ME776

Combustion

(Professor Steven Shy)
Office: E2-413
Tel: (03)426-7327
Fax: (03)425-4501
E-mail: sshy@ncu.edu.tw
1

Course
Chapter 1

Content

Introduction to Combustion

Importance; Applications; Contribution; What is the

Combustion Process? Combustion Books & Journals &
Proceedings
1.1

Preliminary remarks

1.2

Some Practical Problems in Combustion

1.3

Scientific Disciplines of Combustion

1.4

Classification of Fundamental Combustion Phenomena

1.5

What is the Combustion Process?

1.6

Books, Journals & Proceedings for Combustion

Chapter 1 Introduction to Combustion ME776

Section 1
1.1.1

Preliminary Remarks

Combustion

Interrelated processes of Fluid Mechanics, Heat & Mass Transfer, Chemical

Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and Turbulence.
Understanding of the fundamental concepts of these coupled processes will
provide engineers and scientists with the technical background and training required
to solve various combustion problems.
"Everything that happens is due to the flow and transformation of energy ...
Control fire and you control everything. The discovery of fire ... lifted man from the
level of the beast and gave him dominion over the earth."
Morton Mott-Smith in his book of introduction to Heat and its Workings. D.
Appleton & Co. (1933)
Many burning issues in Combustion remain to be solved; there has never been a
lack of demand for well-trained, dedicated combustion engineers and scientists.

1.1.2

Some Comments about the Course

* This is a course in fundamental principles

* Not in nuts-and-bolts design
* Throughout the course, emphasis will be on simple physical reasoning backed by
simple, approximate calculations (1-dimensional, ideal gas, constant thermodynamic
properties, etc). Memorization of empirical results (When A goes up, B decreases, etc.)
won't work here. If the reasoning aren't clear------ASK!

* In some sense, this course is really just a vehicle (Basic Concepts) to study
engineering systems in the future in which the trade off/judgments are required,
taking into account not just our back-of-the-envelope type analyses, but likely
direction and magnitude of the errors which result.

Ch 1

Introduction to Combustion

Sec. 2

Some Practical Problems in Combustion

etc. etc.

1.2.1

ME776

Devices
Fuels
Pollution and Health
Safety
Defense and Space

Energy and Combustion Devices

USA Energy Usage at 2004 (2004)

Source: Annual Energy Review (2004) p. 280; US DOE

Assignment CH1-1: Find 2014 (or 2013) information to update
4

14%: Nuclear, Solar, Wind, Hydro-electric, Geo. thermal, etc.

85%: Chemical energy derived through combustion of fossil fuels
(40% Petroleum, 23% Natural Gas, 22% Coal)
This trend will continue in the foreseeable future.
( convenience, high energy density, and the economics)
1. Domestic Heating
Heat and Power

2. Firing of industrial furnaces

3. Operation of automotive engines/gas turbines

Design and operation of energy devices

Assignment CH1-2: Find 2014 (or 2013) information to update

Taiwan Electric Power Generation [1991 (2006)]

Fire Power
58.1
(73.2%)

18,383 MW
(36,122 MW)

Hydro Power
13.9
(12.5%)

Nuclear Electric Power

28
(14.2%)
Assignment CH1-3: Find 2014 (or 2013) information to update
!

Auto Need more efficient and clean-burning internal combustion engines

e.g.

Diesel Engine
" Cycle Efficiency < Gasoline Engine
@ same compression ratio (C.R.)
" But operates at a higher C.R. (more efficiency overall)
" Not requires highly-refined fuels with narrow specifications
" Can use nonconventional or low-grade fuels, e.g. alcohol
" Disadvantages: noisy & Heavy soot emitter

e.g. New concept in engine development

ultralean
Stratified Charge Combustion
:
:
Rich
Overall fuel lean mixture easy to ignite
Basic Idea

Lean Mixtures

Combustion efficiency
Pollutants formation

Hard to ignite
High pressure direct injection gasoline engine
6

simultaneously

1.2.2 Combustion needs fuel

e.g. diesel oil

gasoline engine

Narrow compositional specifications of gases used in domestic

gas ranges
Energy Crisis Fuel Crisis
Shortage & reliability of petroleum supply
! Emphasis on Coal
Direct utilization

Coal-derived fuels

Fluid bed combustion

Higher boiling pt.

Wider boiling pt. ranges
Higher contents of aromatics and
nitrogen containing compounds
more soot & NO2

Advantages:
Direct contact with air
max. burning rates
SO2 (limestones)
NO2 (; fluidization rate)
Coal-water slurries
Finely crushed coal particles
40 ~ 70 m
mixed in water
Sprayed directly combustion chamber of industrial furnaces
Advantages: # less energy expansive than the chemical processes of
coal liquefaction.
$ easy to transport in pipes
% min. hardware modification of oil-fired combustor
70% coal content of slurries have been successfully burned
! Alternate & Hybrid Fuels
e.g. Methanol & Ethanol & Ethanol with oil
Natural gas & coal

biomass

Ethanol: smaller heats of combustion

( extra oxygen atom in the mlc.)
Blends of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline have been successfully burned in IC engines
7

without any engine modification. However, corrosions in engines may be a problem.

1.2.3 Pollution and Health

Major Pollutants from Combustion
Soot
SO x
NO x
UHC
Coal-derived fuels
Burning coal
N 2 in atm (unburned
Diesel engine
Carcinogenic

Sulfuric acid
Water in atm

N in fuel hydrocarbon)
Thermal NO x

(organic liquid
Acid Rain
combustion products
condense on the
aquatic life
surface of the
soot particles)
;

CO
(carbon
monoxide)

---High T.
( dissociate inert N 2 in air)
Fuel-bound NO x ---less T.

soil erosion

sensitive major contributor

(burning coal or coal-derived oils)
NOx reacts w / UHC & ozone
by sunlight
smog (smoke + fog)
Detrimental to the respiratory sys.
Indoor Pollution (CO, NOx, UHC)
Domestic heating devices
gas ranges
furnaces
Kerosene heaters
Incineration (chemical hazardous
wastes)
The uncertainty of the toxicity of the
combustion intermediates and products
e.g. Halogenated Compounds()

incineration resistant

1.2.4

Safety

Fires
Structural & wild land
life & financial loss
Research improving

Explosions
Materials
Mine galleries
Inhalation of smoke &
Grain elevators
toxic products
Liquefied natural gases Choice of structure &

fire detection tech.

Understanding the fire

spills
decoration
Nuclear reactor accidents

propagation in confined
spaces e.g. buildings &
a/c cabins

Fire control

H2 gas
Containment
structure
Radioactive
gases

1.2.5

Defense and Space

High-energy propellants.

The suppression of combustion instability within jets and rockets.

Signature and detection vulnerability from exhausts.

Measures at preventing explosion of fuel tank when being penetrated by

Projectiles.

The development of chemical lasers as an intense power source.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Combustion ME776

Section 3

Scientific Disciplines of Combustion

Combustion Chemically-reacting flows w/ rapid, highly-exothermic reactions

Chemically Reacting Flows

Thermodynamics

Fluid Mechanics

Heat and Mass Transfer

Chemical Kinetics

Material Structure and

Behaviour

Turbulence

1.3.1

Thermodynamics
Initial states
Reactants

Final states
Products
(Equilibrium)

Heat for utilization

Allows us to do the bookkeeping on how much chemical
energy can be converted to thermal energy in a combustion
process.
Determines the properties of the products ( T ; composition )
when equilibrium is reached.
!

Mature science & its laws have been firmly established.

1.3.2

Chemical Kinetics

What path and how long of such a process.

Conclusions based on equilibrium calculations could be quite erroneous.

e.g. A particular reaction needs 106 years for completion cycle
performance of an auto engine.
e.g. Calculation amount of NOx
10

Finite reaction rates >> Thermodynamic equilibrium

!

All combustion processes have some finite, characteristic times defining

our interest in the phenomena.

Chemical Kinetics is needed to prescribe the paths and rates.

Thermodynamics can be considered to be a special area of chemical

kinetics in that with infinite time a reaction will eventually achieve
equilibrium.

A complex subject : a myriad of chemical species exist, each of which has

the potential of interacting w/ the rest.

Some confidence on fuel oxidation system only for hydrogen, CO, and the
light alkanes.

1.3.3 Fluid Mechanics

Chemical reactions occurring in a flowing medium.
Combustion:

Knowledge of F.M. is essential for a successful

understanding of many combustion phenomena.
Highly-localized and exothermic nature of chemical reactions
significant temperature, and therefore density variations in a flow,
implying that fluid incompressibility can be a rather poor assumption.

1.3.4

Transport Phenomena

SL ~ 40 cm/s ; D ~ 0.2 cm2/s

~ 0.2 / 40 = 510-3 cm = 0.05 mm

Transfer of energy & mass from high to low; through the molecular process of
diffusion.

For heat transfer, radiation is also important.

Diffusive transport is crucial in the sustenance of many types of flames in that it

is only through these processes fresh reactants can be continuously supplied to
the flame while the heat generated there is also being continuously used to heat
up and thereby cause ignition of these fresh mixture.

11

Ch 1

Introduction to Combustion

Sec. 4

Classifications of Fundamental Combustion Phenomena

1.4.1

ME776

Premixed and Nonpremixed Combustion

! Most important classification of combustion phenomena.

! Reactions generally involve two or more reactants.
Frequently
Essential
Elements

a fuel & an oxidizer

( molecular mixedness )
mixed at mlc level
Reaction

implies that at least one of the reactants

should be in either the gaseous or the
liquid phase so that its mlc. can spread
around those of the other reactant.

! Premixed system : A + B
2B
( A : fuel + oxidizer ; B : heat and/or radicals )
! Nonpremixed system: Diffusional combustion reactants initially
separated, then being brought together, via molecular process of
diffusion and the bulk convective motion, to a common region where
mixing and subsequently reaction take place.
! Diffusion is still essential in transporting the premixture to, and the
thermal energy and combustion products away from, the flame region
where reactions occur.
! Bunsen Flames

As the fuel gas issues from the orifice, air is entrained through
the adjustable air-intake port and is then mixed with the fuel gas
as they travel along the burner tube.

The subsequent reactions between fuel and oxygen in this

premixture forms a premixed flame.

If this premixture is fuel rich (has a high concentration of fuel

than can be consumed by all the oxygen in the entrained air),
after passing through the premixed flame, the excess fuel (or
rather the fuel-related intermediate species, can further react with
the oxygen in the ambient air.
Reactants initially separated
need to be transported to a
common region where mixing and reactions occur
Diffusion flame.
The outwardly-directed excess fuel reacts almost completely
w/ the inwardly-directed oxygen.
! It is obvious that one would not find many examples of premixtures in
nature, because they would have already reacted even if they are only
slightly reactive.
12

! Nonpremixed system abound.

Indeed w/ oxygen in the air as the oxidizer, then all the materials which
would burn in air are fuels.
e.g.
fossil deposits: petroleum & coal
cellulosic material: paper & cloth
metallic substances: aluminum & magnesium

1.4.2

Laminar and Turbulent Combustion

Distinct streamlines exist for the bulk, convective motion Laminar

Streamlines do not exist such that at any point in space the flow quantities
randomly fluctuate in time Turbulent

Turbulent facilitates the coarse mixing process, and therefore has a

particularly strong influence on nonpremixed systems in which reactant
mixing is essential.

The final mixing before reactions can take place, however, must still
occur through the molecular diffusion process whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.

1.4.3

Subsonic and Supersonic Combustion

! The velocity of flow

Subsonic flow combustion:

The molecular collision processes of

diffusion are predominant while
reactions also have more time to
complete.
Most frequently in our daily lives,
such as the candle flame and the pilot
flame.

Supersonic flow combustion: The high flow velocity usually

renders convective transport to
dominate over diffusive transport.
Reactions also have less time to
proceed.
Wave motions involving shocks and
rarefactions abound.
Explosions and supersonic flights.

1.4.4 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Combustion

! Most confusing terminology in combustion literature
! Homogeneous: If both reactants initially exist in the same fluid phase, either
gas or liquid (e.g. Bunsen flame).
Heterogeneous: If two reactants initially exist in different phases, whether gas
/liquid, liquid/solid, or solid/liquid, then the combustion is
heterogeneous (e.g. coal particle burning in air).
13

Chemists define a heterogeneous reaction as one in which the reactants

actually exist in different phases at the location where reaction takes place.

! Traditional combustion definition : Both modes of burning are called

heterogeneous combustion.
! To designate the uniformity of the mixture.
! Homogeneous no temperature or concentration gradients in the mixture.
! Heterogeneous a gaseous mixture containing fuel vapor pockets produced,
say, through vaporization of fuel droplets.

14

Chapter 1 Introduction to Combustion ME776

Section 5
1.5.1

What is The Combustion Process?

Chemical Reaction
e.g. Methane burning in air
(1) The global reaction of methane and oxygen
CH4 + 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O
(2) The elementary reaction mechanism
( by T. P. Coffee,1984 )

Reaction

Ab

1.

OH + H2 H2O + H

1.17E9

1.3

1825

2.

H + O2 OH + O

1.42E14

0.0

8250

3.

O + H2 OH + H

1.80E10

1.0

4480

4.

H + O2 +M H2O +M

1.03E18

- 0.72

5.

H + HO2 OH + OH

1.40E14

0.0

540

6.

H + HO2 O + H2O

1.00E13

0.0

540

7.

H + HO2 H2 + O2

1.25E13

0.0

8.

OH + HO2 H2O + O2

7.50E12

0.0

9.

O + HO2 OH + O2

1.40E13

0.0

540

10. O + HO2 OH + O2

1.25E12

0.0

11. H + H + H2 H2 + H2

9.20E16

- 0.6

12. H + H + N2 H2 + N2

1.00E18

- 1.0

13. H + H + O2 H2 + N2

1.00E18

- 1.0

14. H + H + HO2 H2 + O2

6.00E19

- 1.25

15. H + H + CO H2 + CO

1.00E18

- 1.0

16. H + H + CO2 H2 + CO2

5.49E20

- 2.0

17. H + H + CH4 H2 + CH4

5.49E20

- 2.0

18. H + OH + M H2O +M

1.60E22

- 2.0

19. H + O + M OH +M

6.20E16

- 0.6

20. OH + OH O + H2O

5.75E12

0.0

390

21. OH + CO CO2 + H

1.50E7

1.3

-385

22. O + CO + M CO2 + M

5.40E15

0.0

2300

23. H + CO + M CHO + M

5.00E14

0.0

755

24. CH4 + O2 CH3 + OH

4.07E14

0.0

7040

25. CH4 + H CH3 + H2

7.24E14

0.0

7590

26. CH4 + OH CH3 + H2O

1.55E6

2.13

1230

27. CH4 + M CH3 + H + M

4.68E17

0.0

46910

28. CH3 + O CH2O + H

6.02E13

0.0

29. CH2O + O CHO + OH

1.82E13

0.0

1550

30. CH2O + H CHO + H2

3.31E14

0.0

5290

31. CH2O + OH CHO + H2O

7.58E12E

0.0

72

32. CHO + O2 CO + H2O

3.00E12

0.0

33. CHO + H CO + H2

4.00E13

0.0

15

34. CHO + OH CO + H2O

5.00E12

0.0

35. CHO + O CO + OH

1.00E13

0.0

36. CH2O + CH3 CHO + CH4

2.23E13

0.0

2590

37. CH3 + OH CH2O + H2

3.98E12

0.0

38. CH3 + H2O CH4 + O2

1.02E12

0.0

200

39. CO + H2O CO2 + OH

1.50E14

0.0

11900

40. CH3 + CH3 C2 H6

4.56E37

- 7.65

4250

41. C2 H6 + O C2 H5 + OH

2.51E13

0.0

3200

42. C2 H6 ++ H C2 H5 + H2

5.00E2

3.5

2620

43. C2 H6 + OH C2 H5 + H2O

6.63E13

0.0

675

44. C2 H5 + H C2 H6

7.23E13

0.0

45. C2 H5 + H CH3 + CH3

3.73E13

0.0

46. C2 H5 C2 H4 + H

2.29E11

0.0

19120

47. C2 H5 + O2 C2 H4 + H2O

1.53E12

0.0

2446

48. C2 H4 + O CH2 + CH2O

2.53E13

0.0

2516

49. C2 H4 + OH CH2O + CH3

5.00E13

0.0

3020

50. C2 H4 + O C2 H3 + OH

2.53E13

0.0

2516

51. C2 H4 + O2 C2 H3 + HO2

1.33E15

0.0

27680

52. C2 H4 + H C2 H3 + H2

2.00E15

0.0

10000

53. C2 H4 + OH C2 H3 + H2O

4.40E14

0.0

3270

54. C2 H3 + M C2 H2 + H + M

3.01E16

0.0

20380

55. C2 H3 + O2 C2 H2 + HO2

1.57E13

0.0

5030

56. C2 H3 + H C2 H2 + H2

7.53E13

0.0

57. C2 H3 + OH C2 H 2 + H2O

1.00E13

0.0

58. C2 H2 + OH CH3 + CO

5.48E13

0.0

6890

59. CH3 + H CH 2 + H2

2.00E11

0.7

-1500

60. CH3 + OH CH 2 + H2O

6.00E10

0.7

1010

61. CH2 + O2 CHO + OH

1.00E14

0.0

1860

62. CH2 + O2 CH2O + O

1.00E14

0.0

1860

63. CH2 + O2 CO 2 + H2

1.00E14

0.0

1860

a
b
c

[M] = total concentration; [M] = [H2] + 0.74[CO] + 1.47[CO2] + 0.35[O2] +

6.5[H2O] + 0.44[N2] ; [M] = [H2] + [CO] + [CO2] + [O2] +5.0[H2O] + [N2]
A is in units of cm3/mole s or cm6/mole2 s, k = ATB exp(-C/T)
1.17E9 = 1.17 109
Westbrook and Dryer (1984)
150 forward reactions
Frenklach and Bornside (1984)
Recently proposed chemical reaction mechanisms for soot formation
consist of as many as 2000 reactions.

16

Ch 1

Introduction to Combustion

Sec. 6

Books, Journals & Proceedings for Combustion

ME776

BOOKS
1. S. S. Penner, Chemistry Problems in Jet Propulsion, Pergamon, 1957.
2. B. Lewis and G. von Elbe, Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases,
Academic Press, 1961.
3. C. P. Fenimore, Chemistry in Premixed Flames, Pergamon, 1964.
4. R. M. Fristrom and A. A. Westenberg, Flame Structure, McGraw-Hill, 1965.
5. A. G. Gaydon and H. G. Wolfhard, Flames, Chapman and Hall, 1970.
6. A. M. Kanury, Introduction to Combustion Phenomena, Gordon and Breach,
1975.
7. I. Glassman, Combustion, Academic Press, London, 1977; Irvin Glassman &
Richard A. Yetter, Combustion (fourth edition), Academic Press, London,
2007.
8. D. B. Spalding, Combustion and Mass Transfer, Pergamon, 1979.
9. J. D. Buckmaster and G. S. S. Ludford, Theory of Laminar Flame, Cambridge
University Press, 1982.
10. T. Y. Toony, Combustion Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
11. R. A. Strehlow, Combustion Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, 1984.
12. F. A. Wiliams, Combustion Theory, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
Redwood City, 1985.
13. N. Chigier, Energy, Combustion and Environment, McGraw-Hill, 1981.
14. A. W. Leferbore, Gas Turbine Combustion, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
15. Ya. B. Eeldovich, et. Al., The mathematical Theory of Combustion and
Explosion, translated by D. H. McNeil, Consultants Bureau, 1985.
16. K. K. Kuo, Principles of Combustion, John Wiley and Sons, 1986.
17. D. E. Rosner, Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems,
Butterworth, 1986.
18. E. S. Oran and J. P. Boris, Numerical Simulation of Reactive Flow, Elsevier,
1987.
19. D. Merrick, Coal Combustion and Conversion Technology, Elsevier, 1984.
20. K. Iinuma, T. Asanuma, T. Ohsawa and J. Doi, Laser Diagnostics and Modeling
of Combustion, Springer-Verlag, 1987.
21. A. C. Eckbreth, Laser Diagnostics for Combustion Temperature and Species,
Abacus, 1988.
17

22. C. K. Law, Combustion Physics, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2006

JOURNALS and PROCEEDINGS (for COMBUSTION)

1. Proceedings of The Combustion Institute
2. Combustion and Flame
3. Combustion Science and Technology
4. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science
5. Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves
6. Journal of Chemical Physics
7. Journal of Fluid Mechanics
8. Acta Astronautica
9. AIAA Journal
10. ASME Transaction: Journal of Heat Transfer and Journal of Engineering
for Power
11. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
12. Physics of Fluids

18