Lect 2

EECS 142/242M
Lecture 2: Introduction to Transmission Lines

Prof. Ali M. Niknejad
(version 2012 08 28 12 11pm)
University of California, Berkeley
c 2012 by Ali M. Niknejad
Copyright
A. M. Niknejad
EECS 142/242M Lecture 2 p. 1/53
p. 1/53
First Trans-Atlantic Cable

Problem: A long cable the trans-atlantic telephone cable is
laid out connecting NY to London. We would like analyze the
electrical properties of this cable.
For simplicity, assume the cable has a uniform cross-sectional
configuration (shown as two wires here)
RN Y
VN Y (t)
RLondon
A. M. Niknejad
p. 2/53
Trans-Atlantic Cable Analysis

Can we do it with circuit theory?
Fundamental problem with circuit theory is that it assumes that
the speed of light is infinite. So all signals are in phase:
V (z) = V (z + )
Consequently, all variations in space are ignored:
This allows the lumped circuit approximation.
A. M. Niknejad
p. 3/53
Lumped Circuit Properties of Cable

Shorted Line: The long loop has inductance since the magnetic
flux is not negligible (long cable) ( = LI )
I
Open Line: The cable also has substantial capacitance

(Q = CV )
+Q
_Q
A. M. Niknejad
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p. 4/53
Sectional Model (I)

So do we model the cable as an inductor or as a capacitor? Or
both? How?
Try a distributed model: Inductance and capacitance occur
together. They are intermingled.
i+
i+
i+
i+
vL = 0V
Can add loss (series and shunt resistors) but lets keep it simple
for now.
Add more sections and solution should converge
A. M. Niknejad
p. 5/53
Sectional Model (II)

More sections The equiv LC circuit represents a smaller and
smaller section and therefore lumped circuit approximation is
more valid
This is an easy problem to solve with SPICE.
But the people 1866 didnt have computers ... how did they
analyze a problem with hundreds of inductors and capacitors?
A. M. Niknejad
p. 6/53
Distributed Model
L = zL
C = zC
z
L
Go to a fully distributed model by letting the number of sections

go to infinity
Define inductance and capacitance per unit length L = L/,
C = C/
For an infinitesimal section of the line, circuit theory applies
since signals travel instantly over an infinitesimally small length
A. M. Niknejad
p. 7/53
KCL and KVL for a small section

KCL: i(z) = zC v(z)
t + i(z + z)
KVL: v(z) = zL i(z+z)
+ v(z + z)
t
Take limit as z 0
We arrive at Telegraphers Equatins
i(z) i(z + z)
i
v
lim
=
=C
z0
z
z
t
i
v
v(z) v(z + z)
=
= L
z0
z
z
t
lim
A. M. Niknejad
p. 8/53
Derivation of Wave Equations

We have two coupled equations and two unkowns (i and v ) ...
can reduce it to two de-coupled equations:
2
2
2v
2i
v
i
= C
= L
2
2
tz
t
z
zt
note order of partials can be changed (at least in EE)
2
2v
v
=LC 2
2
z
t
Same equation can be derived for current:

2
2i
i
=LC 2
2
z
t
A. M. Niknejad
p. 9/53
The Wave Equation

We see that the currents and voltages on the transmission line
satisfy the one-dimensional wave equation. This is a partial
differential equation. The solution depends on boundary conditions
and the initial condition.
2
2i
i
=LC 2
z 2
t
A. M. Niknejad
p. 10/5
Wave Equation Solution

Consider the function f (z, t) = f (z vt) = f (u):
f
f u
f
=
= v
t
u t
u
f
f u
f
=
=
z
u z
u
2
f
f
=
2z
u2
f
=
v
t2
u
f
t
=v
f
u2
1 2f
2f
= 2 2
z 2
v t
It satisfies the wave equation!
A. M. Niknejad
p. 11/5
Wave Motion
f (z vt)
z
f (z + vt)
General voltage solution: v(z, t) = f + (z vt) + f (z + vt)

q
Where v = L1C
A. M. Niknejad
p. 12/5
Wave Speed
Speed of motion can be deduced if we observe the speed of a
point on the aveform
z vt = constant
To follow this point as time elapses, we must move the z

coordinate in step. This point moves with velocity
dz
v =0
dt
This is the speed at which we move with speed
dz
dt
= v
v is the velocity of wave propagation
A. M. Niknejad
p. 13/5
Current / Voltage Relationship (I)

Since the current also satisfies the wave equation
i(z, t) = g + (z vt) + g (z + vt)
Recall that on a transmission line, current and voltage are

related by
i
v
= C
z
t
For the general function this gives
+
g
f
f
g
+
= C v
+v
u
u
u
u
A. M. Niknejad
p. 14/5
Current / Voltage Relationship (II)

Since the forward waves are independent of the reverse waves
+
g +
f
=Cv
u
u
Within a constant we have
g
f
= C v
u
u
+
f
f
g =
g+ =
Z0
Z0
q
L
Where Z0 = C
is the Characteristic Impedance of the line
A. M. Niknejad
p. 15/5
Example: Step Into Infinite Line

Excite a step function onto a transmission line
The line is assumed uncharged: Q(z, 0) = 0, (z, 0) = 0 or
equivalently v(z, 0) = 0 and i(z, 0) = 0
By physical intuiition, we would only expect a forward traveling
wave since the line is infinite in extent
The general form of current and voltage on the line is given by
v(z, t) = v + (z vt)
v + (z vt)
i(z, t) = i (z vt) =
Z0
+
The T-line looks like a resistor of Z0 ohms!
A. M. Niknejad
p. 16/5
Example 1 (cont)
We may therefore model the line with the following simple
equivalent circuit
is
v+
i =
Z0
+
Rs
Vs
Z0
Since is = i+ , the excited voltage wave has an amplitude of

v+ =
Z0
Vs
Z0 + Rs
Its surprising that the voltage on the line is not equal to the
source voltage
A. M. Niknejad
p. 17/5
Example 1 (cont)
The voltage on the line is a delayed version of the source
voltage
Z0
Vs
Z0 + Rs
v(z, t = /v)
v
z
A. M. Niknejad
p. 18/5
Energy to Charge Transmission Line

v+
i =
Z0
+
Rs
+
Vs
+
v+
Z0
The power flow into the line is given by

2
+
Pline
(v + (0, t))
+
+
= i (0, t)v (0, t) =
Z0
Or in terms of the source voltage

+
Pline
A. M. Niknejad
Z0
Z0 + Rs
2
Vs2
Z0
2
=
V
s
Z0
(Z0 + Rs )2
p. 19/5
Energy Stored in Inds and Caps (I)

But where is the power going? The line is lossless!
Energy stored by a cap/ind is 12 CV 2 / 21 LI 2
At time td , a length of = vtd has been charged:
1
1
CV 2 = C
2
2
1 2
1
LI = L
2
2
Z0
Z0 + Rs
2
Vs
Z0 + Rs
Vs2
2
The total energy is thus

1
Vs2
1 2 1
2
2
LI + CV =
L + C Z0
2
2
2 (Z0 + Rs )2
A. M. Niknejad
p. 20/5
Energy Stored (II)

p
Recall that Z0 = L /C . The total energy stored on the line at
time td = /v :
2
V
s
Eline (/v) = L
(Z0 + Rs )2
And the power delivered onto the line in time td :

l
2
v Z0 Vs
Pline =
=
2
v
(Z0 + Rs )
L
Vs2
LC
C
(Z0 + Rs )2
As expected, the results match (conservation of energy).
A. M. Niknejad
p. 21/5
Transmission Line Termination

v+
i =
Z0
+
Rs
+
Vs
Z0 , td
+
v+
i=
vL
RL
Consider a finite transmission line with a termination resistance

At the load we know that Ohms law is valid: IL = VL /RL
So at time t = /v , our pulse reaches the load. Since the current
on the T-line is i+ = v + /Z0 = Vs /(Z0 + Rs ) and the current at the
load is VL /RL , a discontinuity is produced at the load.
A. M. Niknejad
p. 22/5
Reflections
Thus a reflected wave is created at discontinuity
VL (t) = v + (, t) + v (, t)
IL (t) =
1
1 +
v (, t)
v (, t) = VL (t)/RL
Z0
Z0
Solving for the forward and reflected waves

2v + (, t) = VL (t)(1 + Z0 /RL )
2v (, t) = VL (t)(1 Z0 /RL )
A. M. Niknejad
p. 23/5
Reflection Coefficient
And therefore the reflection from the load is given by
RL Z0
V (, t)
=
L = +
V (, t)
RL + Z0
Reflection coefficient is a very important concept for

transmisslin lines: 1 L 1
L = 1 for RL = 0 (short)
L = +1 for RL = (open)
L = 0 for RL = Z0 (match)
Impedance match is the proper termination if we dont want any

reflections
A. M. Niknejad
p. 24/5
Propagation of Reflected Wave (I)

If L 6= 0, a new reflected wave travels toward the source and
unless Rs = Z0 , another reflection also occurs at source!
To see this consider the wave arriving at the source. Recall that
since the wave PDE is linear, a superposition of any number of
solutins is also a solution.
At the source end the boundary condition is as follows
Vs Is Rs = v1+ + v1 + v2+
The new term v2+ is used to satisfy the boundary condition
A. M. Niknejad
p. 25/5
Propagation of Reflected Wave (II)
+
The current continuity requires Is = i+
1 + i1 + i2
Vs = (v1+ v1 + v2+ )
Rs
+ v1+ + v1 + v2+
Z0
Solve for v2+ in terms of known terms

Vs =
But v1+ =
1+
Rs
Z0
(v1+ + v2+ ) + 1
Rs
Z0
v1 +
Z0
Rs +Z0 Vs

Rs + Z0 Z0
Rs
Rs
Vs =
Vs + 1
v1 + 1 +
v2+
Z0 Rs + Z0
Z0
Z0
A. M. Niknejad
p. 26/5
Propagation of Reflected Wave (III)

So the source terms cancel out and
v2+ =
Rs Z0
v1 = s v1
Z0 + Rs
The reflected wave bounces off the source impedance with a

reflection coefficient given by the same equation as before
R Z0
(R) =
R + Z0
The source appears as a short for the incoming wave

Invoke superposition! The term v1+ took care of the source
boundary condition so our new v2+ only needed to compensate
for the v1 wave ... the reflected wave is only a function of v1
A. M. Niknejad
p. 27/5
Bounce Diagram
We can track the multiple reflections with a bounce diagram
Space
T
i
m
e
v1+
td
v
1
= L v 1
v2+ = v
s 1 =
s L v +
1
2td
3td
v3+ = v
s 2 = 2 2 +
s v
4td
=
v
2
+
L v 2
= s Lv 1
L 1
=
v
3
+
L v 3
5td
2
= s Lv 1
6td
v4+ = v
s 3 = 3 3 +
s v
L 1
/4
A. M. Niknejad
/2
3/4
p. 28/5
Freeze time
If we freeze time and look at the line, using the bounce diagram
we can figure out how many reflections have occurred
For instance, at time 2.5td = 2.5/v three waves have been
excited (v1+ ,v1 , v2+ ), but v2+ has only travelled a distance of /2
To the left of /2, the voltage is a summation of three
components: v = v1+ + v1 + v2+ = v1+ (1 + L + L s ).
To the right of /2, the voltage has only two components:
v = v1+ + v1 = v1+ (1 + L ).
A. M. Niknejad
p. 29/5
Freeze Space
We can also pick at arbitrary point on the line and plot the
evolution of voltage as a function of time
For instance, at the load, assuming RL > Z0 and RS > Z0 , so
that s,L > 0, the voltage at the load will will increase with each
new arrival of a reflection
vL (t)
Rs = 75
RL = 150
v1+ = .4
td
A. M. Niknejad
s = 0.2
L = 0.5
.6
.64
.66
v1 = .2
v2+ = .04
v2 = .02
2td
3td
.666
.664
vss = 2/3V
v3+ = .004
4td
v3 = .002
5td
6td
p. 30/5
Steady-State Voltage on Line (I)

To find steady-state voltage on the line, we sum over all
reflected waves:
vss = v1+ + v1 + v2+ + v2 + v3+ + v3 + v4+ + v4 +
Or in terms of the first wave on the line

vss = v1+ (1 + L + L s + 2L s + 2L 2s + 3L 2s + 3L 3s +
k
Notice geometric sums of terms like kL ks and k+1
s . Let
L
x = L s :
vss = v1+ (1 + x + x2 + + L (1 + x + x2 + ))
A. M. Niknejad
p. 31/5
Steady-State Voltage on Line (II)

The sums converge since x < 1
vss =
v1+
1
L
+
1 L s
1 L s
Or more compactly
vss = v1+
1 + L
1 L s
Substituting for L and s gives

vss
A. M. Niknejad
RL
= Vs
RL + Rs
p. 32/5
What Happend to the T-Line?

For steady state, the equivalent circuit shows that the
transmission line has disappeared.
This happens because if we wait long enough, the effects of
propagation delay do not matter
Conversly, if the propagation speed were infinite, then the T-line
would not matter
But the presence of the T-line will be felt if we disconnect the
source or load!
Thats because the T-line stores reactive energy in the
capaciance and inductance
Every real circuit behaves this way! Circuit theory is an
abstraction
A. M. Niknejad
p. 33/5
PCB Interconnect
Suppose = 3cm, v = 3 108 m/s, so that
tp = /v = 1010 s = 100ps
On a time scale t < 100ps, the voltages on interconnect act like
transmission lines!
Fast digital circuits need to consider T-line effects
ground
conductor
PCB substrate
dielectric
logic gate
A. M. Niknejad
p. 34/5
Example: Open Line (I)

Source impedance is Z0 /4, so s = 0.6, load is open so L = 1
As before a positive going wave is launched
v1+ = Z0 /(Z0 + Z0 /4)Vs = 0.8Vs
Upon reaching the load, a reflected wave of of equal amplitude

is generated and the load voltage overshoots
vL = v1+ + v1 = 1.6V
Note that the current reflection is negative of the voltage
v
i
i = + = + = v
i
v
This means that the sum of the currents at the load is zero
(open)
A. M. Niknejad
p. 35/5
Example: Open Line (II)

At the source a new reflection is created v2+ = L s v1+ , and note
s < 0, so v2+ = .6 0.8 = 0.48.
At a time 3tp , the line charged initially to v1+ + v1 drops in value
vL = v1+ + v1 + v2+ + v2 = 1.6 2 .48 = .64
So the voltage on the line undershoots ( < 1 times Vs )

And on the next cycle 5tp the load voltage again overshoots
We observe ringing with frequency 2tp
A. M. Niknejad
p. 36/5
Example: Open Line Ringing

VT("/net7")
M4(6.987ns,
1.6V)
M4(6.987ns,
M4(6.987ns, 1.6V)
1.6V)
M4(6.987ns,
1.6V)
1.5
Load End
M6(20.55ns,
1.216V)
M6(20.55ns,
M6(20.55ns, 1.216V)
1.216V)
M6(20.55ns,
1.216V)
1.25
V (V)
1.0
.75
M7(28.1ns,
870.4mV)
M7(28.1ns,
M7(28.1ns, 870.4mV)
870.4mV)
M7(28.1ns,
870.4mV)
.5
M5(13.31ns,
640mV)
M5(13.31ns,
M5(13.31ns, 640mV)
640mV)
M5(13.31ns,
640mV)
.25
0
VT("/net6")
1.5
Source End
M1(10.07ns,
1.12V)
M1(10.07ns,
M1(10.07ns, 1.12V)
1.12V)
M1(10.07ns,
1.12V)
1.25
M3(24.24ns,
1.043V)
M3(24.24ns,
M3(24.24ns, 1.043V)
1.043V)
M3(24.24ns,
1.043V)
V (V)
1.0
.75
M2(17.31ns,
M2(17.31ns,
M2(17.31ns, 928mV)
928mV)
928mV)
.5
M0(2.674ns,
800mV)
M0(2.674ns,
M0(2.674ns, 800mV)
800mV)
M0(2.674ns,
800mV)
.25
0
0
20
40
time (ns)
60
80
Observed waveform as a function of time. Risetime due to

SPICE tstep = 20ps.
A. M. Niknejad
p. 37/5
Physical Intuition: Shorted Line (I)

The intitial step charges the first capacitor through the first
inductor since the line is uncharged
There is a delay since on the rising edge of the step, the
inductor is an open
Each successive capacitor is charged by its inductor in a
uniform fashion ... this is the forward wave v1+
i+
i+
i+
v+
A. M. Niknejad
v+
v+
i+
L
v+
vL =
p. 38/5
Physical Intuition: Shorted Line (II)

The volage on the line goes up from left to right due to the delay
in charging each inductor through the inductors
The last inductor, though, does not have a capacitor to charge
Thus the last inductor is discharged ... the extra charge comes
by discharging the last capacitor
As this capacitor discharges, so does its neighboring capacitor
to the left
Again there is a delay in discharging the caps due to the
inductors
This discharging represents the backward wave v1
A. M. Niknejad
p. 39/5
Transmission Line Menagerie
coaxial
microstripline
coplanar
two wires
stripline
rectangular
waveguide
T-Lines come in many shapes and sizes

Coaxial usually 75 or 50 (cable TV, Internet)
Microstrip lines are common on printed circuit boards (PCB)
and integrated circuit (ICs)
Coplanar also common on PCB and ICs
Twisted pairs is almost a T-line, ubiquitous for phones/Ethernet
A. M. Niknejad
p. 40/5
Waveguides and Transmission Lines

The transmission lines weve been considering have been
propagating the TEM mode or Transverse Electro-Magnetic.
Later well see that they can also propagation other modes
Waveguides cannot propagate TEM but propagation TM
(Transverse Magnetic) and TE (Transverse Electric)
In general, any set of more than one lossless conductors with
uniform cross-section can transmit TEM waves. Low loss
conductors are commonly approximated as lossless.
A. M. Niknejad
p. 41/5
Cascade of T-Lines (I)

i1
Z01
i2
v1
v2
Z02
z=0
Consider the junction between two transmission lines Z01 and

Z02
At the interface z = 0, the boundary conditions are that the
voltage/current has to be continuous
v1+ + v1 = v2+
(v1+ v1 )/Z01 = v2+ /Z02
A. M. Niknejad
p. 42/5
Cascade of T-Lines (II)

Solve these equations in terms of v1+
The reflection coefficient has the same form (easy to remember)
v1
Z02 Z01
= + =
Z01 + Z02
v1
The second line looks like a load impedance of value Z02

i1
Z01
+
v1
Z02
z=0
A. M. Niknejad
p. 43/5
Transmission Coefficient
The wave launched on the new transmission line at the interface
is given by
v2+ = v1+ + v1 = v1+ (1 + ) = v1+
This transmitted wave has a coefficient
2Z02
=1+=
Z01 + Z02
Note the incoming wave carries a power

Pin
A. M. Niknejad
|v1+ |2
=
2Z01
p. 44/5
Conservation of Energy
The reflected and transmitted waves likewise carry a power of
Pref
+ 2
|v1 |2
2 |v1 |
=
= ||
2Z01
2Z01
Ptran
+ 2
|v2+ |2
2 |v1 |
=
= | |
2Z02
2Z02
By conservation of energy, it follows that

Pin = Pref + Ptran
1 2
1 2
1
+
=
Z02
Z01
Z01
You can verify that this relation holds!
A. M. Niknejad
p. 45/5
Bounce Diagram
Consider the bounce diagram for the following arrangement
Rs
Z01
Z02
RL
Space
T
i
m
e
v1+
j v1+
td1
td
j s v1+
L 1 2
1 v +
L 1v 1
v1
s 2 v +
s L j+ 1
1 2v
1
2td
3td
4td
5td
6td
A. M. Niknejad
1 + 2
p. 46/5
Junction of Parallel T-Lines
Z03
Z01
Z02
z=0
Again invoke voltage/current continuity at the interface

v1+ + v1 = v2+ = v3+
v2+
v3+
v1+ v1
=
+
Z01
Z02
Z02
But v2+ = v3+ , so the interface just looks like the case of two
transmission lines Z01 and a new line with char. impedance
Z01 ||Z02 .
A. M. Niknejad
p. 47/5
Reactive Terminations (I)

Rs
Vs
Z0 , td
Lets analyze the problem intuitively first

When a pulse first sees the inductance at the load, it looks like
an open so 0 = +1
As time progresses, the inductor looks more and more like a
short! So = 1
A. M. Niknejad
p. 48/5
Reactive Terminations (II)

So intuitively we might expect the reflection coefficient to look
like this:
1
0.5
t/
-0.5
-1
The graph starts at +1 and ends at 1. In between well see

that it goes through exponential decay (1st order ODE)
A. M. Niknejad
p. 49/5
Reactive Terminations (III)

Do equations confirm our intuition?
di
d
vL = L = L
dt
dt
v+
v
Z0
Z0
And the voltage at the load is given by v + + v

L dv
L dv +
v +
=
v+
Z0 dt
Z0 dt
The right hand side is known, its the incoming waveform
A. M. Niknejad
p. 50/5
Solution for Reactive Term

For the step response, the derivative term on the RHS is zero at
the load
Z0
Vs
v+ =
Z0 + Rs
So we have a simpler case
dv +
dt
=0
We must solve the following equation

L dv
= v +
v +
Z0 dt
For simplicity, assume at t = 0 the wave v + arrives at load
A. M. Niknejad
p. 51/5
Laplace Domain Solution I

In the Laplace domain
V (s) +
L
sL
V (s)
v (0) = v + /s
Z0
Z0
Solve for reflection V (s)

v (0)L/Z0
v+
V (s) =
1 + sL/Z0
s(1 + sL/Z0 )
Break this into basic terms using partial fraction expansion

1
1
L/Z0
=
+
s(1 + sL/Z0 )
1 + sL/Z0
1 + sL/Z0
A. M. Niknejad
p. 52/5
Laplace Domain Solution (II)

Invert the equations to get back to time domain t > 0
v (t) = (v (0) + v + )et/ v +
Note that v (0) = v + since initially the inductor is an open

So the reflection coefficient is
(t) = 2et/ 1
The reflection coefficient decays with time constant L/Z0
A. M. Niknejad
p. 53/5

Lect 2

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Lect 2

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EECS 142/242M

Lecture 2: Introduction to Transmission Lines

University of California, Berkeley

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First Trans-Atlantic Cable

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Trans-Atlantic Cable Analysis

This allows the lumped circuit approximation.

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Lumped Circuit Properties of Cable

Open Line: The cable also has substantial capacitance

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Sectional Model (I)

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Sectional Model (II)

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Go to a fully distributed model by letting the number of sections

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KCL and KVL for a small section

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Derivation of Wave Equations

Same equation can be derived for current:

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The Wave Equation

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Wave Equation Solution

It satisfies the wave equation!

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General voltage solution: v(z, t) = f + (z vt) + f (z + vt)

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To follow this point as time elapses, we must move the z

This is the speed at which we move with speed

v is the velocity of wave propagation

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Current / Voltage Relationship (I)

Recall that on a transmission line, current and voltage are

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Current / Voltage Relationship (II)

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Example: Step Into Infinite Line

The T-line looks like a resistor of Z0 ohms!

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Since is = i+ , the excited voltage wave has an amplitude of

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