualnuances.

Fourth,formsandintensitiesofhappinessmightvaryfromculturetoculture.Alsovariablearethedegree
towhichhappinessisovertlyexpressedandtheenvironmentaltriggersthatreleasesucharesponse.The
BritishstiffupperlipandtheLatinAmericanvivaciousnessillustratetheformerpoint.Thepopularityof
getrichquickschemesintheUnitedStatesandthehungerforreligiousblessinginIndiaexemplifythe
latterpoint.
Fifth,whiletheetiologicaltitlesofthefourcategoriesofhappinessdescribedhere(pleasurebased,
assertionbased,mergerbased,andfulfillmentbased)aremoresolidlyanchoredintheory,theircolloquial
counterparts(elation,joy,ecstasy,andcontentment)carrylessweight.Thisisowingtothefactthatthe
latterareusedlooselyinpublicdiscourseand,attimes,interchangeablyintheprofessionalliterature.
Sixth,thefourcategoriesofhappinessdescribedherearenotassurgicallyapartasthedidacticneedfor
clarityhasmadethemappear.Theyoverlapwitheachother.Forinstance,obtaininginstinctualpleasure
canstirprideinselfassertion,thusmixingelationwithjoy.And,fulfillmentofdesiresisassociatedwith
pleasureandfollowedbysatiation;contentmentandelationthusgetmixedwitheachother.Andsoon.
Seventh,psychoactivesubstances(e.g.alcohol,cocaine)canactivatesubjectiveexperiencesakintoanyand
allofthetypesofhappinessdescribedabove.Whethersomeintoxicantsproduceaparticularkindof
happinessmoreoftenthanothersubstances(e.g.alcoholcausingelationandjoy,marijuanacausingecstasy
andcontentment)needsfurtherinvestigation.
Finally,allfourtypesofhappinesscanhavenormalandabnormalvariants.Thepleasuresassociatedwith
sexualperversion,themaliciousjoyatbeatingsomeoneup,theprematurecontentmentoftheover
indulgedchild,andthedemonicecstasyofsatanicworshiparebutafewexamplesofpsychopathological
formsofhappiness.
Topofpage

TECHNICALRELEVANCE
Theconceptofhappiness,asithasbeenelucidatedhere,hasamultifacetedimpactupontheconductof
psychoanalytictreatment.Thisisevidentintheanalyst's(i)receivingthepatientwithhappiness,(ii)
interpretingthepatient'sdefensesagainstfeelingsofhappiness,(iii)diagnosingfalsehappinessand
unmaskingitsdefensiveanddischargefunctions,(iv)enjoyingthepatient'sauthentichappiness,and(v)
managingthecountertransferencereactionstohappinessrelatedexchangesinthedyad.

Receivingthepatientwithhappiness
Thepsychoanalystmustbeinagoodmoodwhenheorsheopenstheofficedoorandwelcomesthe
patienttocomeinside.Acertainpeacefulness,freedomfrominstinctualtensionsandrealisticworry,and
mildanticipatorypleasuretowardstheworkthatisabouttounfoldcharacterizethisgoodmood.Asmile
ofrecognizingaffirmationuponvisuallyencounteringthepatientalsohelps.Ofthetypesofhappiness
describedabove,contentmentcomesclosesttothisstateofmind,thoughthereisevidenceofmildelation
andjoyhereaswell.Needlesstoaddthatthedegreetowhichsuchinnerstateswillbecomeovertwhile
remainingwithintheconfinesoftheanalyticpersona(Levine,2007)dependsupontheanalyst's
personalmakeupandculturallysanctionedpatternsofbehavior.Guntrip's(1975)descriptionofhis
(second)analyst,Winnicott,openingthedooratthebeginningofasessionwhilesoftlyhummingatune
capturesaglimpseofonesuchgoodmoodmoment.
Acorollarytothisisthattheanalystmustnotundertakeasessionifheorsheisunhappyandcannotfind
serenity.ThefollowingepisodedescribedbyMichaelParsons(2000),adistinguishedBritishanalyst,

showsthesimpleandselfevidentnatureofthisstance.Atkaratetrainingoneeveningwewerepracticing
withourpartnersaprearrangedsequenceofattackanddefensewhentheinstructor,agreatkaratemaster,
calledHirokazuKanzawa,brokeofftheexerciseanddismissedtheclass,wellbeforethetrainingsession
wouldnormallyhaveended.Atthenextsessionsomeoneaskedwhyhehadstoppedtheclassearly.Spirit
nogood!,camethereply.Hesaidwehadbeenmakingourattackswithoutrealcommitmentorsincerity.
Heunderstoodthatwedidnotwanttohurtourfriends,butanemptyattackwasnoexpressionof
friendship.Ifweweretruefriendstoourtrainingpartners,hesaid,wewouldstrikewithallthespeedand
powerwehad.(p.9)
Ofcourse,iftheanalystistrulyupset(forwhateverreason)whileapproachingthestartofthehour,it
mightbebettertobringthepatientin,judiciouslyandbrieflyexplainthesituation,andreschedulethe
session.Thefeelingsandfantasiesmobilized(inthepatient)bysuchinterventioncanbeanalyzedinthe
subsequenthour(s).

Interpretingthepatient'sdefensesagainstfeelingsofhappiness
Inhispaper,Thosewreckedbysuccess,Freud(1916)describedpatientswhoarenotabletotoleratetheir
happiness(p.316),sincepleasureofsuccessisequatedintheirmindswiththeactualizationofincestuous
andparricidalimpulses.Guiltconsequentuponsuchdesireprecludestheirenjoymentofthehappiness
affordedbyachievementsinexternallife.ThisobservationofFreudbecameacornerstoneof
psychoanalyticunderstandingofdefensiverecoilfromhappiness.Whileclinicallyvalid,thisdynamicdoes
notexhaustthemotivesunderlyingpatientsreflexivewithdrawalfromtheexperienceofhappiness.To
beginwith,theguiltthatfuelssuchdefensivemovemighthaveoriginsotherthanthoseintheoedipal
situation.Itmightbepreoedipalguiltathavingdamagedthemotherinphantasy(Klein,1935,1940),
survivalguiltathavingoutlivedasiblingorparent(Niederland,1968),separationguiltatpsychologically
movingawayfromaneedyparent(Modell,1965),orguiltinvolvedbytheselfcenteredblackmailby
parentswhobragabouttheirsufferinginchildbirthand/orchildrearing(Asch,1976).
Tocomplicatematters,patientsintoleranceofhappiness(evidentintheirnewphobicavoidanceof
expressingpride,joy,andcontentment)mightnothaveanythingtodowithguiltatall.Theanxietymight
pertaintobecomingseparatedortoodistinctfromadepressedparentandthusriskingselfcoherence.Or,
theturningawayfromhappinessmightbeduetotheinabilitytobeargratitudethatcomeswith
acknowledgingthattheworldhasgivenonepleasureandsatisfaction.Regardlessofthedynamics,the
analyst'sjobistobevigilantregardingsuddenshiftsinassociationsawayfromhappinessandnoticeable
omissionofpositiveaffective.Forinstance,ifapatient'sannouncementofpassingamajorexaminationor
buyingadreamhouseisunaccompaniedbyelationorjoyorisquicklyfollowedbypronouncementsof
suffering,theanalystmustpointoutthedefensiverepudiationofhappiness.Doingsowouldopenupdoors
tothesubterraneanconcernsthataremakingitdifficultforthepatienttoenjoybeinghappy.Atsuch
moments,theparticulartypeofanalyticlisteningcalledcloseprocessmonitoring(Gray,1973,1994)is
ofgreathelp.Suchlisteninghonesinonthemomenttomomentshiftsofemphasisandnuanceinthe
streamofthepatient'sassociations,payingsharpattentiontoapause,anabruptchangeoftopic,the
emergenceofanincongruentaffect,andanunexplainableavoidanceofthelogicallyexpectablethought.
Observingsuchoccurrencesandbringingthemtothepatient'sawarenessmakesresistanceanalysis
possible.

Diagnosingfalsehappinessandunmaskingitsdefensiveanddischargefunctions
Encounteringthedistressingemotions,anxiety,sadness,andpsychicpain,patientsoftenresorttodefensive
levity,tellingjokes,andevenwhatappearstobespontaneoushumor.Suchmomentsposebothachallenge
toandanopportunityfordeepanalyticwork.Lackofvigilancecanleadtheanalysttooverlookthedriven,
tense,andavoidantqualityofsuchfalsehappiness.Lemma(2009)notesthat:Asclinicians,wecan
probablyallthinkofclinicalsituationswherethepatient'shumourwasuseddestructively,perhapstocreate

asenseofcomplicitybetweenpatientandanalyst,andthisneedstobetakenup.Itisvitalthatweguard
againsthumourtoserveourowndefensiveneedsinanattempttowardofftheexaminationofmore
threateningmaterialwiththepatient,ortoinvitethepatient'sadmirationofourwitticism,ortousehumour
toseduceandcolludewiththepatient.(p.300)
Effervescentwitis,however,nottheonlyforminwhichfalsehappinessappearsintheclinicalsituation.
Joyousstorytellingthatexertsamesmerizinginfluenceupontheanalystcanalsoberegardedasavariety
offalsehappinessthatneedsinterpretativeattention.

Clinicalvignette
Anna,aPeruvianwomaninanalysis,begantalkingaboutherbelovedgrandmother'sfuneralsomeyears
ago,almostimmediatelyafterIhadtoldherofmyunavailabilityforafewdays.Theconnectionwas
obvious.Iwaited.Gradually,intricatedetailsofPeruvianfuneralritualsbegantooccupyherassociations.
HermomentarysadnessuponmytellingherthatIwouldnotbeavailablefor3dayswasnowreplacedwith
avigoroustone.Heraffectwasnowoneofelation.Ifoundmyselfraptlyabsorbedinthematerial,feeling
enrichedbylearningalltheculturaldetails.Returningtoaselfobservingstanceafewminuteslater,I
notedthatshenotonlyhaddefensivelywardedoffherpainbutalsohadgivenmeapartinggift,asitwere.
Interpretiveinterventionsalongthislinedeepenedthematerialandfacilitatedtheanalysisofher
disappointmentatmybeingawayandhersubsequentangeraboutit.
Regardlessofwhatformfalsehappinesstakes(bothwithinthetransferenceorinthereportsofextra
transferencematerial),itsdefensivequalityisbetrayedbytherigidity,hollowness,andtheslightoutof
contextfeelingthatcomeswithit.Thatsaid,itshouldberecognizedthattherealsooccurmomentsof
genuinehappinessandhumorinthecourseoftheanalytictreatment.Theseneedtobehandledintheirown
separateways(seebelow).

Enjoyingthepatient'sauthentichappiness
Whengenuinehappinessisfeltorexpressedbyapatient,theanalystmustbeabletoresonatewithitand
evenenjoyit.Suchpleasureisconsonantwiththenotionofunobjectionablepositivecountertransference
(Gill,1994;Fox,1998),referringtotheprofessionallyappropriateandpersonallyegosyntonicpositive
feelingsofanalyststowardstheirpatients.Ofcourse,thechoicetoovertlyexpressthehappinessthatthe
analystmightfeelinreciprocitywiththatofthepatientisgovernedbymattersoftact,empathy,the
specificsofthemoment,andtheoverallidiomofrelatednessbetweenthem.
Theoccasionsthatbringoutsuchhappinessvary.Theymightincludethepatient'srecallofhappyeventsof
childhood,delightfulaccountsofchildrenandgrandchildren,majoraccomplishmentsinexternalreality
(e.g.promotionatjob,purchaseofahouse),andachievementofsignificantdevelopmentalbenchmarks
(e.g.marriage,parenthood).Whiletheseseeminglyinnocenteventscanalsopullcollusiveenactmentsfrom
theanalyst,thesituationismorecomplexwhenitcomestothe(a)patient'shappinessatintrapsychic
advancesmadeasaresultoftreatmentand(b)emergenceofgenuine,notdefensive,humorintherelational
matrix.
Asfarasthefirstmatterisconcerned,itismybeliefthattheanalystcannotbutprovidetheauxiliaryego
supportthepatientseemstoneed.IndeedthemodelanalystinLoewald's(1960)viewpointoffershimself
tothepatientasacontemporaryobject.Heisemotionallyrelated,andmindfulofthepatient'spotentials,
whichheseesasaparentdoes.Moreoverheoffersthepatientopportunitiestocreatenewintegrationson
thearmatureofmaturitythathehimselfprovides.Acknowledging,supporting,andevencelebratingthe
developmentaladvancesonthepatient'spartisanintegralpartofsuchtherapeuticstance.

Thenthereistheissueofhumor.Whilefalsehappinessandmanicdefensemasqueradingaswitneed
interpretativehandling,unduereticenceinrespondingtothepatient'shumorcancausehimnarcissistic
injuryandshame.Thisusedtobethecustomarystanceanalystsadopted,thoughmanycametoexpress
regretaboutittowardsthelaterpartoftheircareers(Coltart,1993).Fortunately,thereisnowburgeoning
literature(ChasseguetSmirgel,1988;Poland,1990;Christe,1994;Lemma,2000,2009)thattakesasofter
positiononthismatter.Note,forinstance,thefollowingobservationbyChriste:Itisreasonabletoassume
thatamomentarycommunicationinplayfulhumourcannotonlyputusintouchwithotherwisewardedoff
libidinaland/ordestructiveimpulses,butalsoallowsabrieftransformationoftheirhiddenforces.A
creativethrustisreleasedthatcanfacilitatefurtheregointegrationandbroadenperspectiveand
understanding.(p.487)
AsimilarsentimentisvoicedbyLemma(2009)whostatesthat:somepatientsmayindeedgainfrom
exchangeswithananalystwhocanusehumourtogentlyengagetheminthinkingaboutsomethingthey
cannototherwisebeartoface.Sharingajokeandlaughingmightevenrepresentanattempttorelate
moreplayfully,forthefirsttime.Here,theanalyst'sresponseiscrucial:iftheanalystrespondssoberlythe
patientmightfeelshamedorrebuffedinsomeway.Theuseofhumourbytheanalystmight,infact,
functionasakindofmetacommunicationtothepatientabouttheirinternalstateofmind,whichmay
fosterasenseofsafety,throughdiscomfirminginhibitingexpectationsandsoincreasesthepatient'sability
tobeselfreflective.(p.301)
Puttingallthistogether,itseemsthattheanalyst'scapacityandwillingnesstoenjoyhisorherpatient's
happinesswhilekeepinganeyeonthepotentialmeaningsofwhatistakingplacehelpsratherthanhinders
theanalyticprocess.

Managingthecountertransferencereactionstohappinessrelatedexchangesinthe
clinicaldyad
Comfortablewiththenarrativesofanxiety,anguish,anddespair,psychoanalystsareoftencaughtoffguard
whenfacingmomentsofhappinessintheirclinicalwork.Suchhappinessusuallyresidesintherelational
matrixandisthusintersubjective,thoughoneortheotherpartyintheclinicaldyadcancertainly
contributemoretotheoriginsofthesentiment.Ineithercase,theanalysthastobecomfortablein
experiencinghappiness,keepingitcontainedifclinicaltactdictatesthat,orsharingitwiththepatientif
thatseemsindicated.Avoidingexpressionsofhappinessfromhisside(inresponsetoamajoradvancein
theselfobservingfunctionoftheanalysand'sego)orbecomingoverlyexuberant(atminorandexternal
achievementsofthepatient)arebothevidencesofahithertoundetectedcountertransferencedifficulty.
Generallyspeaking,suchproblemsarisefromtheanalyst'scharacterologicallydeterminedoptimism
pessimismratioandhisvulnerabilitytomobilizingmanicdefenseagainstthedepressiveandparanoid
anxietiesofintimacy.Clingingtothecaricaturedidealofaseriousprofessionalandaconsciousor
unconsciousidentificationwithFreud'sgrimworldviewcanalsocontributetoinhibitionsinthisrealm.The
suppressionofcreativeaudacityinconservativetrainingprogramsmightalsoleavealegacyof
stodginessanddiscomfortwithexpressionsofjoy.Theanalyst'ssuccessfulworkingthroughofsuch
inheritedpseudounhappinessviapostgraduationselfanalysisandgrowthwoulddeterminehowfreeof
countertransferenceheorshecanremainwhileencounteringhappiness(withintheselforwithinthe
patient)intheclinicalsituation.
Topofpage

CONCLUDINGREMARKS

Inthiscontribution,IhavesummarizedtheviewsofFreudandsubsequentpsychoanalystsontheconcept
ofhappiness.Onthebasisofthissynthesis,theaffectsandexperiencessubsumedundertherubricof
happinessseemtobelongtofourdifferent,thoughpotentiallyoverlapping,categories.Thesecategories
arepleasure,joy,ecstasy,andcontentment.Ihavethendelineatedontogeneticroots,metapsychological
correlates,andexperientialbuildingblocksforeachofthesecategories.Movingon,Ihaveattemptedto
demonstratehowthesubjectiveexperienceofhappiness(bothinitsbroadsenseandinitsconstituent
categories)impactsupontheconductofpsychotherapyandpsychoanalysis.
WhileIhavecoveredareasonableground,mydiscoursedoesnotexhaustthelistofimportantmattersin
therealmofhappiness.Threesuchmattersaretherelationshipofgender,culture,andmoneytohappiness.
Asfarastheissueofgenderisconcerned,itisstrikingtonotethattheliterature(psychoanalyticor
otherwise)makeslittlementionofthisvariable.Thereasonsforthisareunclear.Isthisomissiondueto
lackofknowledge?Or,haveconcernsoversocialreprisalmadeustonguetied?Onedoesnotknow.
Seligman(2002),forone,saysthatinaverageemotionaltone,womenandmendontdiffer,butthisis
strangebecausewomenarebothhappierandsadderthanmen(p.59,emphasisintheoriginal).Maybethe
issueisnotoneoftheextentofhappinessbutofitsquality.Thedifferenceinmenandwomenmight
pertaintothekindofhappinesstheyexperienceandthesourcesfromwhichsuchhappinessisderived.The
twogendersseemakinintheircapacitytoachievepleasurebased(elation)andmergerbased(ecstasy)
typesofhappinessanddifferentintheircapacitytoachieveassertionbased(joy)andfulfillmentbased
(contentment)happiness.Privytogreatersocialfreedomofexpression,menseemmorecomfortablewith
selfassertionandthereforemighthavegreaterfamiliaritywiththeexperienceofjoy.Incontrast,women
mightexperiencecontentmentmoredeeplyandearlierinlifethanmen.Thismightbetracedtoa
formativeeventintheearlyfemalepsychosexualdevelopment,namelytheshiftingoflovefrommotherto
father.InAltman's(1977)words,thisrenunciationpreparesherforrenunciationinthefutureinawaythe
boyisunabletomatch(p.48).Thiscapacityofrenunciationmighteasewomen'sachievingcontentment
inlife.Women'spsychosomaticcontinuityofprimaryidentificationwiththemotheralsomakesthegap
betweenegoandegoidealmoretolerable,makingitmorepossibleforthemtofeelcontent.Theydraw
greaternarcissisticgratificationthanmenfromtheachievementoftheirchildren(besidesfromtheirown
work)andthisdualstreamofgratificationaddstotheirhappiness.
Thesecondissuepertainstotheroleofcultureincreatingandsustaininghappiness.Themuchcitedstudy
byBiswasDienerandDiener(2002)comparingthelifesatisfactionandhappinesslevelsbetweentheslum
dwellersofCalcutta(nowcalledKolkata)withthestreetpeopleofFresno,California,forinstance,
revealedstrikingdifferencesinfavorofIndia.Inaninvestigationcomparingtheselfreportedhappiness
levelsinMexicowiththoseinFrancetoothebalancetiltedheavilyinfavorofMexico(Brooks,2008).The
resultsofthesestudiesdelinksocietalaffluenceandhappinessand,byimplication,suggestthatother
culturalfactorsmightberesponsibleforlifesatisfactionandhappiness.TheobservationbytheNobelprize
winningeconomist,AmartyaSen(1999),thatthepeopleofKerala(astateinIndiawithapopulationof30
millionpeople),China,andSriLankahavehigherqualityoflifethanthemuchricherpopulationsof
Brazil,SouthAfrica,andNamibiasupportsthisidea.Whilecrossnationalgeneralizationsmustbetreated
withsuspicion,theabovementionedstudiessuggestthattheoveralllevelsofhappinessarehigherin
societieswithgreatercommunalharmony,lessloneliness,andhigherpremiumonthevaluesofaltruism,
sacrifice,faith,andgenerativity.Societiesthatarelargelydrivenbymarketeconomiesandputpremiumon
personalacquisitionandachievementtendtoleavepeopleunsatisfiedandlesshappyingeneral.
Thisbringsustotheageoldquestion,andthatis:Canmoneybuyhappiness?Thetemptationtogivean
affirmativeanswerarisesfromthefactthatmonetaryaffluencecanfreeuptime,bestowagreateramount
ofpsychosocialfreedom,satisfythedesiresformaterialacquisition,andincreaseaccesstopleasurable
experiences.Underlyingsuchrealitiesarethechildhoodfantasiesofomnipotence(IcoulddoanythingifI
werewealthy),aswellastheidealizationofparentswhoareseentohavepowerandcontrolovertheir
lives.Thefantasyofwinningalotterydeftlycombinessuchrealityandintrapsychicscenarios.Havinga
lotofmoney,itseems,willbringhappiness.Empiricalstudiesaswellasclinicalexperience,however,
provethecontrary.Tobeginwith,mostpeoplewhowinlotteriessquandertheirmoneyandsoonreturnto

theirpriorlifestyles(Brickman

etal.
,1978).Evenwhenacquisitionofmoneyseemstoresultinhappiness,
itislargelyowedtoprosocialspending(Dunn

etal.
,2008;Bennett,2009),thatisbuyinggiftsforothers
andgivingdonationstoworthycauses.Thisshowsthatthesourceofhappinessisnothavingmoneyperse
buttheexpressionofloveandmoralityitcanfacilitateinsomeindividuals;thosewhospendlargeamounts
ofmoneyonthemselvesand/ormaterialacquisitionsremainunquenchedandrestless.Moreover,thelevel
ofselfreportedhappinessdifferslittleamongtherichandthepoorinpopulationsurveys(Myers,2000;
Kahnemanetal.
,2006)andthereisevidencethattheoverallqualityoflife(includingthefeelingsof
happiness)mightattimesbebetterinlessaffluentcountriesthaninthosewithgreateraverageincome
(Sen,1999;Brooks,2008).Forthepsychoanalyst,however,whatcountsistheclinicalexperienceinaone
toonesituation.Heretoo,thelackofcorrelationbetweenfinancialaffluenceandsubjectivesenseof
happinessbecomesevident.Patientssenseofsatisfactionwiththeirliveshardlyseemsdependentupon
whethertheyaremonetarilywelloffornot(seeAkhtar,2009,pp.6947).Freud's(1895)declaration,
made115yearsago,thatmoneycannotbringhappiness,sincehappinessresultsfromthefulfillmentof
childhoodwishesandmoneyisnotanobjectofthem,turnsouttobetrueafterall.
Topofpage

Notes
1

Thereisnogoldenrulethatappliestoeveryone(p.83).

Whatexactlyweretheconstituentsofthisirreducibleunhappinesswereleftunclear.Moreover,Freudwas
hardlyaloneincomingtotheconclusionthatacertainamountofsufferingisinevitableinthecourseof
life.Buddha'sfirstNobleTruthcomprisedofthisrealizationandHenryDavidThoreaugrimlydeclared
thatmostmenlivealifeofquietdesperation.Withinthepsychoanalytictradition,thethemeofsuffering
thatisinherenttobeinghumanhasbeenaddressedinonlythreepublications:JuddMarmor's(1955)essay
onrealisticworry,Thompson's(2004)attemptatseparatingneuroticmiseryfromcommonunhappiness,
andmyown(Akhtar,2009)delineationoftheburdensofsanity.
3

Presentedatthe10thCongressoftheInternationalPsychoanalyticAssociationatInnsbruck,Austriain
1927,Deutsch'spaperremaineduntranslatedintoEnglishtill1989.Itappearedthatyearinthe
InternationalJournalofPsychoanalysiswithanaccompanyingcommentarybyPaulRoazen.
4

IsuspectedthatthesecondpatientdescribedinitwasDeutschherself.However,whenIreadtheeditorial
commentarybyPaulRoazen,Inoticedthathebelievesthatboththecasesreportedarebasedupon
autobiographicalmaterial.
5

Elsewhere,Ihavenotedthatourliterature'semphasisuponthesearchforonenesswiththeother
overlooksthesearchforonenesswithinoneself.Observingthat,ashumanbeings,wearealwaysdivided
andsplitintoparts,Ihaveproposedthatthefrustrationcontingentuponthismaladymobilizesastrivingto
findstatesthathelpusbecomeonewithinourselves.Ifindsuchharmonywhilewriting.Othersmight
utilizedifferentmodalitiessuchasjogging,dancing,listeningtoorplayingmusic,andsoon.Regardlessof
theparticularavenueonetakestoreachit,suchonenesswithinoneselfseemstobeanimportant
contributortopersonalhappiness.
6

Freud's(1930)phrase,happinessofquietness(p.77),thoughusedabitironicallytodescribehermits
andrecluses,isbettersuitedfortheexperienceofcontentment.
Topofpage

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