It addresses building and design

issues from an environmentally neutral

perspective. It obviously includes
energy neutral building, but adds the
challenge of water use, use and
producing of materials, and use of
land.
0-impact should result in a built
environment that is in balance with
its environment in all senses, and
truly sustainable in the long run.
This book is a compilation of key
notes and papers of the SB 2010,
initiated by iiSBE, CIB and UNEP,
organised by RiBuilT Research
institute Built environment of
Tomorrow.

Techne Press, Amsterdam

Towards 0-Impact Buildings & Built Environments

0-impact goes one step further than

0-energy.

Towards

0-Impact

Buildings & Built Environments

Editors:
Ronald Rovers
Jacques Kimman
Christoph Ravesloot

Toward 0-Impact Buildings and Built Environments

Towards 0-Impact Buildings and Built Environments

Edited by
Ronald Rovers, Jacques Kimman and Christoph Ravesloot

Techne Press
Amsterdam

Towards 0-Impact Buildings and the Built Environments

edited by Ronald Rovers, Jacques Kimman and Christoph Ravesloot
2010, Amsterdam, 220 pages
ISBN: 978-90-8594-031-9

This publication has become possible with the financial support of the
RiBuilt Institute
Published and distributed by Techne Press, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
www.technepress.nl

2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored by
any electronic or mechanical means (including copying, photocopying, recording, data
storage, and retrieval) or in any other form or language without the written permission
from the publisher.

Table of Contents

Introduction
The concept of O
Ronald Rovers

11

The 0-impact transition approach

Jacques Kimman

27

Bringing science to practice

Christoph Maria Ravesloot

31

Pa r t I I
Realism and illusion
Hermann Scheer

39

Gssing, a model for other regions

Peter Vadasz

43

The goal is PlusEnergy!

Rolf Disch

51

Architecture of conglomerates
Lucien Kroll

57

A life cycle tower for a better future

Hubert Rhomberg

65

Rapid GHG reductions in the built environment under extreme

conditions
Nils Larsson
The energy transition model
John Kerkhoven

73
85

Pa r t I I I
From space habitats to zero emission buildings
Julien S. Bourrelle, Arild Gustavsen, Bjrn Petter Jelle
Towards a definition of zero impact buildings
Shady Attia and Andr De Herde

95
105

Field study of retrofit solutions for residential housing

Davide Cal, Tanja Osterhage and Dirk Mueller

113

Applications of appropriate renewable energy technologies in Chinese

rural houses in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau
125
Wang Yan, Zhang Peng, Ju Xiaolei, Zhang Yabin )
Planning 0-energy cities using local energy sources
Wouter Leduc

137

Towards 0-impact industrial sites

Katleen De Flander

155

Urban morphology and the quest for zero carbon cities

Serge Salat and Caroline Nowacki

165

The Urban Harvest Plus approach to 0-impact on built environments

case study Kerkrade West
Ronald Rovers, Herwin Sap, Wouter Leduc,
Vera Rovers, LEO Gommans, Ferry van Kann
Prefabricated timber as a means of achieving zero
carbon
Gavin White
Photo catalytic degradation as a tool for the reduction of ambient
air pollution
Cyriel Mentink, Toon Peters, Paul Donners,
Jan Theelen, Wouter Snippe, Martijn Janssen,
Jacob Pijnenburg, Paul Borm

173

183

191

Zero-impact water use in the built environment

M.M. Nederlof and J. Frijns

199

Tilburg: a road map for becoming a zero-carbon city in 2045

Erik Alsema, Jappe Goud, Geurt Donze, Martin Roders

209

Part I
Introduction

Introduction
This book has been produced as part of the SB10 Sustainable Building Western Europe
Conference, one of nine SB10s that have been held worldwide. These have been organised
under the umbrella of the iiSBE, CIB and UNEP, as part of a world series in preparation for
the 2011 Sustainable Building World Conference in Helsinki.
A challenging theme was chosen: towards 0-impact buildings and built environments.
This is the challenge that lies ahead of us - making the transition from resource depletion
and impacts to balanced management of our resources, with an acceptable standard of
living for all.
We are happy to have received numerous papers focusing on the 0 target, which we
believe will be at the top of agendas in the near future (if not before). A more detailed
analysis of this issue is given in the introductory chapters.
The keynote speakers during the Western Europe Conference have all been involved to a
greater or lesser extent in bringing about 0-impact situations in their own fields of business.
Herman Scheer set off a change in Germany with his Renewable Energy Policies, and
is now active in broadening this approach to a change for a fully renewable energy-based
market. He is a determined and successful fighter for this transition.
Many cities claim to be pursuing the 0-energy or climate-neutral target, but few
succeed. One such is the town of Gssing in Austria. Under Mayor Peter Vadasz, the city
turned a negative spiral with high energy costs, unemployment, and CO2 emissions, into a
lively region with ample jobs that is operating entirely on renewable energy: proof that the 0energy city is possible. And soon the region is to follow.
Nils Larsson, however, fears that most will not succeed. He advocates designing a plan
for rapid reduction of greenhouse gases. It often takes a disaster to open peoples eyes, and
when that happens we will all be looking for a good plan to enact immediately. Such a plan
has yet to be devised.
A good plan requires adequate figures and understanding of consequences and
assumptions. John Kerkhoven has developed a computer model that shows the
consequences of policies and practical measures, which he uses to show workshop
participants the outcomes of their choices. Although this generates much discussion, it also
enables mutual understanding and ultimately agreement on 90% of measures. That helps!
Rolf Disch is an outstanding architect when it comes to changing our building
approach. Disch has a long history in energy-efficient buildings and integration of renewable
energy devices including his masterpiece in Freiburg, Germany: Sonnenschiff - an energyproducing building with retail premises, offices and housing which was enabled through the
creation of a revolving fund.
So is Thomas Rau who follows the One Planet principle advocated by the World
Wildlife Fund and akin to the 0 or 0-approach concept we at RiBuilT pursue, of which 09

energy, 0-waste and 0-water are a part. He has created a range of buildings not only with
outstanding energy performance, but which are also exemplary from the materials point of
view. His latest work is a 0-CO2-neutral school in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. No articles
by Rau are to be found in this book as he prefers to let the actual work speak for itself. We
can, however, refer you to the websites on his buildings to review his work and principles.
Kroll takes the position that it is not architecture but the context that dictates form,
primarily the inhabitants, emotions, and environment. His long life experience has taught him
that a design process should not start from the technologically possible but from context
needs. In fact, architects do not design anymore: they guide the process that automatically
leads to the right form and materialisation for the owners, users or inhabitant. They are no
longer the solitary genius but merely one among others, mainly non-architects. This results
in interesting and very well received sustainable living environments.
These chapters by keynote speakers are followed by a selection of papers from the
conference, selected for their scientific quality and relevance, or for practical relevance in
implementing research findings and results. We were happy to include a few descriptive and
analytical practical cases since this is not about researching for our future but about applying
it, today and tomorrow. Some explore the possibilities at the building level, both new and
restored. Others look into urban approaches or a resource-oriented approach such as 0water neighbourhoods, and even 0-air (avoiding polluted air).
Together they provide an overview of the challenge that lies ahead of us, for which this book
hopes to stimulate more research and in particular results and insights on how to establish
and implement this. The transition must be made, whether we like it or not. It is up to us to
choose.
Happy reading and be inspired,

The editors

10

The Concept of O
Towards 0-impact Building and Built Environments
Ronald Rovers

1)

For the past 150 years or so, we have enjoyed an abundance of resources. In fact, we have
so many resources that we have lost sight of how we actually depend on these resources,
as we used to. We have created such a complex system that its hard to see how we could
change it and start the transition to a renewable resource-based society. But there is a way.
We need to look back and see where we came from.
We are all familiar with Robinson Crusoe, a castaway on an uninhabited island. Imagine if
you were to end up like him after a shipwreck with some basic survival geara fishing rod,
axe, hammer, and so on, but nothing else. Suppose the island is fairly small, say the size of
a soccer field, around 0.5 hectare. Most of the island is forested with maybe 170 trees. The
remaining 1000 m2 land is agricultural and includes a small water well and a white beach.
The island is a vacationers dreamexcept for one thing: you cant leave.

1) Chairman SB10 Western Europe Conference; Professor Built Environment, Research Institute Built
environment of Tomorrow, RiBuilT/Zuyd University

11

As luck would have it, the 1000 m2 of land is just enough to grow vegetables so you can
survive as a vegetarian. And each year the 170 trees grow an additional 2.5 m3 meters of
wood for you to harvest, enough to cook your meals since this happens to be approximately
the amount Africans need to cook their meals each year. So no worriesassuming the
climate is nice.
If your island happens to be in Northern Europe, you wont have enough wood to build
a house (10-15 m3). Or if your island has cold winters, you wont have enough wood to heat
your house (3 m3 a year for one stove). You definitely wont have enough wood to build a
boat for fishing. Anyway, lets not complicate the picture too much.
The next island has 100 times the land and 100 times the people. The islanders there
do things efficiently. By dividing the labour and saving some wood by cooking together, they
have managed to construct a fishing boat and appoint a fisherman. He sails out each day
and returns with fish in return for some cooked vegetables. And each year, the islanders are
able to reserve some wood to construct houses, repair the fishing boat, and so on.
Everybody is happy, everything is in balance.
Is this second island imaginary? Not entirely. A few years ago I heard about the Uros
people. They withdrew to artificial islands in Lake Titicaca on the border between Peru and
Bolivia to protect themselves from the Incas. For thousands of years now they have been
constructing floating islands from dried and bundled reeds that they replenish every three
months. Reeds are also used to build houses and fishing boats, and even to make
medicines. The Uros have maintained equilibrium by replenishing their resources for a
thousand years. They are reasonably content and now also have some (imported) modern
resources such as solar cells for telephones, the Internet, and televisions. The Uros are
probably the first society that operates fully on sustainable energy and sustainable
resources! Smart cookies, those Uros.

12

Now lets look at the way most of us live. We are far from living in a resource-balanced
environment.
Using bricks for building construction is forbidden in Chinas northern region. The
quantity of bricks required is great, and the cost in fertile land and soil to produce these is
too much. Do you know why the Chinese started building with bricks in the first place, some
150 years ago? They ran out of wood and forests; wood was cut in such huge quantities for
construction and other purposes that it became scarce
The climate in China is so dry, the river that used to flow through Beijing no longer has
any water; all the river water is used upstream. A huge aqueduct has been constructed to
transport water thousands of kilometres from the wetter south to the north. At the same time
the Gobi Desert is growing. An attempt is being made to halt its growth with a green wall, a
band of trees planted on the borders of the desert. This project will be ongoing for the next
50 years...
The Gobi Desert is just one of many examples of desertification. The Sahara Desert in
Africa is growing too, and a similar greenbelt of trees over thousands of kilometres is
planned. The Colorado River in North America barely reaches the ocean now and will cease
doing so at all if construction and water demands in the desert continue to increase.
Currently more then 50 % of people live in cities, all depending on resources from far away.
We depend on products from China and other parts of the world. We are part of an urban
organism, a parasitic orbanism.
Take oranges, for example. . Oranges dont grow in Northern Europe, but we ship them
in from such faraway places as Israel. Israel grows oranges by tapping irrigation water from
beneath Palestinian land, from an old aquifer under the West Bank. The water table in the
aquifer drops, and Palestinians, who are only allowed to use wells, see their wells running
dry. Palestinians lack water because we eat oranges.
The chain of resource use has become very complex. And we are in an extremely
vulnerable position. If the chain breaks somewhere, we are trapped. We have nowhere to go
for more supplies.
We are all familiar with the problems associated with energy consumption. What will
happen if China matches the number of cars per capita that we currently have in the
industrialised world? Add the oil needed to fuel those cars to Chinas current oil demands,
and all the oil in the world will need to go to China. We already fight wars for oil in the Middle
East. Within three months after Afghanistans invasion, contracts had been signed for gas
and oil pipelines there.
The fight over oil in the Middle East leads to another fight, that against climate change.
As a result of climate change, a new wine industry is growing in Sweden, but in most cases
the effects are more troublesome. A problem with climate change is we dont know where it
will hit and how hard it will hit.
How did we end up here? Lets return to our imaginary island and the parable of the
fisherman.
One day a yacht arrives at the island. The yachtsman, a rich man, looks around and takes a
seat next to the fisherman, who had gone out fishing in the morning and is now taking an
afternoon nap on the beach.
13

Hi, there, says the yachtsman. What you doing for a living?
I am a fisherman, replies the fisherman.
Then whatre you doing on the beach? asks the yachtsman.
I finished fishing this morning, the fisherman answers.
Ah, our yachtsman says. Why dont you go out in the afternoon and catch more
fish?
Why should I? the fisherman asks.
Well, you can catch twice as much and can sell to another island.
So what? the fisherman says.
Well, if you do that every day, you can buy a second boat.
Oh? says the fisherman.
More fish means more profit.
Yes?
You can become a millionaire just like me.
And then? the fisherman asks, bored.
Well, then you can have people do the work for you while you lie on the beach.
But I am lying on the beach, the fisherman replies.

The parable ends here, but in the real world the fisherman probably would have been
persuaded to go out fishing again. It happens all the time: although we understand the
problem, we become trapped between the dream and the deed. We dream of a paradise, a
safe haven with clean water and clean air and happy people, an oasis like a holiday camp or
our fishermans island.
In real life we focus on immediate gratification of materialistic needs. Take, for instance, a
road. Everybody agrees it shouldnt be built and in turn shouts objections: It creates too
much noise, it stinks, it violates nature. At the same time we cry for more roads, tired of
getting stuck in traffic jams. Then the minister shows up, proclaiming, Mobility is a right!
Figures show only seven percent of the country is covered in asphalt (as is the case in the
Netherlands). Then someone mentions that roads create problems that arent limited to the
road but extend for kilometres around. The minister answers, Technology development!
14

Well build silent asphalt and clean cars! When someone else points out that producing the
asphalt and cars depletes resources and causes climate change, the minister responds,
Cleaner production!
This is collectively running forward, away from the problem, thereby causing other
problems. And we follow and let him, since we want to drive and since there is a difference
between the dream and the deed.
So we have a huge problem, and we react the wrong way. How can we get out of this loop?
For an answer, let us visit another island, that of Japan 150 years ago.
Like a number of other countries, Japan has a long history of constructing wood houses. But
unlike the Chinese, they still build with wood. This change has its origins around 1600. The
Tokugawa came to power at this time, and the period that followed is mainly known as Edo
Japan (based on the name of the capital, the city that is now Tokyo). In an attempt to retain
control over the various population groups, the country was sealed off from the outside
world, and a 200-year period of isolationism followed. This literally creates an island
situation. Edo Japan is the only large-scale historic example of a society that operated in a
closed cycle (Edo City alone had approximately 1 million inhabitants at the time), its supplies
limited to those within its own borders.
The traditional Japanese house was further perfected since everything for living had to
be based on very efficient use of renewable and reusable resources. The Japanese even
standardised building panels, and stocked wood building supplies to ensure they could
quickly repair and reconstruct buildings after city fires. In fact, 99% of resource and energy
needs were met with direct and indirect solar energy, particularly from wood. While
deforestation was taking place everywhere else in the world, the Japanese developed a
highly innovative forestry plan that is managed to perfection even today. Japan is still
famous for its lush forests.

15

This period was forced to an end around 1860 when Western countries began searching for
raw materials that were already becoming scarce. A small US fleet forced Edo Japan (which
was essentially unarmed, since no resources for a military were available) to open its
borders for trade.
Until then, growth was generally minimal, due to the limited availability of resources,
and the need to access them locally, since only local transport was available. For the most
part, an equilibrium was maintained, with too fast growth corrected by disappointing harvests
or depleted stocks: Communities faced ups and downs proportionate to population size,
food availability, and distances to other resources.
At this same time, again around 1860, a big party got under way around the world.
Humanity bought itself time with new technologies driven by fossil fuels, and materials and
fossil fuels could be deployed in an accelerated manner. Raw materials could be obtained
from places that were further and further away. If an undeveloped country in a distant
place still tried to manage its resources, its efforts were completely thrown into disarray in
the 20th century.
The entire world became the hunting ground of the industrialised world. Every time a
short-lived crisis loomed in developed countries, we could avert disaster by obtaining
resources from other regions. Hunting and gathering had again risen in all its glory.
So our fisherman on his imaginary island is persuaded to enter the market and go into what
is euphemistically called business. He soon encounters his first problem: where to take the
fish, and how to construct a second boat. The solution involves importing woodin other
words, placing his burden on someone else. To increase his wood use beyond his own
system limits, he needs something to negotiate with. This has to be the fish, one of the main
resources within his island system. So he catches more fish than he needs to eat to
compensate for an increased need for wood. Clearly, in order to use more wood than is
available on his island, the fisherman has to create a surplus of both wood and fish. So long
as others have forests and the fisherman has fish, the system works.

In building and construction, we do our share of over-consumption. Up to 40% of resources

are transported around the world for construction. Architects and developers build
skyscrapers, which progressively waste more resources per m2 floor the higher they grow.
And architects can squander resources creating wasteful architecture. (For example,
Calatrava buildings require two to four times more tonnes of material per m2 than the
average building.) All stakeholders use steel and cement wherever they can, further
depleting resources. Cement production alone is already responsible for 7% of all CO2
emissions.
Now 150 years following the Edo Japan period, earths human population is nearly 7 billion,
and all available land has been subdivided and is being developed or is occupied. No virgin
territories remain to be claimed except, perhaps, Antarctica, which is, for the time being, still
under ice. Fossil energy resources are running out, and humanity is bumping up against a
new limit on resources. The days of an open-cycle system are numbered: the hunter can
only secure resources by force of arms (as in Afghanistan). The gatherer is stripping the last

16

available areas using beads and mirrors (as the Chinese are currently doing in Africa,
offering roads in exchange for raw materials). You might say that hunting and gathering has
turned into stealing and plundering.
After 150 years, the physical and political limits of the system have been reached. The
150-year interim, bought with depleting fossil fuels, has come to an end. Again we must
search for balance, but now with almost 7 billion people and with an unprecedented
consumption pattern. We frantically continue to search for fossil fuels that are becoming
scarcer by the day, and we are plundering the entire world. When fossil fuels are found, they
are more and more difficult to extract. Continuing to rely on fossil fuels is an assault on
financial and energy resources, resulting in further price increases and economic crises.
How will this play out if we dont change anything? In researching the operation of financial
markets, Barclays Bank arrived at the following conclusion: Major risk is business-as-usual,
which equates to a degeneration into widespread resource conflict and ecosystem collapse.
Perhaps we can stretch things a little by developing technologies, but the hunting
grounds of yesterday are no more. The hunting grounds have been subdivided, they are in
use and there is no way out. The only hunting grounds are those of our own species: The
world itself has become an island.

We are all now in the same situation as the fisherman, the Uros, and the Edo-Japanese. We
must reduce our resource consumption to the limits of the island. A surplus of resources is
impossible. Given the earths finite limits, the only possibility is a closed-cycle approach. The
only resource that reaches our island is solar radiation on our island, thats it.
So we have to get back to basics. If the whole world is an island, we have to start living
like islanders. We have to realize there is no one else with whom we can do business
outside our globisland. We cant run away from problems anymore; there is nowhere to go.
We must face our limits.
We are running out of oil and many other resources that could have made life a bit easier
(and have done so, for the happy few). We have to learn to manage our resources again in

17

a different way, a way that involves reusing everything and depleting nothing. From now on,
we must maintain a closed-cycle system.
How do we do this? How do we manage our globisland (Island Earth) in a balanced way?
How do we design new buildings and districts with optimised energy and water systems, and
with materials that do not deplete resources and do not create CO2 emissions? How do we
re-develop our neighbourhoods and districts using 0-impact approaches? How do we plan
cities that are immune to system crashes?
Most important, our strategy must clearly define where we want to go, the desired
state, instead of improving on where we came from. We dont have time to gradually
improve on the past. We need to evaluate how far we are from achieving a balanced
resource-based management system, in this case in our building stock.
To move forward, we must understand where we went wrong. Two decades ago we began
exploring a more rational approach to resource management, especially energy. This has
led to a holistic approach, in which everyone should be happy: the planet, the people and
the profit We could calls this the PPP syndrome, trying to save the old and combine it
with the new. Everything is included, and glory is where the three will meet. But as history
teaches, when youre on an island, its resources establish the basis for society: food,
energy, water, and raw materials. If they are not available or if they are not managed
properly, a society cannot exist and certainly cannot grow.
And these basic resources are used to create peoples affluence and wellbeing. If there is
abundance, society and culture can thrive, freeing people (the non-producers) to invest in
other interests. Without resources, we have to adapt. That covers the first two Ps: planet
and people.
The next P is profit, consisting of economy and policy. We should realize that these
exist simply to facilitate and give direction to the other two Ps, to create our desired state.
Economy and policy can be adjusted, since they are not natural phenomena. We invented
them ourselves sometime in the Early Middle Ages. And it is only logical: when you manage
resources based on an economic profit principle that aims for the opposite of sustainability,
then sustainability will remain a farce. Remember our fisherman, who is already lying on the
beach
However, its a typical behaviour in times of change: Facing the threat to business as usual,
change is denied In this case, a smart strategy was found: instead of addressing the energy
threats of the nineties, stakeholders developed an ever-growing list of so-called
sustainable ambitions, thereby diminishing and hiding the real problem. In all sectors, but
especially in the building sector. Tools have been developed which result in a high score
without even having saved a single Joule (except some minimal improvement for countries
with mandatory energy standards) and results are compared with failed buildings from the
past. Because both people and profit should score well, its more like People making profit
depleting Planet.
For examples of this type of thinking we have only to look at the Netherlands. We
preach reducing energy use by 20% and increasing renewable energy by a modest 20% by
2020. But oil extraction is again being pursued in the north of the country, with huge
investments in efficiently produced steam to make this oil fluid. Energy efficiency drops
18

considerably with this technology. Gas exploration has begun again, and we have five new
coal-fired power plants planned under the guise that we will be able to store the CO2. In 20
years time. Perhaps. Maybe.
Nevertheless, we are seeing the first signs of an alternate approach to energy use. The
cause of impending climate change, CO2 emissions are at the heart of new strategies and
directly related to pure energy consumption. The increased interest and discussion about 0energy buildings popping up in almost every country are a visible sign of a new approach.
Each building is an island with balanced energy use.
In the Netherlands, stakeholders agreed with the government to gradually increase the
building of new 0-energy houses. The UK has already adopted a policy stipulating all houses
should be CO2 neutral by 2016. In Belgium, industrial areas have developed 0-CO2
strategies, and in Germany we find the first energy-producing buildings and houses. In June
2010 the EU adopted the new EPBD (Energy Performance of Buildings Directive) policy
specifying that by 2020 all new buildings should be near 0-energy. The notion is growing
that we should no longer improve bad concepts from the past. Instead we should look to the
future and ask how far we are from our idealin this case, buildings that run on renewable
energy from sources that do not deplete faster than regenerated, in balance with reduced
need. However, there is more at stake, as we will see later.

More and more often even cities are introducing and exploring policies to become energy
neutral or climate neutral. And were still talking only about energy. With water, food, and
raw materials, we need to take a similar approach. These resources are becoming scarcer
and requiring more energy to harness or produce. Strategies for 0-water districts have been
tested, and a few pilot projects have been conducted. Food supply will become more critical
as more people move to the cities. Urban farming is gaining ground and is being integrated
in new town planning.
With the G20 in July 2009 agreeing on 80 % CO2 reduction by 2050 (although this was
not realized in Copenhagen), its obvious there is no option but to explore designs for
buildings and built environments that meet 0- or near 0-energy strategies.
19

Such strategies simplify things. In the case of 0-energy buildings (defined as buildings
that on site provide the renewable energy to meet the buildings energy demands),
measuring CO2 is no longer an issue. By converting to renewable energy, we have both
tackled the depletion of fossil fuels and by definition have eliminated the side effect of CO2
emissions.
The same holds true for materials in buildings. They should be constructed with
renewable materials using renewable energy sources. Lets be clear: the future will depend
on closing cycles, on maintaining an acceptable level of living while using a circular
management of resourcescircular as O in a circle, or 0 as in zero impact (emissions,
depletion, dilution, pollution) for ages to come.
A closed-cycle resource management system can be maintained over a long period.
There are, however, limits to this system. The use of renewable resources requires that we
renew them, and the potential for renewable resources worldwide is limited. For this system
to work, most likely we will not only need to:
1. make a shift to renewables, but also
2. reduce the volume of resources cycling through the system, and
3. slow down the time it takes for renewables to cycle, as well as
4. limit the energy driving the cycle.
In other words, we will have to balance growth of renewable resources with human
consumption. For energy this doesnt pose a great problem (the solar route provides an
easy way out); for materials, its another story. We will need to develop a highly efficient
system to manage resources and maintain building stocks.
The same holds for any other resource. Use should balance with regeneration of the
resource. Balance is at the heart of a closed-cycle approach, at the heart of operating an
island, which the Easter Islanders didnt manage, and the Japanese did, and the Uros still
do. But the same applies for any system, whether an island, a city, a building, or a country.
Balance needs to be established, and if it cannot be maintained, demand for the resource
must be reduced.
We already know from research, as well as from the Japanese Edo period, that in the end
everything runs on solar radiation. Solar energy is our only source outside our island that
continues flowing and can never be depletedat least not for the next 5 billion years or so.
Solar energy is the driving force behind our well being. Solar energy was also the
driving force behind the formation of oil, via biomass. We now know converting biomass is a
very inefficient way to create energy. A rough calculation suggests that only 14,000 litres of
oil were produced per day on average via the biomass route (using solar energy to grow
plants which were later compressed in sediments), and if we divide this over time and the
earths surface, we get only 0.0006 kWh electric output per hectare per year. Compare this
to solar PV panels for producing energy: these produce 1,000,000 kWh electric output per
hectare per year.
As the example shows, land and solar radiation are essential elements for creating
closed cycles and establishing a balance. Clearly our present economic system does not
favour the best solution.

20

There is, however, another threat we need to think about. Looking only at energy will result
in a system that is less than optimal. Food and (renewable) materials depend on available
land and solar radiation as well. Our fisherman knows that. He is able to use the wood from
the forest only once for cooking, and he can grow crops on the agricultural land. No land is
left over for growing wood for a house. The only things of real value on the island are the m2
and the solar energy. (Though the situation is somewhat different, the same applies to the
sea surface.)
A strategy of closing cycles and 0-impacts can be regarded as a technocratic
approach, typical of Western and industrialised countries. But we are not alone. If we look at
the Asian countries, traditionally coming from a more spiritual point of view, we see similar
approaches. In Japan, Wa, the principle of harmony, is at the basis of society. Wa is actually
an old name for Japan, and its symbol is a circle. In China the Yin and Yang has been a
guiding principle for thousands of years. Balance is important, especially in relation to
nature. The principle has somehow lost its appeal lately, but it is still around and embedded
in Chinese culture.
A central message from Lao Tse expresses the principle: let nature do its work. These
words point to another cultural principle in China: Wu Wei, or let things flow, freely
translated. Compare these Eastern expressions to Western thought in general and to the
teachings of Heraclites in particular, who said, "You cannot step in the same river twice.
This leads to the famous notion that everything flows, panta rei. This last is a clinical,
technocratic conclusion: it flows. The Eastern approach gives guidance: let it flow. Its
interesting to realize that by living within our limits, we will also have to add a direction to the
flow that, so far, we have only interrupted. We will have to make the cycle flow again, in a
circular way.
The closing cycles, the 0-impacts, natures work, the flows and harmonic balances: all
of them together give us guidance for the future. All can be summed up in the Concept of O.

21

The Concept of O
As it relates to building and construction, the concept of O can be described as follows:
O-energy
No life without energy But only life with 0-energy: the use of energy without impact on the
climate or depletion of resources. 0- fuel degradation, or 100 % renewable. With buildings
and built environments that manage their energy needs within their system borders.
O-materials
Energy and mass are two parts of the same thing, and materials, as the earthly form of
mass, are diluted and depleted, unless they are based on a renewable source. Indeed, here
comes the sun, again. 0-materials, therefore, is similar to 0-energy: the use of renewable
sources, and renewing them in a similar time-space frame, to compose and maintain
buildings and built environments.
O-water
Water is at the heart of life, and there is enough for everyone, in principle. Like energy,
water is never lost as well, only degraded, by dilution, contamination and poisoning. No
problem using it, but it needs to be cleaned up for re-use, and remain available in the area:
Leading to a 0-water approach and eco-sanitation concepts for built environments.
O-land
Land is where it all comes together: to collect and convert solar radiation into food, biomass
and energy. And with 7 billion people and counting, land is the most scarce resource. How
can we create buildings and built environments that place the least demand on land?
Productive buildings instead of consumptive built environments, housing 7 billion with an
acceptable level of welfare.
O-air
The air carries rain, lets sun rays pass, distributes seeds and lets us breathe. If we change
the balance, everything else changes. To live, without unbalancing the air around us, is
about designing built environments that are free of smog, fine dust and other nasty
elements. Leading to the concept of 0-air (pollution).
22

Change
We are slowly starting to learn, and are seeing some signs of change in that direction,
though the changes are not always recognised or well guided within an overall approach.
Think of FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) wood. An attempt to manage wood in a
controlled, closed-cycle manner. We see similar trends in fish (fish-farming) and food in
general (slow food movements). We see the trend even in biofuels (fuels that can be grown
and are renewable); though this is a faulty strategy due to the scarcity of land, it is
nevertheless an example of an effort to manage resources.
The landscape is already slowly changing, as can be observed in Germany, with its
windmills, rapeseed fields, solar plants and solar roofs, and fuel stations with biofuel,
hydrogen, and even PV (photovoltaic) power for cars. What we dont understand very well
are the consequences of using different conversion technologies for different renewable
sources.
Now lets return to the island. Success depends on our working with the resources at hand
and converting them to useful forms. Whether were talking about food, materials for boats,
houses, and equipment, or fuel to lighten the workload, it all comes down to a decision on
what to spend on what. And the what turns out to be the m2s available. Research on
exergy principles and analyses shows that in the end, solar energy drives all processes on
earth, and solar radiation hitting a m2 is the main requirement for production and
conversion. Thats how oil got its start (via biomass, sediments and pressure over millions of
years), and the requirement holds for renewable energy, for food and for renewable
materials.

Managing the island

Non-renewable sources can be used without employing solar energy directly. But in the end
this will cause problems, since like oil they run out. Take the island, the Netherlands.
Everyone thinks the Dutch claimed land from the sea. In fact a main part of Holland that is
now below sea level was above sea level 1000 years ago. Centuries of digging the land to
23

harvest peat for heating houses sank the land lower and lower, until it flooded and we
started dredging. And then, when it was too deep to dredge, we built dykes to dry out the
land and inhabit it. Now we face flooding due to climate change. Ironically, we exploited the
land not for a non-renewable resource, but for peat, a renewable energy source.
A question for the islanders is what has priority. The solar radiation falling on the land can
only be intercepted once for conversion to food, materials or energy. Growing biomass for
energy consumes a great deal of land, which then cannot be used for growing food. Using
wind turbines or PV panels requires less solar radiation access and leaves more land for
food.
The islanders soon realize that what they need first is water (and for that, they need to
secure land). Second they require food. Third are raw materials, and last is extra energy
(aside from labour energy). In our research, we use two principles to evaluate the maximum
value in a built environment. First, the m2 (space access to solar radiation) is an overall
indicator of the value of a closed-cycle-based society (and of its productivity). Second, the
importance of each resource is relative to the other resources (and the ways humans know
to convert one resource into another) in making decisions about land (space, surface) use.
The principles are part of the Concept of O, of closing cycles, and of 0-impacts,
meaning capable of running forever.
In our recently established Research Institute Built environment of Tomorrow, RiBuilT, we
strive for these 0-options and are trying to develop an integrated approach to projects and
urban areas. One of our main areas of research involves trying to develop an m2 indicator to
evaluate the space needed to produce the resources for all areas in the least spaceconsuming way. Urban Harvest+ looks at existing urban areas and asks to what extent they
can be re-developed as 0-impact or closed-cycle managed areas. The M-exergy project
aims to develop a space-time indicator for the evaluation of new construction. In addition,
there is technology research, for instance, on improving the harvest from a m2 by
developing new types of solar panels. One study involves developing an organic solar panel
which can be used in window areas. Other studies investigate new (nano) materials as well
as (building) process innovations.

Our "District of Tomorrow" project: trying to treat it as an island

24

To start by measuring the amount of m2 solar access that that can be made productive
overcomes the disadvantages of systems like carbon credits or LCA (Life Cycle Analysis).
These are no longer relevant: the value is directly related to the capability of generating
permanent quality in the system itself, ( a building site, a district, a region). Only the surplus
can be exchanged with other areas, not the shortages
During the SB10 Western Europe Conference, we will introduce the initial results for an
existing area pilot with what we call the Urban Harvest+ approach, and for new buildings,
with what we call the MExergy approach.
What holds true for an island holds true for the earth. Earth is just a slightly larger island.
And you know what? Remember the fisherman on the island with 170 trees? At this moment
a rough calculation from FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) data indicates that the
total number of trees on earth divided by world population is around 170 trees each

25

The 0-Impact Transition Approach

Jacques Kimman

2)

It is now apparent that we must change society in terms of how we manage health, energy,
food and material resources. With respect to energy, fossil energy sources are not
sustainable, stocks are decreasing rapidly and needs are increasing. As such, prices are
certain to increase dramatically. Based on this kind of trend, as early as 2008 the IEA
predicted an energy crisis in 2015 (Annual World Energy Outlook 2008:
www.worldnenergyoutlook.org) due to stagnated fossil fuel production, a decrease in
resources and increasing energy needs, especially in rapidly developing countries like India
and China.
In fact, we will be facing new crises very soon: Food prices will increase due to high
transport costs; food prices will increase due to competition with bio-energy;uUranium prices
will rocket; and resources such as silver, manganese and others will be depleted.
Some problems will be solved very smoothly and automatically by means of market
mechanisms. For instance, there will be a rise in home farming movements and local food
markets. However, resource depletion requires dramatic system changes and the solutions
need long-term R&D and change management. Therefore, we need to properly organise
and coordinate actions along a timeline (road map) to achieve an ultimate, defined goal.
This ultimate goal is to organise society in such a way that our behaviour has zeroimpact on our surroundings both now and in the future. But how can this be achieved? What
are the steps needed to reach this goal and what order do they come in? Furthermore, who
has the overview; who is responsible for coordinating all of this? In order to reach this
ultimate goal, we must first come up with a road map and secondly, analyse the actions set
out therein and put them in a logical order. This approach is known as transition
management. Such a process should also factor in as many best practices as possible
(forecasting).

2) RiBuilT / Zuyd University, Heerlen, the Netherlands

27

Some of the best local solutions regarding energy supply are solar energy and geothermal
energy, as described in Leducs paper on planning 0-energy cities using local energy
sources. Solar energy needs about six times less space than wind energy and 35 times less
than bio-energy. Furthermore, solar energy can be integrated into the built environment
which allows for the principle of avoided costs by faade, window and roof integration, in
addition to minimising energy transport. Besides space requirements, another drawback to
bio-energy is that biomass and the land involved are needed for construction materials. The
cycle management of materials and energy should be tightly coordinated so as to avoid
competition with other chains such as the food chain. Taking this to the larger scale, we
need energy potential mapping, and we must not overlook aspects like materials (Rovers et
al.) and water (Nederlof et al.).
At RiBuilT we perform road map analyses by making an inventory of all of the bottlenecks
that stakeholders face when trying to bring about change in their sector. As soon as these
have been identified, the search for solutions commences. For this we build on the
experiences of frontrunners (forecasting). This is knowledge exchange at its optimum:
somebody else has already solved your problem! Moreover, this type of solution generally
works far better than a textbook result since it leads to a tailor-made response.
However, having pinpointed the bottlenecks and found some answers from frontrunners, the
question of how to organise the process remains:
Which players should be involved and who will take the lead?
What products must be developed and what R&D is necessary?
Who is going to initiate and who is going to support the R&D?
28

Searching for knowledge on solutions and distributing this knowledge by bringing the
relevant regime and niche players into contact with each other is an important task. A Task
Force to coordinate the transition to a renewable energy supply is currently being set up at
the level of the Province of Limburg. However, it is also important for municipalities to take
on this new role of coordinating and creating the right boundary conditions for the transition.
RiBuilT (Research Institute for the Built Environment of Tomorrow) is supporting this
knowledge generation and information exchange for the transition (see www.ribuilt.eu).
In the case of energy, the city of Tilburg in the Netherlands is a perfect example of such
a frontrunner (TRANSEP-DGO project, see www.duurzamegebiedsontwikkeling.nl). This city
plans to be energy-neutral by 2040, for which some 10 PJ of renewable energy production is
required. Solar energy will provide 2.25 PJ, geothermal energy 3 PJ, and the rest will come
from energy savings. Applying the backcasting method leads to the conclusion that every
new house that is built should be zero-energy. If we then apply the forecasting method using the results of the frontrunners in the field - it transpires that local renewable energy
companies are a basic need to achieve the ultimate goal.
A further important step is retrofitting existing buildings, which account for the lions share of
our building-related demand (see paper by Cali) since the existing building stock is
dominant. Research shows that in rental schemes, the benefits of zero-energy and zeroimpact retrofitting will directly compensate for higher rents (see results of IEA Annex 51,
Energy Efficient Communities: www.annex51.org). For home owners, retrofitting costs
should be included in their mortgage. Financial schemes such as these are a necessary
boundary condition for the transition to a renewable energy supply.

29

Two pilot projects entitled The Existing District of Tomorrow and District of Tomorrow have
been jointly set up by Zuyd University and RiBuilt to create an environment in which these
findings can be tested and demonstrated (see www.dewijkvanmorgen.nl). The projects
engage students, with knowledge and support from teachers and cooperating frontrunners,
to (re-)design and construct houses. All of the applied techniques used for the houses and
buildings are available now for future implementation. Most of the effort in the design phase
entails making all existing knowledge of best practices available and coming up with a
balanced, all-encompassing concept. The installations include heat pumps, cold and heat
storage, LED, domotics, smart grids, solar modules, passive house techniques, and so forth.
When the house is finished it provides a real-life laboratory for students to use and try out.
New innovations such as electricity-producing windows and new functional faade coatings
(see the Interreg-project ORGANEXT and the Pieken in de Delta Chematerials project) will
also be tested in this laboratory.
Educating architects and other professionals in the building industry is an essential
boundary condition for the road map to a zero-impact society and, as such, is arguably one
of the most important steps we can take. This has already been recognised by the EU,
which has created a scheme for fifteen universities across Europe to teach students and
professionals how to develop 0-energy buildings as part of the updated EPBD directive
(Intelligent Europe; IDES-EDU 2010 project).
If education is the first step, the next is to create environments in which changes will be
applied. Stakeholders must agree on what needs to be done first without envisaging or
creating too many hindrances (see paper by Kerkhoven et al.). To do this an atmosphere
must be created that fosters consensus among stakeholders. One example of how this can
be brought about was demonstrated during the conference: the Caf Concept, which is
described in the following chapter.

30

Bringing Science to Practice

The Concept of Cafeterias - Implementing zero-concept
options and using a roadmap
Christoph Maria Ravesloot
1

3)

Introduction: the roadmap

The Zuyd University Ribuilt Institute envisions the zero concept. The main activity is to
perform applied research with partners from society who are willing and able to practically
change products, services and processes towards the more sustainable zero impact. During
the SB10 scientific conference in October 2010, a further step was taken: a roadmap was
drawn up. This roadmap makes it possible for motivated partners from the international
region of Maastricht, Aachen and Liege to absorb and transform knowledge from the
scientific presentation directly into practical use for short term operational execution,
medium term tactical project planning and long term strategic organization. The SB10
conference was organized around sixteen themes with each receiving several contributions
from the scientific research field. The authors of the papers were asked to bring their
knowledge to one of six climate cafeterias. These were set up according to six phases of
the design and construction process in the building industry, from a large-scale city and town
planning to the smallest scale of building maintenance and building services.
Research at the Ribuilt Institute has found that design and construction processes need
to be changed because we cannot expect to solve the sustainability problem using the same
method that caused it (Huovila and Ravesloot, 2010). Changes in design and construction
processes must be made and methods must be evaluated and re-established.

Figure 1 . The ten phases of the design and construction process (Huovila, Portious, Ravesloot 2010).

3) RiBuilT / Zuyd University, Heerlen, the Netherlands; Avans University, Tilburg, the Netherlands

31

Framework and goal of the SB10 roadmap

The aim of the SB10 roadmap is to transfer knowledge from scientists to the partners in
society who perform the actual changes to design and construction processes and who
actually produce sustainable products and services. The goal of Ribuilt and SB10 is to show
zero-concept potential, which social partners are kindly invited to exploit. The method to
achieve a roadmap for practical use is by means of the climate cafeteria, as shall be
explained later. The climate cafeteria provides a safe social platform to reflect upon the
knowledge offered by scientists to partners in the building industry, and shows the need and
potential of changes in that industry. Likewise, the building industry partners offer food for
thought on how to continue scientific research to accelerate the development of zero-impact
products and services.

The climate cafeteria method

Concept cafeteria sessions will run in parallel to the scientific presentations. In these
sessions representatives from science will meet companies and public authorities (social
partners) to make a joint effort in putting the conference results to practical use. The climate
cafeterias will generate a problem-solving capacity with unanimous decision making and the
themes of the six concept cafeterias will follow the content of the scientific paper sessions
and the usual design and construction process in the building industry. The zero-concept will
be the foundation for all the transition ambitions.
The climate cafeteria involves collaborative data mining and data selection processes. In
four rounds, participants from all fields of expertise mingle and sit at four-person tables, as in
a cafeteria. One of the four people is the linking pin and table secretary. His/her job is to
write down sentences, hypotheses and remarks as one-liners on blank playing cards, and to
be the linking pin to the next round of four guests. As in a cafeteria there will be drinks,
nibbles and background music. As in a real cafeteria, creativity will be boosted and ideas will
flow. However, unlike in a real cafeteria, the ideas will not be lost. All ideas will be written
down and discussed extensively with a view to making knowledge transfer possible and
making it possible to combine all valuable ideas in a roadmap for future cooperation.
Every round has its own specific assignment.
The first is always a brainstorming session. Playing cards containing hypotheses taken
from scientific papers are handed out to give the discussion a direction. The aim of round
one is to make a complete list of items on the theme of the climate cafeteria. This is the
general data mining phase. On average, every table should be able to produce about twenty
cards within twenty-five minutes. At the end of round one the linking pin stays at the table
and is joined by three new guests. New refreshments might be welcome.
The second round is an elimination round to distinguish which cards are relevant to the
theme in the short term and specifically to the zero concept. The table secretary goes over
the cards on the table. During discussion, cards can be elaborated upon, changed, thrown
away and substituted. At the end of the round each table keeps only the cards that could be
executed by one person, without outside assistance, next Monday morning. Only cards that
32

Figure 2 A typical climate cafeteria setting, here with graduate students from Avans University and
regional companies discussing sustainable procurement.

fit this criterion are put aside. Even if only one person has an objection to a card, that card is
removed. At the end of the second round, a new secretary is assigned as the linking pin to a
new group of table guests.
Round three is a specification round to ascertain which cards can significantly
contribute to the general issue of zero concept in the medium term. Is there an existing
project that supports such a significant contribution? If not, could such a project be set up? If
the answer is no, the card will be left on the table for the next round, providing that nobody
at the table has a justified objection. From the third round on, it is possible to analyze and
select the cards more precisely.
During the fourth and last round, a selection is made between cards that fit in existing
paradigms, strategies and policies, and those that do not. Cards in this last category form a
stack of wild cards. The cards that do fit in, have been positively chosen because nobody at
the cafeteria table has any argued objections to them. The remaining wild cards, which did
cause objections, have to be scrutinized closely for unexpected valuable ideas.
Every round should follow the same rules:

A card is only selected for inclusion if all four table guests have given
their consent. Consent means that no valid objection has been given.

One person is secretary and stays at the table for at least two rounds. If
he wants to leave, the role of secretary is transferred to another person
at the table.

During any round, it is permitted to make new cards, to split cards, to

elaborate cards, etc. It is not allowed to eliminate cards other than with
consent of all four table guests.

The climate cafe rounds are open space. If you need to get something to
drink, if you want to answer the phone, if you need to use the bathroom,
you just go where your feet take you.

No more than four people are permitted at a table; fewer is not

recommended.
33

Because of expected language problems, English will be used; during

the climate cafeteria, coaches will ensure that English is being used
during the rounds.

Sponsors of a climate cafeteria can use the problem solving capacity of the people at the
tables. The facilitator can formulate questions to make the process of data mining and data
selection more efficient. During the climate cafeteria, concept coaches will circulate through
the caf to guide the guests; preferably these will be representatives from local companies
or planning authorities, or scientists involved in the conference. The climate cafeteria will
produce stacks of sorted cards that contain directions how to implement knowledge from the
scientific sessions into practice. They will point out obstructions, practical and legal
questions, risks and chances. The questions that have to be answered during the playing
rounds are tuned to the problem that has to be solved.
During the climate cafeteria, concept coaches walk around, managing the tables.
During short breaks, when guests change tables, a concept coach can give a short
presentation and a brief pep-talk with instruction for the participants to continue their work at
the tables. The facilitator hands out the assignments, closes and opens the rounds and
summarizes the results.
During the second round, the first stack of cards that has been put aside, is already
being processed into a computer .xls database. Double cards can be counted and a brief
validity check can be performed. If a card clearly does not fit the exclusion criteria, it can be
put back on a playing table.
At the end of the fourth round, a brief presentation can be put on a screen to show the
results of the climate cafeteria. A bigger presentation of all results of all four climate
cafeterias can be shown at the end of the conference.

Input from scientific papers

To stimulate an integrated approach between scientists, entrepreneurs and authorities, and

to encourage interdisciplinary collaboration, the themes were all used as input for one
climate cafeteria. A division in scale was made to avoid scale adulteration as much as
possible, since this would slow down decision making. The content of 16 scientific papers
was used as input for six climate cafeterias, approaching the problem on six different levels:
1 regional development,
2 city planning and town planning,
3 area development,
4 building design,
5 product development, and
6 materials development.
At each level, both design products and process were considered. In addition, each climate
cafeteria considered both the approach to new built objects and the renovation and
refurbishment of existing built objects. This encourages a cross fertilization between
platforms and actors, and speeds up the transfer of innovations from new built objects to the
existing built environment. In other words, the content of the scientific papers is discussed
and can be transferred into practical use.
34

The results of the six climate cafeterias were allocated to an individual or team who can
bring the idea to execution. This is called the road map for the coming year. Ideas of
scientists are matched with interested companies and authorities. Knowing that ideas can be
applied in actual projects will speed up the overall process towards the zero-concept.

35

Part II
Keynotes

Realism and Illusion

Realists and Idealists on the Energy Question -- The Order
of the Century
Hermann Scheer

Over 150 years ago, the German philosopher Schopenhauer wrote that any new idea is
ridiculed at first. When it begins to make its mark, people fight it tooth and nail. This is
followed by a third phase, in which everyone claims to have been in favour of it from the very
beginning. Thats why the most important question is, In which phase do we currently find
ourselves? I would answer that we are in all three phases at the same time! Of course,
people continue to sneer, which can even be seen in the language used by advocates of the
move towards renewable energies.
I would like to give two examples of this, the first of which concerns passive buildings. I was
due to give a speech in Bremen at the unveiling of Germanys first office building to be
heated exclusively by solar energy. After arriving in Bremen by train, I got into a taxi and told
the driver where I wanted to go. At this moment, it was announced on the radio that
Germanys first passive office building was about to be inaugurated on that day. The taxi
driver then asked, Whats a passive building then? I said that it is a building which is
heated exclusively by solar energy. He then asked why it is called a passive building, as
the word passive is not often used in advertising. He felt that it sounded off-putting and
rather unattractive. I explained, It simply means that the building does not use any special
technology to convert energy. As a matter of fact, the word passive house is not quite
right. It is rather negative advertising. Of course, I gave the project all the praise that it
deserved. But something else was not quite right. There was actually a brochure about the
building, with House without Heating! printed in large letters on its title page, which I
humorously described as a strange choice of words. The house is heated, but exclusively
with solar energy. The word heating was therefore being unconsciously reserved for
heating systems that use conventional energy, which had the effect of unintentionally
playing down solar heating.
For several decades, the preconception has been nurtured that mineral oil, natural gas,
coal, and nuclear power were real energy, whereas renewable energy could not really be
used for modern energy needs. It is therefore incredibly important that we pay close
attention to the language that we use, which can reinforce or confirm mental barriers instead
39

of breaking them down. We have to break down these barriers, together with actual conflicts
of interest, because the changeover to renewable energy will trigger all kinds of structural
changes in the energy sector.
Nothing works without energy, and it is crucial what energy we use and how we use it
for everything that we do. This means that this question is in no way restricted to specialists.
It is a fundamentally important sociological and energy-related question!
The conscious or unconscious ridiculing and downplaying continue still. The same can
be said for the fighting, which often takes place in the guise of ostensible endorsement.
There is a great deal of greenwashing nowadays; in other words, pretending to be green.
At the same time, growing numbers of players in the fields of technology, business, and
politics are increasingly gaining the publics attention by recognising and opting for this way
forward. Solar construction and urban planning represent a key area.

The Ministry of Construction becomes the most important

Ministry of Energy
In the context of these objectives, the ministry of construction really is the most important
ministry of energy. But not everyone realises this yet. Energy policy debates frequently skirt
around this question, although the bare figures highlight its importance. In Central Europe
alone, 40% of all energy is used exclusively for heating buildings. If you add electricity, the
amount of energy consumed in buildings clearly exceeds 40%. We can therefore see that
half of the problem which we have to overcome lies within the field of construction, which
also provides half of the answer to the problem. This will clearly require different structures
from those used to generate power over the last 100 years.
This reminds me of a few past events, one of which took place in Berlin, when Emil
Rathenau (founder of the AEG Group and Germanys first light bulb manufacturer)
attempted to light a Berlin street with electrical light bulbs, instead of the gaslights that were
then the norm. Electric lighting was installed along one street. As the street began to light
up, Emil Rathenau said, In less than 20 years there will be electric lighting in every Berlin
home, which led to him being seen as a nutcase. But this was about how long it took.
The second event was the argument between Edison and Westinghouse in America,
both of whom were forefathers of the modern electricity industry. Edisons vision was that
every house would independently generate its own direct current power. Westinghouse
believed that external power stations would generate alternating current electricity.
Westinghouses concept prevailed in the end, for very forward-looking reasons for the time,
as there were not yet very many coal power stations during this period, but water energy
was being converted into electricity. The hydroelectric power stations would have had to be
abandoned in favour of a small coal power station in every home. But cities already very
serious air pollution. Westinghouses plan was superior for urban-ecological reasons, while
Edisons concept would have meant more coal being delivered to every household and more
air pollution in cities.
We are now faced with a completely different situation when it comes to the use of
solar energy. The possibility of generating electricity directly from solar radiation energy now
gives us an even faster and unsurpassed primary energy source which is completely free
40

and does not require any complex technology. It is therefore now possible to harvest and
convert primary energy into electricity in every house - sustainably and without any
emissions or transport costs. The vision of generating electricity in your own home is
becoming a reality and has already happened in many cases. Furthermore, this reality does
not harm the environment in any way. In this sense we are, against the backdrop of modern
possibilities for the use of solar energy and well over 100 years after the WestinghouseEdison controversy, in a completely new situation, representing a completely new
opportunity to truly put energy autonomy into practice.
The structural change has therefore been pre-programmed, which makes it very clear
that it will also coincide with a cultural change. We will not therefore develop a copy of the
conventional energy system using solar energy, but a new decentralised energy supply
structure for energy consumption which is always decentralised. The conventional energy
system requires the areas where energy is generated to be separate from the areas where it
is consumed, as sources of coal, mineral oil, natural gas, and uranium only exist in very few
places. With renewable energies, we have the opportunity together with the environmental
benefits and provision of a sustainable power supply to re-connect the areas where energy
is produced and consumed. This is the cultural process facing us.

Architecture as a mirror of the times

This process will, of course, also transform urban living and lifestyles in general. It is not a
process that will take place overnight, but will take the form of a cultural shift. It will also
make architecture develop in a more interesting way than has been the case over the last
100 years.
Architecture always reflects social and political conditions, contemporary thinking and
contemporary challenges. If we consider the nature of the challenge currently facing society
as a whole, there seem to be contradictory tendencies.
One of these tendencies is the increasing need for individual autonomy in modern
societies, which is, however, frequently in an apparently irresolvable conflict with the greater
shared social responsibility which at the same time is needed to prevent the consequences
of individual actions becoming a burden on society. This can be seen very clearly in the
case of fossil and nuclear energy consumption. The classic philosophical question is that of
how we can reconcile individual freedom with the common good. This problem now seems
more impossible to resolve than ever before. By switching over to renewable energies,
particularly with the move towards solar energy in buildings and its impact on urban
planning, we have a massive opportunity to make these two values compatible. The use of
solar energy provides greater social, economic, regional-urban, and individual autonomy. It
also represents a major benefit for society, which can thus be freed from the environmental
burden of conventional energy and the damage that it causes. This unique process is so
fundamental that it cannot be measured according to whether it currently costs a few cents
more or less per kilowatt hour.
At the same time, todays open society calls for greater transparency in all our
processes. Solar construction is a more transparent construction method and opens up the
way for new designs. The first conference on solar energy in architecture was took place in
Munich in 1987, and was purely technical and mainly an opportunity to present solar
41

collectors/systems and show how they could be installed on rooftops. This actually had little
to do with architecture and only demonstrated possible applications of solar technologies.
This was also the case at the second conference, which was held in Paris in 1989, when we
sat down together and agreed that we must focus on architecture and new designs. This
paved the way for the next conference, which was held in Florence in 1993 and was chaired
by an architect and a politician - Sir Norman Foster and myself. A new model was
developed, which led to the Charter for Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning
thus taking over the baton from the Athens Charter developed by Le Corbusier, who had
advocated the division of functions in towns.
It has already made an impact, culminating in the 2002 International Architects
Conference in Berlin, with the motto: Architecture as a Resource. In 1998, we christened
the fifth conference, held in Bonn, under the motto Building a New Century! At this time, a
wide range of projects was in progress, which have opened up new designs using solar
energy and focused attention on urban development as a whole. This could also be seen at
the 2000 conference in Bonn, which was entitled The City as a Solar Power Station!
At the moment we can see how much has been achieved since then in response to various
stimuli, not least those created by this conference series. I hope that all of these stimuli will
bear even more fruit as part of a snowball effect, as we do not actually have much more
time. This is the main problem and I would like to conclude with a few remarks on this
subject.
Everyone now knows that todays power supply system would not be in good shape,
even if the climate problem did not exist. There are still many other energy problems, all of
which can be overcome by switching to renewable energies, without any subsequent costs
for society. We must be aware that we do not have much time. If, however, the other side
repeatedly spreads the message that there are no alternatives to nuclear and fossil energies
in the short and medium term, this leads to serious psychological tension. For what will
people think if they believe both messages at the same time? They will reach the logical
conclusion that the problem can no longer be resolved, which will lead to the spread of new
future mentalities and new forms of nihilism.
People can only commit themselves to a new way forward if they can understand it and
are convinced that it actually exists. This is precisely the problem facing us today that of
contradicting the people who say that it really is not possible or would take a lot of time,
although we no longer actually have this amount of time. Moreover, we can no longer avoid
the most important issue we must broaden our idea of energy and the traditional view of
energy policy to include the focus on Sun and Sense or Sense through Sun.

42

GSSING, a Model for Other Regions

Self-sufficient energy supply based on regionally available
renewable resources and sustainable regional
development
Peter Vadasz

4)

Introduction
Gssing is the capital of a district with approximately 27,000 inhabitants, in South East
Austria, close to the Hungarian border. In 1988, this region was still one of the poorest in
Austria according to statistics. Due to the geographically unfavourable location near the
border, major trade or industrial businesses did not exist at that time and the whole district
lacked any form of transportation infrastructure, having no railroad or highway. This resulted
in a scarcity of jobs, 70 % weekly commuters, and a high rate of migration to other regions.
In addition, there was the problem of substantial capital outflow from the region caused
by energy bought from outside (oil, power, fuels), while existing resources (e.g. 45 % forest
land) remained largely unused.
In 1990, experts developed a plan for the area to abandon the use of fossil energy
completely. The area considered was 45 km2 at the start, consisting of 45% woodland, 44%
open land and 11% urban area.The objective was to supply at first the town of Gssing, and
subsequently the whole district, with regionally available renewable energy sources,
providing the region with new forms of added value. The plan comprised the aspects heat
generation, fuels, and electric power.
First steps toward implementation consisted of targeted energy saving measures in
Gssing. As a result of the energetic optimization of all buildings in the town center,
expenditure on energy was reduced by almost 50%. Then, the realization of numerous
demonstration energy plants in the town and the region helped to promote the
implementation of the model step by step. Examples include the successful installation of a
bio-diesel plant using rape oil, the realization of two small-scale biomass district heating
systems for some parts of Gssing, and, finally, a district heating system based on wood
fuel for the town of Gssing.

4) Mayor of Gssing, Austria

43

0-energy Gussing
Energy self-sufficiency was finally realized in 2001 when the biomass plant of Gssing was
installed; it relies on a newly developed biomass-steam gasification technology. At present,
Gssing produces more energy (heat, fuels, and electric power) from renewable resources
than it consumes. This gave the region an added value of Euro 13 million (calculation based
on 2005 figures) per year.
The implementation of this innovative energy concept induced a sustainable regional
development process, which transformed the formerly dying region within 15 years into a
region with a high standard of living and excellent quality of life. In recent years, Gssing
has been awarded honors as the environmentally most friendly town and most innovative
municipality in Austria. One of the first infrastructure improvements, i.e. the installation of
the district heating system Gssing (1996), already made the town on the border an
interesting location for the establishment of businesses. A special scheme promoting the
establishment of enterprises in the area brought 50 new enterprises with more than 1,000
direct and indirect jobs in the renewable energy sector for the region. Gssing, since then,
has developed into an important location for parquetry production, hardwood drying, and
environmental technologies. The realization of the biomass plant Gssing and the
establishment of the RENET Austria (Renewable Energy Network Austria) competence
network gave rise to the launching of numerous national and international renewable
energy research projects in Gssing.

44

Management
The European Center for Renewable Energy (Europisches Zentrum fr Erneuerbare
Energie EEE) coordinates all demonstration plants, projects, research emphases as well as
programs for training and further education in this field. The manifold research activities here
have also contributed to the attractiveness of the region and to the creation of additional
high-quality jobs.
Work within the Energy Systems of Tomorrow subprogram aims to further
disseminate this successful model. The objective is to further develop the strategies and
technologies tried out in the town of Gssing and to apply them in the whole district. By
2010, this area should also have attained a self-sufficient energy supply, and thus,
numerous concomitant positive effects for the economy in the region.

Technology
The flagship and most important innovation of the Gssing model is the biomass plant,
which uses a special fluidized bed steam gasification technology. The process developed at
the Vienna University of Technology (Univ. Prof. Dr. Hofbauer) offers some advantages
compared to conventional combustion processes, especially in combined heat and power
applications.
For the realization of the project several partners cooperated within the competence
network RENET: REPOTEC plant technology, Vienna University of Technology, EVN, and
the Gssing district heating utility.
The plant, which became operational in 2001, has a rated fuel capacity of 8 MW and
produces 2,000 kWh electric power as well as 4,500 kWh heat for district heating at a feed
rate of 2,300 kg wood per hour. The plant currently operates for 8,000 hours per year. The
vital component of the plant is the fluidized bed gasifier and consists of two fluidized bed
systems that are connected with each other. Biomass is gasified, together with steam, at a
temperature of approx. 850C in the gasifying zone. Using water vapour instead of air as
gasifying medium results in a nitrogen-free, low-tar product gas with high calorific value.
Part of the residual char is conveyed by the circulating bed material (sand), which also
serves as heat storing medium, to the combustion zone and is burned there. The heat
transferred to the bed material is needed to maintain the gasification reactions. The flue gas
is then separated and the heat contained therein is used in the district heating system. The
product gas has to be cooled down and cleaned for use in the downstream gas engine. Heat
recovered in the cooling process is, again, used for the district heating system. A special
technology permits the recycling of all residuals, which means that the gas cleaning process
generates neither waste nor effluent.
The gas engine converts chemical energy contained in the product gas into electricity.
Again, waste heat from the engine is fed into the district heating system. This approach
results in very high efficiencies: electric efficiency ranges between 25% and 28%, and
overall efficiency (power and heat) is approx. 85%.
On account of the favorable properties of the product gas (no nitrogen, high hydrogen
content), there is a broad range of possible uses, such as the generation of fuel gas,
synthetic gas, gasoline and diesel, methanol as well as hydrogen.
45

Figure 2 The biomass plant

Research
The various research projects currently conducted in Gssing address topics such as the
generation of hydrogen, fuel cells, the production of methane and fuels, cooling and district
heating systems and aim to test and implement new technologies. The overall objective is to
develop energy centers to meet the demand of the region and which are able to produce
heat, electricity, gaseous and liquid energy carriers from a variety of energy-rich biogenic
raw materials and residue matter using an approach called polygeneration. The quantities of
the various resources produced will depend on the needs and the size of the respective
region. Admittedly, the relative proportion of the various by-products cannot be changed
infinitely, but modifications should be possible within certain limits.
The experience gained in the biomass plant Gssing gave rise to a number of research
projects, in cooperation with various Austrian and international partners in the fields of
science and industry (e.g., Volkswagen, Daimler Chrysler, Volvo, EDF, and BP). Some of
the projects have already been realized in Guessing, others are in the planning stages or on
the verge of implementation. The strategy for the period between 2007 and 2013 is to
implement the concept of polygeneration.

46

Figure 3 The methane plant

Land use and need

An important factor in self-sufficient energy supply refers to the availability of the necessary
land area for energy crops. Thus, the first part of the project aimed to ascertain, at the level
of municipalities, whether the available land area is sufficient to cover energy demand. This
provided for a quite accurate assessment of focal points of demand and an evaluation of
potential sites. The sum of the land area balances at the level of individual municipalities will
result in a land area balance for the whole region.
In a next step, researchers analyzed the energy demand in the region and ascertained
the capacity of renewable energy sources actually used today. The analysis of the energy
saving potential and existing resources has also been conducted at the level of
municipalities or parts of villages. These findings served to identify suitable technologies and
to develop energy supply scenarios for the district; researchers also calculated the potential
for CO2 reduction. In order to ensure an efficient supply of biomass, a special logistics
concept has been developed, in analogy to the one for the town of Gssing.

0-energy region
Research work done so far has shown that a self-sufficient energy supply for a region the
size of the district of Gssing is actually feasible. At present, the overall energy demand of
the district amounts to 564,777 MWh (2005); the plants existing today already cover as
much as 34% (power), 49% (heat), and 47% (fuels), regardless of the demand for
47

renewable energy sources. Project participants modeled five different scenarios that permit
100% of the demand to be covered by energy from renewables alone.
A look at potential resources and suitable conversion technologies shows that full use
of the forest land would offer the largest land reserves. Depending on the scenario, the
remaining land reserves would range between 13,000 ha and 14,000 ha; this means that,
even with self-sufficient energy supply implemented, some 30% of the districts surface area
remains as reserve for additional demand in the future. A complete shift to renewable
energy sources would reduce CO2 emissions in the region by some 85%, up to 15,530 tons
per year.
These findings were used in the follow-up project to identify potential sites and possible
approaches toward implementation,to perform cost / benefit analyses, and to develop
financing models. Implementation of the concept is expected to afford numerous synergies
as was the case in the town of Gssing that can have a positive effect on the development
of the region. Shifting energy supply from fossil to renewable energy sources could create
added value on the order of Euro 39 million. Other objectives include an improvement of the
situation on the job market, new opportunities for training and further education, and
enhanced self-confidence of people in the region. New opportunities could arise in the fields
of tourism, cultural activities and sports. These sustainable stimuli could create a model
region and a role model for other areas, which might adopt such concepts as well.

Benefits and lessons learned:

48

Creating local jobs reduces commuting.

Creating new jobs allows people to return to their villages.
Local control of energy means more energy security.
The project should be locally driven. leadership is important, with
a local person appointed to manage the transition.
Local ownership is important (preferably 100%). In Gussing 49%
is owned by the municipal and 51% by local investors. This way
everyone has an interest in the development.
The order of resource use is as follows: first use available natural
resources, like forests, crop waste and by-products, before
adding others like growing energy crops.
Liquid and gaseous fuels provide flexibility and create value.
Everything needs to be measured.
Plants need to be optimised, making them more affordable and
more efficient.
Logistiscs are important: sources and users need to be near each
other.
Another time, the district heating scheme could me much smaller:
first build a gas distribution net and use the heating byproduct for
near byconsumers. This is much cheaper, more efficient, and
flexible.

Related sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCssing
http://www.gussing.at/frame.asp?Bereich=Wirtschaft
http://www.oekoenergieland.at/konzept/modell-guessingdetails.html?start=1
http://www.eee-info.net/cms/EN/

49

The Goal is PlusEnergy!

Rolf Disch

5)

An energy-generating house fulfils a threefold objective: it will be supported exclusively by

100% renewable energy. It will be CO2-neutral. And, it reduces energy consumption so
extensively that it will generate more energy than it will use. In addition to these are the
selection of healthy building materials and a feasible market price.
In order to test the operability of PlusEnergy, a long-term study at Bergische University in
Wuppertal was conducted. The results were published in January 2009 in the Deutsche
Bauzeitschrift (German Building Magazine). Firstly, an average home was defined from data
collected on the Solar Settlement in Freiburg: 2.9 residents, 137 m2 (1,475 ft2) heated floor
space, and a 49 m2 (527.5 ft2) solar panel installation with 6.3 kW peak power output. This
home expends only 79 kWh/m2 per year, yet it annually produces 115 kWh/m2 per year.
The surplus is thus 36 kWh/m2 of primary energy.

5 ) Architect, Freiburg Germany

51

This is the way to achieve the worlds best energy value for buildings. It is, however, far
more than a simple energy standard. PlusEnergy offers an architectural and ecological,
social and economic concept incorporating many aspects and possibilities.
Creating a PlusEnergy house design makes the individual home into a power plant: the
PlusEnergy house produces more energy than its owners actually need. With this positive
energy balance, it exceeds every previous standard. Because low-energy homes still
consume too much energy, and even passive homes still emit CO2 into the atmosphere, the
energy surplus of a PlusEnergy house sets a new standard. Passive building is not enough:
carbon neutral, emission free and minimal energy homes must be outmatched we need
solar activation for our homes!
Long ago the PlusEnergy house was developed so that it could be built anywhere at a
marketable price: from single homes to entire housing communities, for residential and
commercial building, as hotels, schools, exhibition halls and nursing homes for all
imaginable goals.
Today the PlusEnergy house is not only ecologically but also economically sound. As
energy costs rise, the PlusEnergy house will continue to turn utility costs into excess
income. The additional investment becomes financed through saving and selling energy.
Cheaper building is more expensive!

How does it work?

In order to achieve its annual median positive energy footprint, the building makes the best
possible use active and passive from the only form of energy available in abundance,
free of charge everyday, everywhere: solar energy. The house generates its own electricity
and heat, uses them intelligently, and retains them in the building structure. The roof is
made of the most extensive photo voltaic unit equipped with a solar thermal collector to heat
tap water. The well-tested and well-proven use of the roof overhang provides protection from
the high summer sun, while still allowing rays of the winter sun to penetrate into the home.
High-grade and transparent, the south faades infrared-reflecting, triple-paned
insulated glass retains warmth within the home. The entire skin of the building is insulated,
thermal-bridge free, and is densely sealed. In addition, the ventilation system facilitates a
permanent fresh air supply with nearly no heat loss.
The activation of the building masses as a thermal reservoir is further strengthened by
the addition of the Phase-Changing Material in the inner walls. As with commercial buildings,
a vacuum-insulated faade is implemented. Should an additional heating unit be necessary,
there are several options to do so with renewable energy.
We employ advanced, clever solutions as necessary, i.e. high-tech heating systems.
This makes the technical expenditure of our homes easy, robust, low-maintenance and
user-friendly because these are also economically successful.

Ecological building healthy living

Using natural materials is not only great for the environment; it is also good for the
environments we build for ourselves. After all, central Europeans spend over 80% of their
lives indoors.
52

Figure 1 Cross-section of a PlusEnergy house

For both living and working spaces, the PlusEnergy house avoids any kind of harmful
substances. All of the building materials must be emission free. Together with modern
ventilation systems not energy-wasting air conditioning the PlusEnergy-construction
guarantees permanently fresh, healthy and well-climatized air.
Light-flooded rooms are conducive to a cheerful atmosphere. The large-paned
windows, so essential for PlusEnergy, also bring about a positive and comfortable balance
within the home. Ecology is not about asceticism or giving up on our comforts; PlusEnergy
means the luxury for all that is essential for a buoyant and reasonable, healthy and joyful
lifestyle.

The solar settlement in Freiburg

The long-term goal is carbon-free homes, reported the German government with their fifth
energy research program as if reality was not already beyond that. However, science is
well beyond the next step, as proven by the 59 existing Energyplus houses in the Solar
Settlement in Freiburg. The results of a long-term study at the Bergische University in
Wuppertal were published in January 2009 in the Deutsche Bauzeitschrift (German Building
Magazine).
The Solar Settlement houses actually do generate a surplus and indeed the average per
square meter and year was 36 kWh. Included therein are all of the energy consumption
values: heating and warm water, household and appliance power, rather than simple heat
energy as is elsewhere the case.

53

By way of comparison, existing buildings in Germany consume an average of 435 kWh,

the minimum energy standard for new buildings (EnEV 2009) is 260 kWh, and even the
passive house allows up to 120 kWh of consumption. Here we are talking about
consumption alone. The PlusEnergy house covers its own consumption and generates
another 36 kWh on top of that.
How is it calculated? Professor Karsten Voss and engineer Mira Heinze explain this in their
study. They act on the assumption from the average of all the Solar Settlement homes: three
residents share 137 m2 floor space. Now imagine the exact same house built to the
minimum energy building standard (EnEV). This would consume 185 kWh/m2 per year.
However, one can only insulate a home so well how the residents live and which
electrical equipment they use also play a role. This is why an energy-saving household is
estimated, as the Solar Settlement determined, to stay at 165 kWh/m2. Now the building is
only within the passive house energy standard, consuming 98 kWh/m2.
It also depends on where the energy used comes from. For instance, a mini-CHP in the
home using wood pellets from the region is more efficient than an age-old heating system
with Arabian petroleum. That is why there is a key multiplier for so-called primary energy.
Through the district heat network with partial wood burning, in Freiburg we consume 79
kWh/m2 of primary energy.
In addition to 79 kWh/m2 in consumption, the photovoltaic installation generates 115
kWh. This yields a final energy gain of 36 kWh.
The total energy savings at the Solar Settlement, including the 59 Energyplus homes
and the commercial and retail Sun-Ship building, are equivalent to 200,000 L of oil or 500
tons of CO2 per year.
Since the realization of the Solar Settlement, the home and housing community
concepts have been further developed. With optimized components, PlusEnergy homes can
now generate up to 200 kWh/m2 per year.

PlusEnergy as an investment
Crisis? What crisis!?! There are only challenges: economic, social, and ecological.
Challenge and response: sustainability is the answer to todays crisis and the basic energy
problems of our international economic system. Investments in PlusEnergy-projects have
proven to be resistant to the current economic crisis, and they will also defy any energy
crises. PlusEnergy-real estate investment funds have so far upheld or exceeded all of their
prognoses and have satisfied well over 1,000 investors. Among our institutional investors,
foundations, above all, have contributed not only towards a safe, high-yielding and clear-cut
investment but also an ecologically ethical one..
A PlusEnergy house brings financial advantages to the owner as well as the tenants,
and in the event it is owner-occupied, the benefits are double. Because the PlusEnergy
house reduces energy consumption to a minimum and generates a surplus of up to 200
kWh of primary energy per m2 per year, a supplementary income is achieved instead of
extra costs. The energy savings and the buyback price for the solar power bear the higher
investment compared to a conventional new building. Even with the financing costs
included, a PlusEnergy building will still uphold not only an energy plus but also a financial
plus in the first year.
54

Figure 2. The new PlusEnergy development in Koeln-Ostheim.

Every community energy-productive!

In the UN, EU and German Federal Parliament and all over, the provisions for environmental
protection are being discussed, targets aimed for and programs launched. The changeover
will happen locally, in cities and communities. Moreover, these communities have the
potential to be at the forefront of the movement right now, to take the energy turnaround into
their own local hands and thereby ensure their future sustainability.
That is why all German communities - all 11,000 - were contacted. All German mayors
were informed of the PlusEnergy opportunity. Over 300 of them have expressed an interest
and several PlusEnergy housing estates are already in planning: Knigsfeld, Schopfheim,
Waissach, Nuremberg, Cologne little and large communities in addition to developers
have begun contracts with the PlusEnergy concept, in order to explore the PlusEnergy
opportunity. A number of projects are already underway.

What can communities do?

The community is an owner and a model at the same time. It can build and use PlusEnergy
houses to show that they work. As property owners they can adequately allocate property.
Residential city builders can become committed to the highest efficiency standards.
Communities can develop a political master plan and enact it. Above all, the community
should decide on a development plan. The first step to a PlusEnergy housing community is
the master plan, which will be optimized with regard to urban development and energy.
55

A pilot project that convinces and enthuses always has a chance of being implemented. A
large number of institutions, sponsors and foundations will gladly provide support, if they are
only asked for it. Today, local and regional banks are aware of the major prospects of
sustainable projects and PlusEnergy is the opportunity.
Likewise, the market for green money is expanding, even where other markets
struggle. Institutional investors and private owners alike invest increasingly and profitably
ethically and ecologically. So help carry out a trend-setting public participation project. It will
give citizens the chance to achieve sustainability and to invest in a local, green, real-estate
investment fund in their social security. This is how we do it and it has proven to be
successful.
Cities and communities need sustainable buildings. Wherever brand new housing
communities or redensification buildings are planned, wherever attracts singles and young
families, where multi-generation living projects with attractive living space for both young
and old can be created, that is where we must think 30 to 50 years in advance. The decision
to move to or from, invest or not invest lies with the plausible and sustainable vision of the
community.
Is it not an electrifying idea to add an example of such living quality to every
community, and thus own something that anyone interested can really see and feel? That is
how a PlusEnergy house embodies modernity, savoir-vivre and indeed luxury at its finest; in
short, everything a location would like to show off in order to promote itself. New building
standards demonstrate this: We are thinking of future generations, said Ernst Ulrich von
Weizscker, an environmental activist, Emeritus Dean of the Environmental College of
Santa Barbara, California and former president of the German Federal Environment
Committee.

The Freiburg Charter

Our office is currently working on the Freiburg Charter an ambitious catalogue of
objectives and principles aimed at contributing locally to tackling the impact of climate
change. The time is ripe for decisions, especially in community politics. Make these
decisions for communal environmental protection with the Energyplus projects.

56

Architecture of Conglomerates
Lucien Kroll

6)

The situation, first (summary)

The IPCC promised us various disasters within ten years and this was already declared
three years ago which means that the point of no return is 2017. And, by the way, the
Kyoto/Copenhagen process failed miserably: we simply did not reduce our energy
consumption and CO production at all That is clear now, but then what?
As technology is not the solution but the culprit, we need to ask people to stop believing in it
and, on the contrary, to favour the low-tech over the high-tech that destroyed the planet
mostly during the thirty glorious years which were in fact the worst years of humanity: we
invented all the best means to destroy the planet and we adopted them all without
hesitation
Cities and their transport are guilty for two thirds of pollution! We figure it will take a century
to correct them in the world (insulation, amount of area, new ways of living together,
production of energy, food, work, etc). We have certainly embarked upon many courageous
actions, but painfully slowly, preferring to accumulate money in finances and luxury more
than on repairing the planet. As it is technology that has led us to this final solution, let us
choose another direction: let us try humanism to change mindsets and the public will. And
let us try to learn to change by changing
Rational modern urban cities are all designed like American military camps, settled in
no-mans-lands to shelter merchandise and to let trucks and cars circulate everywhere whilst
forgetting that people also live there. The big social schemes with prefabricated housing
became criminogenic: they are the last trigger of the process. After the experiences of
Pruitt and Igoe in Saint Louis, Missouri, il Corviale in Rome with its famous length of one
kilometre, a recent significant event occurred in Paris; in these new quarters (Clichy-sousBois), the riots of the banlieues saw 10,000 cars and 250 public buildings burnt out in 20
days. They are professionals, that much is clear

6) AUAI sprl, Architect, Brussels, Belgium; kroll@brutele.be.

57

We must remember that even in economic science, there are TWO ways of making
decisions: rationalism and incrementalism, which seems widely unknown (inhibition?).
The first system was codified by Herbert Simon (he received a Nobel prize for that): the
General Problem Solving approach was a blind, deaf and rationalist system calculating
naughty procedures totally ignoring the context: each step is definitive until the last task
which logically remains theoretical and destructive of a holistic civilisation. The second has
been defined by Charles Lindblom as Disjointed incrementalism: the science of muddling
through. The basic definition is also step by step but at each step looking to the
consequences upon the context of the works done and trying to correct the action if needed.
As the first context is clearly and visibly the inhabitant, minimum respect should be
requested: does he possess a future or will he be extinguished soon? Therefore,
spontaneously, incrementalism tries to save humanity and the planet. Simple, isnt it?
So, urgently, we need to be incrementalists and humanists. This implies the
participation of all involved in properly organised meetings (not by the way meetings) and
think tanks, so as to discover and respect the complexity of the people. This will of course
overthrow the current bases of architecture and urban design. The project will nevermore
be mechanical, abstract and technical but take place in disorder, with emotion, and a deep
diversity of forms, techniques and expressions. Even architecture programs will nevermore
be fixed at the beginning of the action, but will evolve over the course of the project with
inhabitants and users playing a central role, and never stop.
A question derives from the conflict between procedure and process: if an
agglomeration is a gathering of objects in a place having in common just the short distance
that separates them, then the conglomerate is a gathering of subjects linked by empathy
and cooperation. The result will be unimaginable by all well-established architects: new ones
will act more naturally. They will have to disorganise as much as possible, disassemble the
homogeneity of their project in order to reach a complexity that allows the greatest urban
diversity. In these uncertain times we are living in, this conglomerate attitude allows us to be
so flexible that the whole program has to be utterly improvised as a real organisational
technique. This will produce a bright new natural landscape far away from our cities as
store depositories and houses designed like machines.
I have two naughty questions. The first is: in coming years, with the disasters facing us, what
will the model of dwelling be? I guess it will be slowly invented by groups of participants
who will face those quite unknown, not understandable, not predictable circumstances of
living in the next period of disasters. Please let us not put this question to specialists,
architects or engineers. They already answered this same question in the sixties, inventing
the machine to inhabit (a definitive solution, said Walter Gropius) and creating them by the
million. And we now organise huge works to demolish them by the hundreds of thousands
The other is also a hard question: what innocent materials will we be allowed to use
for our dwellings tomorrow? I know crude (or baked?) earth, stones, chalk, animal or plant
insulation, wood in large or tiny sections and some glass (still useful). Faced with the huge
world of building sciences and techniques that are all-polluting, we will not have the strength
for improving them fast enough, but I bet we will witness an extraordinary explosion of low
technologies and intelligent systems for recycling all the trash of one that becomes the raw
material for the other. We will probably, all of us, become very poor and no longer able to
afford a big house with rich materials; it is an urgent quest to replace that waste by being
abstemious and proud of it. This is a good program for new architects that will reveal
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differences like those between gothic cathedrals with their millions of working hours
imbedded, and our present social houses where, stupidly, we spare work hours to spend
more money on high-tech means and waste of natural resources...
Concerning the inhabitants, as these are the context of each other, I call vicinitude
the opposite of urban solitude. This should be the minimal necessary proximity, vicinity,
contiguity, nearness, which impossible to provoke, but possible to achieve by inducing it
using architectural forms and juridical purviews that merely suggest these relations. And
then we wait patiently If it is impossible to act positively or to impose it, it is only possible
to forbid it This is an unknown rule of postmodern urban design: the engineers will
shiver It firstly consists of avoiding definitively viewing architecture as a cold, calculated
mechanism to be designed within closed, quite specialised teams which merely produces
self-contained, frigid, egotistical schemes (that is modernity). Or, on the contrary,
observing the possible impacts on the users behaviour, socially, emotionally, equitably (that
is post modernity). Alas (or not?), this attitude is only attainable for architects who have
already renounced their mechanical or even artistic certainties dating from the previous
century.
Technology applied to projects that are only technologically green may reveal itself to
be just as harmful as the old technology: common technology has a powerful distrust of
sentimental behaviour even if it makes green city life endurable. Nowadays, we are seeing
big environmental projects that seem to have been designed by George Orwell in 1984.
There is an incompatibility between modern, educated, mighty architects and the new lowscale and empathic attitude of the necessary behaviour of new architects: it seems to be a
future conflict between generations In that sense, the military design of the last Olympic
games in Beijing is a frightening, unbearable spectacle of late modernity.
Institutional analyses may also help us to think about the significance of forms upon the
behaviour of inhabitants, especially during these unbalanced years. From the 9/11 tragedy
of the World Trade Centre we know that architecture has a powerful language: the towers
spoke exclusively about world finances and the planet by money Incidentally, in spite of
the horror of the tragedy, we should congratulate the former mayor of N.Y.C., Rudolf
Giuliani: without the WTC towers, his city recovered the magnificent landscape it showed
before. The terrorists did clearly understand the language of architecture (architects
pretend that architecture has lost its language) in that this architecture screamed its financial
world colonisation.
Genuine deconstructivism (following the French philosophers invited by some
American universities, with a sort of bulimia: Jacques Derrida, Jean-Franois Lyotard,
Michel Foucault, Ren Girard, etc.), normally shows us the significance of our hidden
egotism as architects (the personal unavowable motivations). However, some American
architects have turned that philosophy into sellable merchandise. Let us remember that
deceptive exhibition under the name of deconstructivism, organised by commercial
architects in 1988 at the MOMA, New York. This was about a tricky complication of forms of
their architecture without any sense that could modify the relation between their architecture
and the context. Peter Eisenman, an intelligent leader of that movement destroyed his
architecture (always cubic) in little cubes with an identical form. Indeed, he invented
parthenogenesis- architecture.

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Order versus disorder

Participation in the aforementioned approach, when honestly followed, produces an organic
disorder that the architect may use to lead his project without being frustrated; quite the
contrary. The warm discussions that precede the process, necessary to go further into the
new questions provide him with a strange feeling of being useful This follows the same
processes as the spontaneous ancient cities that formed themselves slowly and organically.
It is no imitation but a mere logical process answering to the same circumstances with the
same actions but by other means. But with a terrible set of new necessities and
contradictions that will appear brutally, we will see that it will not be a copy of the good old
times
Do not invite nature into the cities: nature will become a miserable spectacle (Guy
Debords Socit du spectacle). It is better to respect the indigenous groups of plants that
invade possible living places as these will act as a counterpoint to the hard, built
environment and the climbing plants will demonstrate this empathic association. Moreover,
this is less expensive. This is not a criticism of wonderful, traditional, geometric parks but
merely the consequence of a new way of seeing the post-climate landscape. Also, care of
the biomass should be constructive. We must guarantee a minimum rather than simply plant
artificial rows of identical trees
Funnily enough, the three rules of classical theatre - action, place, time - have been
reinvented in urban design and architecture in recent modernity by those looking for an
instrument of torture. The rules have been completely reversed to fit our new atmosphere. In
urban design and architecture, action would be the reduction to a sole function (inhabit,
circulate and recreation, as they believed). (In fact it is the reverse: high quality welcoming
pieces that do not fit or obey the majority by their use, aspect, scale, style, etc. Continual
contradiction becomes necessary to make it habitable: homogeneity is the worst enemy of
habitability.) As regards place, this has been consecrated to one function with its
accessories and without anything else that could be independent of the principal. There
must be a single system to which everyone obeys, rather like an army with its uniforms.
Time has been interpreted as an instant, never a duration: the total scheme seems to have
been designed last night, without hesitation, without depth: annoying as an abstraction.

Antique conglomerates
The Ospedale della Scala is the best example of a conglomerate: in my lectures people
understand immediately what is meant! During centuries the process of conglomerate had
slowly swallowed up an ancient path of goats climbing the hill to the Dome. As it was
building on the buildings it also swallowed up the Chapel of Saint Catherina di Siena which
lost it side facades; these became the inner wall of the new neighbours. Thus was created
an urban mass grouping all different uses and which was developed as a hospital in the
Middle Ages.
More recently, I visited the Castello di San Angelo in Rome which is the most touching
example of our conglomerate: upon the foundations reminiscent of the Etruscans, each
period has added its own layer until the summit, in function of the context and without ever
deforming it.

60

Participation
There are various types of user participation. The most banal is consulting future inhabitants
(or any person willing to help) in order for the architect to shock or refine his personal
design. This is already a praiseworthy first step. When one seeks advice on the composition
from other architects who pretend to be possible inhabitants it is a sharing, open and
brotherly process but the architect still carefully retains his authority upon his own
homogenous design. Finally, some architects try to compose with a more ambitious attitude
whereby each architect voluntarily keeps his own style perceivable in his personal part,
thereby cooperating in a mosaic of unanimous differences that may be replaced by others
without perturbing the wholeness. The role of the principal designer is to organise a scheme
as a work of collective art where the contradictions are positive, expressing first of all, the
great diversity that makes a city habitable, evaluating, changing with new needs, without
losing its soul. The role of the architect explodes: he is no more the solitary genius but one
among others (non-architects). His new work could be seen as frustrating but in fact
practical experience shows that it is curiously rewarding to play that role: his professional
qualities are hugely necessary to translate and combine all needs. At first he feels that the
members of the group hesitate, but suddenly they decide to trust him without saying
anything, which he feels warmly! After that moment he may be genial and quite personal:
his art as a contribution to the group process becomes positive. He is responsible for the
expression of the diversity of the dwellers: this is a new future for new architects. His
designs are always open in the sense used by Oskar Hansen, a Polish architect and also a
great friend. For many years in Warsaw he taught his concept of Open Form and the
attitude of architects that allows this permeability for natural evolution.

Free Jazz and participation

A comparison with the improvisations of Free Jazz, which differs greatly from the cadence
in classical concertos, is useful here: the instrumentalist is free to improvise for only a
certain time within the piece. In architecture or urban design it is a far more mechanical
responsibility. The first architect stays personally responsible for different safety questions.
However, some major decisions already de-dramatise the solitude of architectural objects.
Bjorn Alterhaug and John Pal Indenberg, two Jazz Norwegian musicologists, settle a parallel
between Free Jazz and my own way to design, taking the Mm as the model of that
attitude, for the ancient cities were born as a long symphony with innumerable voices and
without musical partition. This was the same for jazz groups around 1950-1960, including
Ornette Coleman and others in New Orleans. There each musician knew the movement of
the person in charge of the motto so well that he instinctively guessed the changing themes
and made the link. By doing so they expressed democracy and black liberation. In a sense,
it is not very different from the random exercise we played to compose the fronts of the
Mm; and the nine architects we chose for Ecolonia to juxtapose them randomly are not so
different from the sentences written on the folded notice of the surrealists...

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The artist-bricklayers
At la Mm I proposed that the workers create freely. Initially, they could mix white cement
blocks and dark grey ones in a wall of red bricks, exactly as they wanted. The first attempts
were banal but then, tightening the rules I said, Put them exactly from here to there, without
it being a 45-degree slope. Thus, standing on their scaffolding, they had to turn off the radio
to think about the work: without precise drawings, the line came out to be too steep or too
flat and they had to correct it with bricks, which made it a very nice job. They felt like they
were autonomous or co-authors for a week. After that we proposed other exercises on a
large recreation area of the school: let us make some hills, so wide and so high. These
were marvels of intention: the pupils were always climbing them. The workers came back
with their families to show what they had done that week. We considered these works
popular art and asked for them to be given a sign of appreciation The university answered,
NO, we have our artists. And later they destroyed all the work without asking anybody if
it had a value: each to their own personal culture

Two examples
Ecolonia
We were contracted in 1989 to design a group of 101 houses in Alphen-aan-de de-Rijn (NL)
which had to meet a strict list of environmental obligations set out by the Ministry of Housing.
It became the first sustainable district in the Netherlands (and Europe). A remarkably friendly
client was the Bouwfonds, a social housing company. I had to design an eco-compatible
layout and to organise the nine architects (but in fact to disorganise them). We chose nine at
the outset in order to avoid any homogeneity. They were the best in the Netherlands but not
well known: they were ecologists. Each of them had to keep their own style and not come
up with common architecture. They accepted and received a list of environmental
obligations, written by the Ministry of Housing.
I had to invent a method to escape from the artificial forms that the urban designers
had fatally drawn and at that moment I had no inhabitants to question. So, I studied a series
of urban components the actions or behaviours of the inhabitants (patterns). Next, I
placed the components randomly, or rather following a spiral (an invisible form), and then I
arranged the interfaces. The result was an image without any geometrical, visible intention,
and then I redistributed the places for the blocks of the nine architects. They had to divide
them into two or three parts and were free to discuss with their new neighbours (the blocks
by the other architects), even without me guiding. This is akin to the way a spontaneous
city formed itself over centuries. I tried to protect this precious disorder from the Technical
Services of the municipality, which was a long battle.
Ecology is contagious: what the inhabitants added to their personal lot was immediately
in the same mood of differentiation of my own design. As an example, we had no budget to
develop nice gardens, just a large lawn between the faade and the central pond that we
placed in the centre of the land. So as soon as people came to live there, they worked hard
to design and build their gardens, always after discussions with their neighbours and without
any influence from the architects. Now, twenty years later, they are magnificent, shining and
touching
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Admiraalsplein in Dordrecht
This part of a neighbourhood is the most significant example I have of a conglomerate! The
reasoning behind the construction was not at all an architectural classical project with
venustas, firmitas, utilitas, but rather a salvation operation to save the neighbourhood from
slow collapse (disorder: our client, the social promoter Woondrecht who owned these
buildings, had decided that the best thing to do was to bring in new inhabitants to offset the
flight of the Dutch inhabitants, too many immigrants coming, the danger of youth, etc.). Our
promoter was sure that all the money we spent then would be beneficial within a few years,
saving the whole neighbourhood. He held talks with the municipality of Dordrecht who gave
him a good budget, just to do it better. There was neither program nor clear budget! We
made a model occupying the area with something that could be buildings but without any
readable form and we organised meetings with neighbourhood committees involving anyone
willing to help. We worked with these proposals and slowly we saw a possibility of building
emerging: a certain volume in that place. Then, a large department store interested in the
place turned up, and another, less expensive, and also thirty boutiques, and a group of
doctors who ran a day care centre, and a community centre, and a Chinese restaurant, and
two schools together. Then the doctors pulled out, followed by the community centre, the
schools and so forth. With each event we changed our plans. The program was decided
following the events and the budgets could not be calculated during this process. During the
studies they changed again and even during the works on the site. It was already a genuine
conglomerate
The promoter was under the obligation not to begin work without fifty percent of the
building sold, but even after a huge meeting to announce the building including a massive
model, songs, a meal, drinks, publicity and so on there were no sales. However, suddenly,
when the first building took form, nearly everything was sold: the possible clients had simply
not believed that it was possible.
There are no two identical apartments: the social mix we had promised to seek was
automatically achieved by the huge differences in the apartments and other uses.
Now, the second phase has the same characteristics but is a slab to transform: it
contained identical, tiny apartments and we changed it into apartments that were all
different, some smaller and some bigger. This is now finished and is becoming inhabited.
Moreover, the community centre came back, the doctors will go into the third phase, the
schools are interested again: there is no limit on time
This is a postmodern way of building - incrementalist and flexible; quite the contrary of a
seemingly military, rational organisation. It is a conglomerate

63

A Life Cycle Tower for a Better Future

Contributions of the Building Industry to a Sustainable
Tomorrow
Hubert Rhomberg

7)

Abstract
Faced with ecological challenges and limited resources, the construction industry has to
make its contributions for a sustainable tomorrow. As one of the industries with the heaviest
impact on nature, this is the construction industrys responsibility. One of the contributions
could be a lifecycle oriented process of building combined with measures which enable
buildings to use a fraction of the resources and energy currently used. The key lies in
system integration and the linking of materials and technology as well as by implementing
highly standardized industrial processes like prefabrication. These efforts lead to a high level
of quality and a guarantee in price. The author illustrates this process with an eco-innovation
a timber-based high rise to show what future contributions the construction industry
could make, as well as how wood as a raw material will find its way back into urban
architecture. The author underlines the importance of knowledge accumulation and sharing,
the need for mandatory global policies and national guidelines regulating the usage of
resources.

Introduction
Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue itfill the world and subdue it

8)

Do we have the right to subdue the world? Do we have the right to influence our biosphere?
What are the outcomes of our imprudent actions over the last 100 years? Will we continue to
overuse natural resources like ores, fossil fuels, water and even land surface, leading to
erosion, water shortages, natural disastersjust because they are part of our life? Or will we
respond to the alarming signals with a shift in our daily actions and future plans?

7) Hubert Rhomberg manages the family-owned Austrian Rhomberg Group, now in its fourth
generation. He studied at the Technical University of Vienna, Austria and the University of St. Gallen,
Switzerland
8) Genesis 1:28

65

On the one hand, we are faced with an ecological crisis. On the other hand, we are
threatened by such things as the financial crisis. Market failures, speculation, malfunctioning
early warning systems, short term profit maximization have unsettled our trust in the stability
of our global financial system. The result has been a demand for stronger regulations, and
politicians and major governments have answered by committing financial aid to address a
crisis caused by only one industry. The financial system may be restored by a few simple
measuresthis is, however, not the case for our ecosystem. Instead, every industry and
every government will need to contribute to delivering a joined global framework. The chief
challenge, however, is the lack of resources, if our current life-style remains the standard for
satisfying our needs. It is therefore becoming obvious that we need to do more with less.

The truth about the building industry

The building industry is responsible for

25 to 40 % of energy consumption,

30 to 40 % of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and

30 to 40 % of solid waste generation.

On average, the building industry is the largest single industrial employer, representing
approximately 10 to 40 % of a countrys Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 10 % of countrylevel employment, and 74 % of employees in developing countries (UNEP, 2009a).
Nevertheless, neither the Kyoto Protocol nor the Bali Roadmap exploits the GHG emissions
reduction potential of buildings. This underscores the impact of the industrys performance,
and it is fair to state that this industry has the greatest potential for delivering cuts in
resource usage at low costs, using available and mature technologies (UNEP, 2009b).

Input for a new approach

The human economy must be constrained to function within the limits of the environment
and its resources and in such a way that it works with, rather than against, natural laws and
processes (Ekins et al. 2009:2). We must make pragmatic adjustments and devise proper
measurements if we are to create a future sustainable human economy. For example, we
must dematerialize our material welfare and how we provide our energy. Dematerialization
stands for the radical reduction in the use of all materials by humans, where materials
comprise metals, non-metallic minerals, fossil fuels, water 9),the atmosphere, and renewable
resources such as ecosystems, forests and fish and land-use(Ekins et al. 2009: 2).

Measures
Twenty years ago, Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek (1993) designed two measures for de-coupling
economic activities from the use of natural resources. One is the ecological rucksack,

9) marine, fresh, renewable, non-renewable

66

containing all the indirect effects of resource use, such as the materials taken from nature in
order to produce a good or an infrastructure. In other words, the rucksack considers all
materials - including those consumed for energy - from the cradle to the point of sale. Thus,
the rucksack could be understood to be the ecological equivalent of the market price of a
good or an infrastructure in Euros.
The other measure is aimed at the owner or user of the good, showing the real
expenditures from production, use and disposal of a good. This measure is called Material
Input Per unit of Service (MIPS), and it includes all the mass and energy (and money)
required to produce, use, repair, maintain and dispose of a good. MIPS is Schmidt-Bleeks
ecological answer, the material footprint of every product, service, or utility generated.
Schmidt-Bleek (1993) also suggested that market prices should be stated in t life-cycle-long
costs for a unit of service generated (COPS). (This would, for instance, provide the actual
cost of driving a car one kilometer, or using one square meter within a building. At the
Wuppertal Institute, Schmidt-Bleeks colleagues have detailed the ecological rucksack and
MIPS and put them into practical use.

The whole is greater than the parts

Reflecting on the materials currently could be a first step towards a shift in the building
industrys thinking: This could lead to a shift to raw-materials with a light ecological backpack
or re-introducing venerable materials like wood.
A second step could be a lifecycle-oriented building process (see Figure 1). Figure 1
shows that 80% of the total WHAT costs can be influenced at the planning phase 10).

Figure 1: Overview of ability to influence total costs during the construction phases. There are great
effects and low costs at the start of a project, and increasing costs and decreasing effects thereafter
(Bruck, Geissler and Lechner 2002).
10)

Basis: average useful life of 25 years for an office building

67

In later phases (construction, use and re-use) the ability to make substantial costadjustments becomes more limited and it is difficult to generate an economically sustainable
advantage. Hence, it is necessary to take all possible occurrences during the life-cycle of the
building into account during the planning phase, in order to optimize the complete process.
In the past, optimization of the building process was done for each phase separately,
resulting in a number of measures tailored to the respective phase. But as Aristotle said the
whole is worth more than the parts and a more holistic approach is needed.
The provision of energy is an expertise on its own. To promote renewable energy
sources rather than using fossil resources, different technologies have been developed and
supported by subsidies and governmental aid. Now we need to make the transition in terms
of the characteristics of a building. In the near future, buildings will be able to produce
energy instead of simply consuming it, which is a further step towards greater resource
efficiency. A more holistic view of energy usage, both its consumption and production, is
essential for architects, planners, investors and politicians. Furthermore, well-developed,
simplified systems for building service engineering are needed, for example with iintegrated
faade concepts that permit the generation of energy.
The building industry is organized in trades; in other words, it is highly fragmented. The
consequence is that construction is a long complex process. Buildings are conventionally
developed as one-off prototypes, which results in long completion times and high designand construction-risks. System building methods optimize the design and construction
process. Using a high degree of pre-fabricated components, system buildings lead to
significant improvements in quality and price, and the costs may be estimated precisely.

A solution with multiple effects for a sustainable tomorrow

11)

Up to now, most buildings have been constructed in conventional reinforced concrete.

Increasingly scarce resources, concerns over CO2 emissions, and the rising prices of steel,
insulation and concrete have led to more interest for wood as a building material of the
future. .

Faced with the threats of our eco-system, many actors have tried to set up
strategies for a sustainable tomorrow. In the mid-1990s, the Austrian-based
building company Rhomberg started to establish strategic goals for implementing
sustainability guidelines during the construction process. To meet this challenge,
Rhomberg set up two major research projects in cooperation with the Austrian
Institute for Ecology and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and
)
Technology: The Immo-Rate 12 project and the Building of Tomorrow Project:
Sustainable Housing - Services creating individual and social advantages
(Sandgrubenweg, Bregenz, Austria) 13 ).
11) The following facts, figures and measures are based upon the findings of the research project
LifeCycle Tower supported by the Building of Tomorrow research programme of the Austrian Federal
Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology, 2010.
12) Immo-Rate: A Guide and Toolbox for rating innovative real estate projects. For further details, see
http://www.ecology.at/immo_rate.htm [10 Aug 2010]
13) Building of Tomorrow Project : Sustainable Housing - Services creating individual and social
advantages: Building of Tomorrow is one of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and
Technologys research and technology programs. Starting from the low-energy solar building approach
and the concept of the passive building, and incorporating ways of using environmentally friendly and

68

The most recent research project Building for Tomorrow Plus: LifeCycle Tower
was started by Rhomberg in cooperation with Hermann Kaufmann Architects, the
Arup GmbH and the Wiehag GmbH with the aim to develop a sustainable
construction system for multi-storey buildings which unifies economic, ecological
and social aspects. Based on previous research projects and using new findings
from additional project partners, the LifeCycle Tower project was successfully
completed in spring 2010.
The LifeCycle Tower represents a new way of system building by offering a modular
timber system that meets all the requirements for fire resistance, acoustic performance and
load capacity. Its components are consequently standardized and largely prefabricated, and
the construction time as well as burden of emissions on the construction site is profoundly
reduced.

Resource efficient - fewer emissions

The LifeCycle Tower building is less dependent on raw materials than a traditional building.
Compared to reinforced concrete, using timber for construction reduces CO2 emissions by
more than 90% (Braune & Benter 2009). Beside the high quality which controlled
prefabrication guarantees, the approach ensures cost security. Furthermore, prefabrication
reduces planning as well as construction time by half compared to the classic concrete-steel
high-rise. In addition, using wood, a sustainable material, as the main construction material
is expected to gain top category certification from LEED, DGNB and GNI.
The Tower has been designed for economic and efficient use of energy and even
generates its own energy. The complete concept is innovative in that it avoids energy
consumption, even achieving energy gains.

High level but simple technology

The vision was to construct a system-built high rise using prefabricated components.
Member connections should be "dry", and concreting and screed work kept to a minimum.
This led to the development of prefabricated components for the floors, facades and core of
the 1000 m per floor, centrally stiffened building.
The system-built method has a grid that allows a wide range of different floor layouts.
The result is flexibility of use and the ability to customize the basic building to suit local
circumstances. The floors are of reinforced concrete and wood composite construction. The
layer of wood is in the form of individual beams. Glued laminated timber (glulam) can be
used instead of cross-laminated timber, while the reinforced concrete layer gives the
required fire protection and sound insulation. This solution is ideal from the point of view of
fire resistance. The reinforced concrete slab effectively separates the storeys into individual
fire compartments and prevents the floor from burning through in the event of a fire (see
figure 2).

renewable materials in construction, new designs with great promise for the future have been developed
and implemented. The project Sustainable Housing Services creating individual and social
advantages offers contemporary sustainable solutions for residential buildings. These will be optimized
and realized by interdisciplinary planning oriented to the life-cycle, services supporting the quality of life,
and intelligent use of information and communication technologies. For further Details, see
http://www.hausderzukunft.at/results.html/id3263 [10 Aug 2010]

69

Figure 2: Interior perspective showing the deck system. (Copyright: Rhomberg Group)

The central core connects the floors and stiffens the building. Glued laminated timber
reinforces the core walls. The walls are made up of vertical glulam loadbearing members or
open panels of glulam posts and rails. The properties of the wood and type of connections
provide better sound insulation than a monolithic reinforced concrete core. Having a
stiffened core allows the greatest possible freedom for the design of the facade.

Multitasking faade
The facade on the high rise is designed double, with the faade columns fully integrated into
the prefabricated elements. The excellent insulation properties of the wood considerably
simplify the task of integrating the supporting members into the plane of the facade.
The prefabricated components are assembled storey by storey, with the deck elements
simply placed on the facade elements. The transfer of the vertical loads is by pure
compression, so the columns merely need to have locational restraints. The concept of
combining the load bearing members and the building skin into one element and having
prefabricated deck elements shortens the construction time. After the installation of a floor,
the storey below is immediately available for fitting out.
The technical building services are centrally located in the basement. The services are
distributed up shafts in the core and within the floor construction, where they run parallel to
the timber ribs. With this system, the structural material, the wood, is apparent throughout
the interior of the building.
Storey heights can be lower, as the load bearing members and the technical building
services share the same space in the deck. This eliminates the need for a suspended
ceiling. Floor boxes and cable ducts in the floor provide access for services, so there is no
need for a double or voided floor construction, even in the offices.

70

Fire protection and safety

Obviously, good fire protection is particularly important in a building made of wood. The
designers examined several different approaches. The fire resistance of the facade columns
and the structural members in the deck modules were determined based on combustion
tests. The system building method allows damaged facade elements to be replaced or the
effects of fire on the timber ribs to be rectified. A building-wide sprinkler system prevents
fires from spreading. The core is protected against fire by F90 quality board. The reinforced
concrete floors between the storeys also form first-class fire breaks. The logical construction
sequence in which one component is stacked onto the other ensures that there is always at
least 10 cm of concrete between the storeys.
Another advantage is weight: softwood from spruce or fir weighs about 450 kg/m3, which is
considerably lighter than concrete, which weighs approximately 2400 kg/m3. Using wood for
structural connections not only reduces the weight, but also increases the strength and
flexibility of these non-rigid connections. This also guarantees a higher earthquake
protection.

Conclusion
We face serious environmental and economic challenges, which demand ecological
innovations, aggressive global policies and tight national guidelines for all industries. These
need to be mandatory, as voluntary guidelines do not have the power to induce the obvious
and badly needed changes.
The construction industry in particular, has to assume its responsibility. It is not enough
to merely pay attention to CO2 emissions. We need to go further, for instance
dematerializing products and implementing a lifecycle oriented construction process. Allembracing methods, such as MIPS, can offer a useful support to implement resourceefficient actions. Coupled with building standards - guaranteed by certifications like LEED,
BREEAM, DGNB and OEGNI - a high standard of green buildings can be established.
Besides the efforts of industries, new tax incentives and subsidies for energy efficiency
investments need to be created. Additionally, the consumption of resources should be taxed
according to their degree of scarcity.
To enable a quick response from the construction industry, it is essential to develop a
profound knowledge on green building, energy and resource efficiency, and the thermal
integrity of buildings. To this end, further investments in education must be made. This
includes energy-efficiency training for every stakeholder within the industry, as well as
vocational programs. The know-how that has been acquired has to be shared through
regional, national and international knowledge clusters and educational initiatives which
could be led by construction companies. Likewise, a higher level of awareness needs to be
achieved among the community at large. NGOs as well as governmental campaigns could
support those efforts. This way, the pressure to change will be on each stakeholder.
To sum up, the key towards a sustainable tomorrow is system integration and the
linking of traditional materials with new technologies, finesse and sophistication, courage
and trust in the future. The LifeCycle-Tower is a contribution and a first step towards building
a better future, and it can provide food for thought for researchers as well as the building
industry.
71

References
Braune A. /Benter M. (2010): CO2-Check fr LifeCycle-Tower, Stuttgart.
Bruck M., Geissler S., Lechner R. (2002): Total Quality Planung und Bewertung (TQ-PB)
von Gebuden. Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie, Vienna.
Ekins P., Meyer B., Schmidt-Bleek F., Schneider F. (2009): A Proposal for Global Resource
Policy, [Online], Available: http://www.worldresourcesforum.org/files/file/gws-paper095-versionDavos.pdf [10 Aug 2010].

Goldman
Sachs
(2007):
BRICs
and
Beyond,
http://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/brics/BRICs-and-Beyond.html
[10.
August 2010].
Hails C. et al. (2008): WWF Living Planet Report 2008, [Online], Available:
http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf [10 Aug
2008].
Schmidt-Bleek, F. (1998): MIPS - Material Input per Service-einheit, Berlin: Droemer Knaur.
United Nations Environment Program Sustainable Building & Climate Initiative (UNEPSBCI),
(2009a):
Annual
Report
2009,
[Online],
Available:
http://www.unep.org/sbci/pdfs/SBCI_2008_2009_Public_Annual_Report.pdf [10 Aug
2010]
United Nations Environment Program Sustainable Building & Climate Initiative (UNEPSBCI), (2009b): Buildings & Climate Change industry call to action, [Online],
Available: https://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6506 [10 Aug 2010].
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), (2010): Business &
Development Challenges and Opportunities in a rapidly changing world, [Online],
Available: http://www.wbcsd.org/web/projects/BZrole/Vision2050-FullReport_Final.pdf
[10 Aug 2010].
Zangerl M. (2010): LifeCycle-Tower Final Report, Building for Tomorrow-ResearchProgramme of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology,
Bregenz.

Related Websites:
Rhomberg Group: http://www.rhombergbau.at
Factor 10 Institute: http://www.factor10-institute.org
Immo-Rate: http://www.ecology.at/immo_rate.htm
Building of Tomorrow: http://www.hausderzukunft.at/results.html/id3263

72

Rapid GHG reductions in the built environment under

extreme conditions
Nils Larsson

14)

Abstract
A considerable number of papers produced by IPCC and others have outlined the science
behind climate change predictions, probable impacts, mitigation measures and possible
adaptation. In this short paper, we attempt to identify some of the key links between climate
change and the building sector and then to suggest some possible responses for rapid
reduction of greenhouse gases under emergency conditions.

Greenhouse gases in climate change

The anthropogenic driver of climate change is the increasing concentration of greenhouse

gases (GHG) in the atmosphere, chiefly CO2, but also including Methane, Sox and Nox
gases. The World Resources Institute (WRI) estimates that buildings are directly responsible
for 15.3 percent of global GHG emissions. To this a share of industrial emissions should be
added for materials and for road transport. A very conservative estimate of building-related
GHG share would therefore be in the range of 20 percent to 25 percent, and this would be
higher in developed countries. A strategy for the diminution of GHGs must therefore include
the building sector as main target for GHG reductions.

1.1

Trends in emissions and global temperature increases

The International Energy Agency has concluded that although opinion is mixed on what
might be considered a sustainable, long-term level of annual CO2 emissions for the energy
sector, a consensus on the need to limit the global temperature rise to 2 C is emerging. To
limit to 50% the probability of a global temperature increase in excess of 2 C, the
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere would need to be stabilized to a level
around 450 ppm CO2-eq( IEA World Energy Outlook 2009, executive summary, p.7).

14) International Initiative for a Sustainable Built Environment, larsson@iisbe.org

73

Figure 1 Outline of probable climate change impacts, partly taken from IPPC 2007 AR-4
report i .
74

Is such a target likely to be achieved? Although the IEA is guardedly optimistic, trends
in emissions seem to point in a different direction. In its 2008 Climate Science Issue Brief,
the World Resources Institute cites recent research in the field: Raupach et al. note that the
growth rate of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel consumption and industrial
processes has grown from 1.1% per year over the 1990s to more than 3% per year from
2000 to 2004 The authors find that declining trends in energy intensity of GDP and
carbon intensity of energy are now being slowed and even reversed, and thus
decarbonization trends are not as strong as previously.
The WRI editors comment thatScenarios of future climate-related damages (such as
those of the IPCC), which to date have been based on more optimistic assumptions, may
prove to be conservative descriptions of possible future damages.

Global climate change impacts

One of the sobering aspects of the work done by the IPCC is their exposition of the time
scales involved. IPCC demonstrates that CO2 emissions today have a positive feedback on
global mean temperature that lasts for over 100 years, and the resulting sea level rise due to
thermal expansion lasts well over a 1,000 years. Even if action to reduce GHGs is
immediate, the effects of current emissions are still to come. Action is therefore needed, but
in addition to the difficulty of obtaining political action, the slow rate of change in the building
sector creates a special problem.
The overall impact is also clearly identified by IPCC, and the following excerpts from
the 2007 IPCC Report identify some major climate trends for the 21st century: IPCC also
predicts that temperature increases will be most pronounced towards the end of the century,
with the northern hemisphere the most exposed. The UK Met Office has issued a short
pamphlet on the effects of climate change on housing in the UK 15), which is generally
consistent with the IPCC predictions (UK Met Office 2009).

Material demand, scarcity and supply problems

Climate change is not the only challenge that will be faced by the building industry during the
next century. Several of these factors will converge to make the life of developers, designers
and builders especially difficult.
Fuel costs and possible shortages will create problems for automobile owners,
especially for those who want to emulate the North American pattern of living in outer
suburbs with one car per adult occupant. There may be respite in the form of greatly
increased fuel efficiencies or car-sharing, but there is no general solution save that of

15)

The Met Office website on 01 October, 2008 also stated: Anyone who thinks global warming has
stopped has their head in the sand. The evidence is clear the long-term trend in global
temperatures is rising, and humans are largely responsible for this rise. Global warming does not mean
that each year will be warmer than the last, natural phenomena will mean that some years will be much
warmer and others cooler.. In the last couple of years, the underlying warming is partially masked
caused by a strong La Nia. Despite this, 11 of the last 13 years are the warmest ever recorded.

75

Figure 2 Consumption of selected raw materials, from University of Minnesota, 2005

increasing densities in such areas to a point where public transport becomes economical,
something that will take decades. The building sector also faces competition for fossil fuels
with, for example, natural gas being used for power generation and space heating, as well
as for the production of fertilizers.
As Figure 2 shows, 5 major industrialized countries consumed about half of the global
consumption of Copper, Aluminium and Nickel, and for other materials such as Iron, Crude
Steel, Zinc and Tin, the consumption levels of the same 5 countries represented between 2+
to 4+ times their proportion of the global population. During the last 5 years, priced for some
of these key materials have risen sharply, and then fallen again. The rapid economic growth
of Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and Russia will increase the competition to extract more
supplies, but it is apparent that we will reach a point within the next three decades when
scarcity coupled with demand will raise prices to levels that would currently be considered
clearly unsustainable. Obviously, projects will still be built, but it seems inevitable that they
will be very costly and that they will have to serve purposes that are of an urgent nature.

Climate change combined with resource depletion

The climate and resource issues outlined above will result in major problems for investors,
designers and operators of buildings in most regions. They will be complicated by the
recession, which one hand makes it harder to find construction funding, while governments
want to encourage construction employment on the other. Meanwhile, demographic
changes will shift demand for types of dwelling units, which may alter the value of existing
buildings to a considerable extent.

76

4.1

Efficiency

Great strides are being made in improving the ecological performance of materials and
mechanical systems are rapidly increasing in energy efficiency. Progress is also evident in
the environmental performance of some new large buildings through changes in design
practice, such as the adoption of Integrated Design Process protocols.
However, performance improvements are mainly applicable to large and expensive
new buildings, and more so in Europe than in North America or Asia. It should also be noted
that new buildings in most regions represent only from 2% to 4% of the total building stock.
Thus, high-performance exemplar projects represent only a very small portion of the total
stock. Clearly, the stock of existing buildings should be the major focus of performance
improvement efforts in the building sector.
In the sub-sector of single-family houses (the most energy inefficient form of building)
there has been considerable improvement in energy performance in North America over the
last 15 years.

4.2

Consumption

Irrespective of efficiency gains in residential and non-residential buildings, the trend in

developed countries to massively over-consume housing, and to develop it in a very lowdensity pattern, has required large quantities of materials for both infrastructure and
buildings, with consequent embodied and operating GHG emissions. The urban
development of Las Vegas from 1973 to 2000, mainly from single-family housing, provides a
striking example in Fig. 3.

Figure 3

Aerial photos of urban development in Las Vegas in 1973 and 2000, from UNEP 2005

77

A more general perspective is provided by the data below. Although data is for the USA,
Canada follows a very similar path (Rees, 2009).

Between 1950 and 2004, the size of the average new house in the USA
expanded by 135%, from about 93 m2 to 218 m2;
One in five new houses now comes in at more than 465 m2. (The US
National Association of Home Builders showcase home for 2005 was
553 m2 or 15% bigger than the 2004 model.
Forty-three per cent of new construction features 2.75 m ceilings
compared with 15% in the 1980s.
Meanwhile, between 1950 and 2003, average US household size fell
from 3.7 to 2.6 people.
This means that floor space per capita increased by over 230%
from 25 m2 to 84 m2.

Such development patterns continue, and effectively wipe out efficiency gains. The problem
is likely to worsen, with substantial urban growth forecast for regions such as Asia, Africa
and Latin America, and with increasingly affluent populations striving for Western standards
of accommodation. The sheer numbers, as shown below in fig 4, will make solutions based
on efficiency alone unlikely to succeed.

Figure 4 UN World Population Prospects: The 2006 World Urbanization Prospects: 2007 Revision

78

The dilemma

The overall situation is that, although impressive efficiency gains are being made in building
and equipment performance, excess consumption is wiping out these gains. More troubling
is that consumption is culturally determined, and cultural changes usually require a decade
or more of substantial information and incentives. Some regions and countries, especially in
Europe, have responded in a positive way, but major private sector emitters are not likely to
respond to a sufficient degree, especially not within the very small narrow window of
opportunity for mitigation that still exists. Add to this the need for substantial amounts of
new construction in developing countries, and it is unlikely that global reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions will be sufficient to result in levels below 450 ppm of GHG, which
in turn will bring into play some of the more dire predictions of IPCC.
We therefore face a possibility of massive disruption of agriculture and industry and
living and working conditions, possibly by mid-century and certainly by the end of the
century. Although we all want to look for a happy ending, we are not likely to avoid this fate
unless there is a major paradigm shift, and such shifts usually require major external events
to be considered. The Depression, WW2 and 9/11 are historical examples of such
conditions.
A major problem in motivating decision-makers to act is that the harbingers of climate
change in North America and northern Europe have been, until now, relatively gradual and
benign. This sequence may cause us to become numbed by a gradually escalating series
of climate-related incidents and not act decisively until it is far too late. However, climate
change may also be announced by a series of major and sudden natural disasters, an
outcome that is certainly within the bounds of projections made by the IPCC. If such a series
of sudden catastrophes were to have direct impacts on elites in developed countries,
especially in the USA. or Canada, there would likely be a strong and immediate public
demand for effective responses to mitigate the effects of the events. This would provide a
real opportunity to simultaneously deal with the greenhouse gas emissions that cause
climate change, if key people and organizations had realistic plans and were ready to act.
Sudden climate disasters are not a pleasant prospect, but it is one of the few scenarios that
offer the potential for resolute action.
We have a duty to explore the possibility of catastrophic climate-induced events, what
the consequences might be, and how they might best be dealt with.

Scenarios for the debut of climate change effects

Our assumption for the type of major events related to climate change that are likely to occur
during the next decade include coastal storms with related storm surges, inland storms,
flash floods, droughts and major forest fires.

6.1

Business-as-usual scenario

If a series of such events take place in first-world regions within the next decade, with
extensive damage and multiple deaths, it is likely that the imminence of climate change will
79

finally be accepted by the majority of media and decision-makers. Based on the history of
catastrophic events of other types, we can assume that the shock effect will open the minds
of the public and elites to radical measures. But such openness will last only for a few
weeks, and desperate leaders will grab whatever plans are available. The result could be
hasty, ad-hoc and poorly considered action. We have unfortunate examples of this kind of
reaction from the collapse of the USSR, the 9/11 event, SARS, the recent recession, and
even the Gulf of Mexico oil spill of 2010.
In the case of the forthcoming weather shocks from climate change effects, we may
unfortunately face a similar situation, but the consequences may be even more serious. The
immediate concern will be to care for injured populations and to carry out immediate repairs,
and this is likely to push the need for adaptation and mitigation measures to the back burner.
Governments might be led to announce that, in addition to urgent repair and re-building
efforts, national emissions must be reduced by large amounts over a very short period (say
80% by 2025 instead of 2050), along with promises of massive fines if targets are not met.
Reaching such performance requirements would be very difficult, because strategies for
such a rapid and deep reductions would have to be invented on the fly. We can foresee that
such actions might be achievable in, for example, in the automotive or the consumer goods
sectors, but it will be much harder to do so in the building sector. The building industry is
very large and complex, with a few large players and very many small ones on the
production side, and with control even more dispersed on the demand side. Finally,
buildings are almost all unique, so global approaches need local modifications.
Given the scenario outlined above, a government might well push the construction and real
estate sectors towards a rapid a drastic reduction in emissions, along with promises of
massive fines if targets are not met. Achieving such goals will be very difficult, because very
few countries have central departments with direct responsibility for the building industry.
Also, the industry is very large and complex, with a few large players and very many small
ones on the production side, and with control even more dispersed on the demand side.
We can envision the results without too much speculation:

First, we would expect a surge in demand for man and materials to carry
out urgent repair, re-building and re-location needs which would, within
weeks, deplete the supply of skilled and firms in the affected region;

Manufacturers of building materials would be faced with urgent

production requests, but would face greatly increased power costs, and
might also have to cope with a disrupted labor force and plant
conditions. Prices for materials and services of this type would therefore
reach astronomical levels;

Owners or managers of existing commercial buildings would have to

reduce operating hours to meet GHG reduction targets;

Residential tenants will face mandatory energy cuts;

The value of buildings with poor energy efficiency will plummet.

Suburban building land values will also face massive drops because of
controls on new building and stringent limits on private vehicle
emissions, which will bring new construction in outer suburbs to a halt.

80

Many standards for good design and operations, such as adequate

lighting levels, indoor comfort conditions, and work to preserve heritage
buildings will fall by the wayside, at least temporarily (say for 20 years);

Social tensions will rise to very high levels when those who want to
pursue their normal paths (commercial building development, building
your dream home) are faced with permit refusals, while climate refugees
and families suffering from energy poverty are given priority;

And the need to deal with repair and remedial work will lead
governments to say that they cannot afford more GHG mitigation
measures;
In view of such a series of effects, little effective reduction in emissions would be achieved.

6.2

A scenario for contingency planning

Some of these consequences can be avoided if quick and decisive action takes place, but
such responses are likely to be effective only if action plans have been developed before the
emergency occurs, and are ready for immediate implementation. Even though some
government and many private-sector organizations have not been willing to take meaningful
mitigation steps to date, they might be willing to prepare contingency plans for rapid
reduction, as part of a due diligence process.
Such plans must support very rapid reductions in GHG emissions over a short timeframe something like 75% over 5 years but varying with the sector and specific cases.
To be available when the time comes, such plans must be voluntarily developed now by a
variety of public- and private-sector organisations, so they will be ready when needed. A
large number of contingency plans will need to be prepared by individual governments and
private-sector organizations, to cover most key sectors of the emission-producing economy.
Measures proposed do not include those that require lengthy planning or
implementation times, such as the introduction of carbon taxes or risk assessment studies of
existing urban areas and building stock with regard to possible climate change impact
events, such as floods, wind storms, heat waves etc. 16) Such work is a necessity for postdisaster recovery.
Excluding measures that require lengthy planning of implementation times, a selection
of essential contingency plans would include plans for the rapid introduction of the following.
1)

2)
3)

A ban on the construction of new coal-fired generation power plants and

the extension of existing plants, unless significant GHG sequestration is
provided;
Rapid reduction of peak loads in electrical networks through the rate
structure and through load ceilings;
Acceleration of feed-in tariff policies from decentralized renewable power
sources;

16)

See for example Methods for risk assessment and mapping in Germany, preface to special issue of
Natural Hazards Earth System Science 6, 721-733, 2006, and also Winter storm risk of residential
structures - model development and application to German state of Baden-Wrtemberg, P. Heneka, T.
Hofherr, B, Ruck and C. Kottmeier, in Natural Hazards Earth System Science 6, 721-733, 2006.

81

4)
5)
6)

7)
8)
9)
10)

11)

12)

13)
14)

15)

Measures to minimize short-term speculative price rises for construction

materials;
Back-up provision for power outages and other service interruptions
(water, food and other supplies, communications etc.);
Plans to ensure that facilities of critical importance, such as hospitals,
public transportation systems, water and sewage treatment and pumping
systems, remain provided with electrical power, heat, water and other
vital services;
Alternative locations for key facilities such as docks 17) and airports and
of populations in areas vulnerable to flooding or fire 18);
Programs for the rapid conversion of surplus office buildings to
residential uses;
Identification of empty non-primary dwellings for accommodation of
climate refugees;
A freeze on new construction in un-serviced or low-density areas or
potential flood areas, and a zero operating GHG emissions requirement
for new construction that is permitted;
Rapid reduction in operating emissions of public buildings, private office,
hotel and multi-unit residential buildings, through implementation of
shovel-ready retrofit plans and better operating practices, all while
minimising disruption or reduction in service levels to occupants;
Rapid reduction of peak loads and emissions in manufacturing plants
and service-sector facilities, by means of changes in industrial
processes, operating hours or other relevant means;
Prohibition of the sale of appliances and equipment that do not meet
certain operating efficiency criteria (e.g. "A" label in Europe);
Crash training programs for regulators, renovation contractors,
simulation specialists and others needed to upgrade performance in new
and existing buildings;
Urgent performance improvement measures for existing dwellings.

It is clear that the content of GHG rapid reduction plans proposed above would be a
sensitive matter in some cases, where the leakage of information under current conditions
might pose political difficulties because of limitations on personal freedom of action, or harm
standings in a highly competitive market. It is therefore suggested that participating
organizations would not be compelled to share their plans with any outside organization, but
only to report that they have completed a plan that satisfies the content criteria established
in the project. The main emphasis here is to ensure that workable and humane plans are
available for rapid implementation when circumstances demand it. There are certain
characteristics that such plans would have to be based on if they are to be effective.

17)

The U.S. military is well aware of the dangers that many of its coastal bases are facing; see National
Security and the Threat of Climate Change, CNA Corporation, 2007
18)
The dismal efforts at relocation and rebuilding in New Orleans are a reminder of how extensive and
well coordinated the required efforts will have to be if they are to be successful

82

Measures proposed will have to be able to be very quickly implemented;

beginning within weeks rather than months;
The scope of proposed action will have to be defined (e.g. all or part of a
property portfolio, certain segments of a customer base etc.);
Estimates of speed and amount of net reduction in GHGs emissions will
have to be provided, projected on a year-by-year basis over a 5-year
time frame;
Plans will have to identify measures to minimize negative social
disruption or other secondary impacts;
Identify main obstacles or sources of likely opposition and suggest
coping strategies;
Complementary action required by governments, other regulatory
authorities or financial institutions to facilitate implementation of the plan
should be identified.

Conclusions

Some governments, especially in Europe, have launched ambitious plans to reduce GHGs,
but it is not yet clear whether their voters will agree with the changes in lifestyle that will be
necessary to meet these targets.
Excessive consumption will not easily be reduced, and is likely to lead us into global
temperature increases that will be considerably greater than the desired target of 2 C;
It will probably require one or more climate-induced disasters of major proportions to
shock governments and their populations into real action, especially in North America.
When that happens, there will be an immediate demand for contingency plans to reduce
GHGs in a very rapid way and to implement urgent measures for climate change adaptation.
In view of on-going government inaction, it is most logical for national and local
governments, as well as private organizations to develop such plans and keep them ready.
The alternative is to do nothing now, but to be forced to accept hastily developed and
unsound plans when an emergency is declared.

References
IEA World Energy Outlook 2009, Executive Summary, pg. 7
IPCC AR4 Working Group 1, Summary for Policymakers, 2007, p. 8. Note that Virtually
certain are events with a 99% probability of occurrence while Very likely are events with
95% probability of occurrence.
Rees, William E. (2009) The ecological crisis and self-delusion: implications for the building
sector, in Building Research & Information, 37: 3, 300 311
UK Met Office April 2009, Effects on Housing
WRI Issue Brief, Climate Science 2007, World Resources Institute, September 2008

83

The Energy Transition Model

Bringing rationale to the emotional discussion on our
energy future
John Kerkhoven

19)

Abundant fossil energy cannot be taken for granted anymore

Our economy and welfare are built upon the abundant availability of fossil energy sources.
Unfortunately, we can no longer, because of possible scarcity, and should no longer,
because of possible climate change, rely on these energy sources in the near future.
Driven by the belief that that our society must now move towards a more sustainable future,
we, together with many public and private partners, have invested in the transition away
from dependence on fossil fuels. This knowledge has been made publicly available to
anyone interested, in the form of an online tool and a database containing over one
thousand recent reports on the energy situation in Europe.
The model is fully integrated in our website and the reports can be found through the
search function on our website: www.energytransitionmodel.com

Fig.1: The Energy Transition Model as a framework for discussing our energy future rationally. (picture
by Arend van Dam

19) Dr. Ir. John Kerkhoven is Managing Director, Quintel Intelligence; www.energytransitionmodel.com

85

Fig. 2: Homepage of the Energy Transition Model at www.energytransitionmodel.com

Figure 3: Partners of the Energy Transition Model in the Netherlands

86

Fig.4: Policy measures that can be taken in the Energy Transition Model. CO2 measures as an example.

The Energy Transition Model:

a tool for communication, education and policy-making
As from the end of 2007, we have been developing an easily accessible and free of charge
energy transition tool, which is now being used by numerous politicians, energy company
boards, company strategy departments and students. We have called this the Energy
Transition Model (ETM).
We have demonstrated that this model can structure the complex emotional discussion
about our energy future, and help increase our understanding of what lies ahead of us.
The Energy Transition Model is a model validated by our partners that takes current
economic reality and corroborated physical and chemical relations into account. In other
words, we use the current costs of a new coal power plant or a modern offshore wind
turbine. It also contains the conversion rates from coal to electricity and heat in such a plant,
as well as the CO2 emissions. Efficiencies of other energy technologies like electric cars or
gas-fired heat pumps are also part of the model. The model helps the user to utilize these
figures as a starting point.
Of course there are also many things that we do not know for sure. For example, the
future price of coal is unknown. Hence, the model allows users to tap in their own forecasted
coal price and adjust the sliders in the model to perform a sensitivity analysis on any aspect
87

of the energy system. The model will instantly show the consequences of the choices
made.
Although the model can be used individually, it is also commonly being used for group
discussions of various forms.
The Energy Transition Model allows everybody to implement his or her vision on the
world. At the same time, in return the model will show the direct consequences of the
choices made.
One of the most important conclusions that can be drawn from the model is that
demand-side measures are nearly always cheaper and more effective than supply-side
measures in the near future. It turns out that it is even possible to take steps that are
cheaper (at todays prices) than many measures currently contemplated, while reducing CO2
emissions and imports for primary energy and improving sustainability. All of these
measures are possible using currently available technology.

Growing incentives to start an energy transition

The incentive to become less dependent on ever scarcer energy resources and/or to protect
our trade balance is high. Although an economic crisis may slow development down, there is
a high likelihood that easily accessible oil will become scarce within fifteen years.
Conventional gas production in the Netherlands will decrease in that period by 75% and as a
consequence energy imports will have to rise in a period in which prices of primary energy
sources could also rise.
The urgency to protect our climate also seems to be ever greater. Policymakers in the
US and Europe, for example, are discussing scenarios for 80% CO2 reduction in a period of
forty years. In order to meet such targets, the term energy transition should actually be
replaced by energy revolution. The task ahead is immense.

Five actions toward a sustainable energy future

The Energy Transition Model shows which scenarios are possible to meet these targets for
the period 2010-2050. The optimization module (not publicly available) of the Energy
Transition Model comes up with transition paths that are affordable, doable and able to meet
the CO2 reduction targets in a slowly growing economy. From this analysis and many
hundreds of sessions with policymakers to discuss the energy future, we conclude that:

1
Buildings need to become at least energy-neutral and possibly gridindependent
Energy-Neutral and Energy Grid-Independent buildings are possible and sensible (NB: the
author is currently building his own grid-independent house at a 10% higher cost than an
otherwise conventional house). It is quite obvious that in northwest Europe, current heating
technology should be replaced by more efficient forms of heating (electric heat pumps, gas
fired heat pumps, micro-CHPs and so on), in combination with increasing levels of
insulation.
88

Fig. 5: Example of 2050 scenario for household energy demand with 80% CO2 reduction for the
Netherlands (limited energy efficiency increase, slowly growing economy and 100% increase in fossil
fuel prices, CO2 price at 50 Euro per tonne. Use of current state-of-the-art technology.)

In this scenario the transition path goes via gas technologies (as these can be implemented
easily in existing houses) to electric technologies in 2050.
In the Netherlands, for example, phasing out traditional heating and replacing it by any
of the previously mentioned technologies would save more energy than the electricity used
by all Dutch households put together. Improved housing insulation would make this equation
even better.

2
Energy use in transport, especially passenger transport could be
slashed
Energy used in personal car transport could easily be reduced by half in a relatively short
period, while still accommodating slowly growing mobility. Figure 6 shows how the
introduction of electric and compressed green/natural gas-powered cars can achieve this in
a period of four decades, assuming moderate improvements of internal combustion engines.

Fig. 6: Example of 2050 scenario for transport energy demand with 80% CO2 reduction for the
Netherlands (limited energy efficiency increase, slowly growing economy and 100% increase in fossil
fuel prices, CO2 price at 50 Euro per tonne. Use of current state-of-the-art technology.)

89

Towards biomass-based industry

As oil demand in the developing world is set to increase strongly in the future, oil prices may
be expected to rise in the mid- to long-term future. To bolster innovation and provide a longterm hedge against rising oil prices, industry should be encouraged to experiment more with
biomass as an alternative feedstock to oil. So the production of plastics, for example, should
shift over time from using oil as the base product to biomass. Naturally, the amount of land
needed to produce higher levels of biomass in our energy system would increase drastically.
Figure 7 shows the use of biomass in heat and electricity production for industry in the
80% reduction scenario.

Fig. 7: Example of 2050 scenario for Industry energy demand with 80% CO2 reduction for the
Netherlands (limited energy efficiency increase, slowly growing economy and 100% increase in fossil
fuel prices, CO2 price at 50 Euro per tonne. Use of current state-of-the-art technology.)

Towards a new diet

Although this is not (yet) a module in the Energy Transition Model, the ideas on mass
biomass production are also consistent. If we are to make biomass available, we need to
reconsider the majority proportion of farm land used for feeding cattle. The more our
population is willing to eat a vegan diet, the more land becomes available for extra food,
nature or biomass production. According to some predictions, as much as 70% farm land
globally could potentially become available. As a by-product, it is also expected that the
health of the population would improve. This would clearly be not just an energy revolution
but a revolution in eating habits, especially in western societies.

Oil and Gas as fossil transition fuels

During the energy transition, fossil fuels will be unavoidable. In Dutch society, a transition
path via gas and natural oil makes the most sense. Gas is regionally available, relatively
cheap and cleaner than its alternatives. Natural gas and mineral oil still play large roles in
the 80% CO2 reduction scenarios for 2050 found by our optimization module. Without
exception, coal is almost completely phased out.
90

Fig.8: Example of 2009 situation (left) and 2050 scenario for primary energy use with 80% CO2
reduction for the Netherlands (limited energy efficiency increase, slowly growing economy and 100%
increase in fossil fuel prices, CO2 price at 50 Euro per tonne. Use of current state-of-the-art
technology.)

Transition via CO2 capturing and storage (CCS)

The Energy Transition Model allows various CCS-enabled plants to be built, including the
infrastructure to store the CO2 underground. However, it is difficult to create conditions in the
optimization module of the model whereby CCS makes sense. Measures on the demand
side with a similar CO2-reducing effect are almost always cheaper and more sustainable.

Fig. 9: Example of 2050 scenario cost comparison of electricity power plants (limited energy efficiency
increase, slowly growing economy and 100% increase in fossil fuel prices, CO2 price at 50 Euro per
tonne. Use of current state-of-the-art technology.)

91

Many people believe that CO2 prices will rise, coal prices could stay low, wind prices
are more or less stable and solar PV prices will slowly decline. In such a scenario, the CCSenabled plant would not be able to compete on cost with solar or wind alternatives by as
early as the 20202030 timeframe. Given that the first commercial large-scale CCS plants
are planned for 2020, this seems a rather uncertain route.

Giving every European a tool to investigate the energy future

It is our intention to make the Energy Transition Model progressively available for all
European countries (test models are currently available for several countries other than the
Netherlands). In the Netherlands the model also operates at the level of a province or a city.
New versions to be launched this year will include possibilities to build energy-neutral and/or
grid-independent houses. In addition, the implications of any scenario for electricity grids are
fully modelled and now available for the Netherlands.
We warmly welcome support from companies and institutions, either in the form of
partnering/sponsoring and/or data collection, in our mission to help every European (from
policymakers to students) understand the options for our energy future.

92

Part III
Papers

From Space Habitats to Zero Emission Buildings

Space Borne ZEB Enabling Technologies
Julien S. Bourrelle

20)

, Arild Gustavsen

21)

, Bjrn Petter Jelle

22)

Abstract
Zero Emission Buildings (ZEBs) strive to minimize net emissions from the building stock by
substantially reducing energy demand and promoting local energy production from
renewables. Improvements towards achieving ZEBs may come from technologies not yet
implemented in the building sector but existing in other fields. Adapting technological
solutions to buildings may be a quick and efficient way to attain the ZEB status.
For half a century, space engineers strove to develop habitats which would enable life
to survive in the inhospitable environment of outer space. Some of the supporting
technologies were adopted for use on Earth and have already found their commercial place
in the building sector, e.g. photovoltaic systems. Other technologies, specific materials and
general concepts in the design of space habitats are still to be adapted for use in buildings.
This paper starts by looking to space habitats as ZEBs, which reveals interesting variables
for consideration in the development of a framework for a robust definition of ZEBs. The
International Space Station (ISS) and the Biosphere 2 Project are discussed as case study
examples of mostly material-closed but energy-opened buildings. A selection of materials
used in outer space that may provide high energy savings in the building sector concludes
the study.

Introduction

The global community aims to reduce net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, notably by a
reduction in primary energy use. Existing buildings are responsible for over 40% of the total
primary energy used in our societies (IEA 2008). There is a global potential to reduce
approximately 29% of the projected baseline emissions by 2020 cost-effectively in the
20) Department of Architectural Design, History and Technology, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (NTNU), Alfred Getz vei 3, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway; julien.bourrelle@ntnu.no
21) Department of Architectural Design, History and Technology, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (NTNU), Alfred Getz vei 3, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway;
22) Department of Materials and Structures, SINTEF Building and Infrastructure, Hgskoleringen 7B,
NO-7465 Trondheim, Norway; Department of Civil and Transport Engineering, Norwegian University of
Science and Technology (NTNU), Hgskoleringen 7A, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway.

95

residential and commercial sectors (Levine et al., 2007). Furthermore, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth Assessment Report, identifies the reduction
in energy consumed by or embodied in buildings as one of the three measures to reduce
GHG emissions cost-effectively in the building sector.
Energy savings may derive from optimising the use of buildings and by better
understanding the different factors influencing energy consumption. Energy will be the main
focus of this paper, while the final objective for ZEBs should be understood to be a reduction
of GHG emissions. This paper will look at the extensive research done in the space sector
involving space habitats and regard them as zero emission- and zero energy buildings. To
the best knowledge of the authors, space habitats have not yet been looked at in this way.
Such a premise exposes the many aspects that may be important to consider when
developing a robust framework for the definition of ZEBs. Such a framework is essential for
governing bodies when establishing or expanding the norms that guide the industry and
ultimately reduce our dependence on energy and mitigate GHG emissions.
Furthermore, significant reduction in energy consumption may be accomplished by
integrating new technological solutions within the building envelope. Solutions derived from
Life Support Systems (LSSs) of space stations and space-derived materials will be
presented. LSS solutions mostly apply to indoor climate, whereas material solutions may
mostly improve the thermal characteristics of buildings by influencing the radiative heat
transfer and, to a lesser extent, the building's thermal mass. Also, some materials may be
useful for energy production and storage.

Method

This paper regards space habitats as ZEBs. Based on engineering design publications
relating to both space habitats and their test facilities, general concepts are derived and
compared with some of the work of the International Energy Agency IEA SHC Task 40 /
ECBCS Annex 52 Towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings (Voss and Riley, 2008). The
second part of this paper is based on a literature review and analysis of different space
technologies that may provide energy saving potential for buildings. Notably, the spinoff
databases of both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Innovative
Partnership Program and the European Space Agency (ESA) Technology Transfer
Programme were carefully investigated.

3
Space habitats as zero emission and zero energy
buildings
Space habitats provide protection and life support to astronauts. They exhibit a certain level
of material closure, but are energy-opened systems, i.e. admitting the inflow and outflow of
energy to and from the system, mostly in the form of solar radiation. Generally, they are
divided into three types depending on the mission duration. Short missions last between a
few days to one or two weeks and are typical for the space shuttle. Medium duration
missions last from several weeks to several months and are typical on board the

96

Figure 1. International Space Station Life Support System Diagram. (Credit: NASA)

International Space Station (ISS) and the defunct MIR station. In space stations today, food
is brought from Earth while the water used for all activities (with the exception of oxygen
generation) is recycled and fed back into the system (see fig. 1). Solid waste and waste from
the air filtration system are not recycled and exit the station. Long duration manned space
missions have been extensively studied for future missions to Mars or permanent
settlements on the Moon. Various concepts were studied, most of them relying on materialclosed bioregenerative life support systems where food, water and air would be recycled
indefinitely. The best known Earth-based prototype for a long duration mission was built in
the 1990s as The Biosphere 2 Project (Allen, 2008). These very advanced habitats may be
a useful source of knowledge for the development of ZEBs.
Space habitats may be considered net zero energy buildings based on the available
definitions of such buildings, (Torcellini et al., 2006; Marszal and Heiselberg, 2009) and in
particular on the preliminary definition adopted by the European Parliament:

A net zero energy building means a building where, as a result of the very high level of
energy efficiency of the building, the overall annual primary energy consumption is
equal to or less than the energy production from renewable energy sources on site.
(European Parliament, 2010)

97

Space habitats may resemble off-grid buildings on Earth, operating solely based on the
energy theycan harvest from renewables. All components of space habitats are optimised
to a much greater extent than normal building components on Earth since energy use needs
to be kept to a strict minimum both for cost reasons and due to the technical difficulties in
radiating back excess heat. Space habitats are perhaps the most efficient buildings so far
constructed and thus fit perfectly the proposed zero energy building definitions. Furthermore,
both the ISS and Biosphere 2 can be considered, to a certain extent, to be working
prototypes of ZEBs. The ISS has continuously been staffed for more than nine years and
relies on solar radiation as its only energy source. Biosphere 2 has been operated non-stop
in closed-mode for a period of two years while sustaining a crew of eight and maintaining all
biomes in relative equilibrium. The level of closure within Biosphere 2 was much higher than
in the ISS. While the ISS vents out CO2 and H2 (see fig.1) and sends back to Earth detritus
and by-products of atmosphere filtration, the Biosphere 2 was created on the basis of a
sustainable closed system where waste cannot be allowed to build up and must be recycled.
Both the ISS and Biosphere 2 are very interesting case studies for the design of ZEBs; they
may be used to identify possible technological improvements that could be adapted for the
creation of more energy efficient and more sustainable buildings on Earth.

3.1

The Biosphere 2 Project

Biosphere 2 (fig. 2) was, for the most part, a novel combination of known technologies that
were adapted to a particular application (Maccallum, 2004) in a way that ZEB designers may
now be inspired by. Twenty years ago, a group of specialists were able to create a building
with an air tightness some 1000 times the commercial building standard (Zabel, et al., 1999)
where a crew of eight lived during two years, isolated from the outside world. Various
engineering challenges needed to be overcome both in the design and operation of such a
building (Dempster, 1999; Allen and Nelson, 1999) Biosphere 2 was designed to operate
with the aim of supplying the crew of Biospherians with food, an atmosphere with safe
levels of trace gases, complete recycling of wastes and water and minimal air leakage.
Some of these challenges are related to ZEBs while others relate to even more advanced
sustainable buildings. In other words, Biosphere 2 is an eye-opener on the different
variables that may one day be looked at for the engineering of sustainable buildings.
An impressive list of publications derived from this project ranging from engineering to
social interaction aspects.

Figure 2 The Biosphere 2 Project

98

3.2
Towards a framework for the definition of ZEBs: Defining the
boundaries
The material-closed nature of space habitats highlights interesting aspects to be considered
when defining the boundaries for ZEB emission or energy calculations. Defining boundaries
for ZEBs is a central part in the development of a robust definition framework for these types
of buildings.
Within a material-closed system, waste and by-products need to be recycled or usedup, or they otherwise build up and intoxicate the habitat. Biosphere 2 highlights the
importance of the energy consumed by activities which are usually not taken into
consideration within the energy balance of buildings. It may be very relevant to include some
of these activities which actually derive from the building's operations but that usually take
place off the building site and so are ignored in energy calculations. For example, the
production of waste is a direct consequence of activities taking place within a building.
However, waste management is usually not taken into consideration when computing the
energy balance. The same logic applies for the inflow of potable water and food, and the
outflow of wastewater.
In light of this, we may ask ourselves: Why are electricity and combustibles usually the
only energy carriers taken into consideration in ZEB energy calculations?
If we do not consider consumables and building related activities within energy calculations,
we are creating an incentive for the user to off-site activities in order to attain ZEB status.
An analogy may be made with the use of a dishwasher. The dishwasher needs electricity to
clean dishes, which is taken into consideration within the building's energy balance. In order
to achieve ZEB status, a user may decide to use only disposable dishes, getting rid of the
need for a dishwasher and thus reducing his electricity consumption, helping the building
achieve ZEB status. In such a case, the achievement comes at a great environmental cost
as the calculation method encourages the use of disposable dishes which do not enter into
the overall energy balance.
This analogy is one of many that illustrate the importance of studying energy carriers in
order to robustly define sustainable buildings. Taking inspiration from more advanced
buildings while defining boundaries for ZEBs may help prevent the increase of off-site
energy consumption. The study of highly material-closed life support systems may provide a
broader view on such aspects and help draw the line on what should or not be included
within the definition of ZEBs.
While wastewater treatment and water purification are usually done off-building site,
they relate to the activities taking place within the building. Water flows in and out of the
building in a way very similar to electricity and thermal energy from district heating systems.
Thus, water treatment could arguably be included in the building energy balance. Space
infrastructures highlight the importance of wastewater treatment and provision of potable
water but also provide energy efficient sustainable technologies to tackle these issues. LSSs
include efficient sewage methods to recycle water and reuse nutriments from wastewater.
Some of these technologies have already been adapted to large scale use. 23)
23)

NASA (1980) A New Image for the Water Hyacinth. Spinoff Database - NASA Stennis Space Center;
NASA (1988) Wastewater Treatment: The Natural way. Spinoff Database NASA Stennis Space Center;

99

Solutions derived from space technology

The harsh environment of space drove specialised research for more than half a century.
The provision of high quality indoor climate in restrained spaces links the design of enclosed
space habitats to the design of increasingly closed buildings. Technological solutions for
LSSs and the thermal balance of spacecrafts may find useful application in the design of
efficient buildings. For example, several high performance materials were studied to cope
with the special thermal environment of spacecrafts which might have interesting
applications in buildings. Conductive and convective heat transfer are relevant within
spacecrafts themselves, whereas the close vacuum of outer space has the effect of virtually
eliminating all medium-based heat transfer to and from the spacecraft, thus relevant
research on radiative heat transfer is being carried out in the space field.

4.1

Life Support System (LSS) and indoor climate

LSSs deal with providing a living environment for astronauts. They provide a clear and
breathable atmosphere, water and food. The design for ZEBs calls for a substantial increase
in closure, an objective that makes LSSs relevant to building design.
Increasing air tightness reduces heat loss to the surroundings while at the same time
reducing the interaction between the indoor and outdoor atmospheres. Such isolation of the
indoor environment raises concerns as to indoor air quality and climate. Adequate ventilation
may prevent poor indoor air quality, but it, in turn, results in heat loss to the surroundings.
Heat loss may be significant, especially in small buildings, were heat recovery systems are
not always easy to implement. Incorporating air revitalisation technologies in such buildings
may help reduce energy consumption.
Indoor climate solutions for restrained spaces were intensively studied in closed
ecological or biological systems and within space habitats (Allen and Nelson, 1999;
Dempster, 1999; Zabel et al, 1999; Allen et al., 2003; Pynter 1997). Morowitz et al. (2005)
presented aspects of closure as a scientific concept, classifying different systems based on
their level of closure and studying the impact on the indoor environment. From that
classification, two types of closure are within the scope of this article and with possible
application in buildings: (1) the closure which exists within Controlled Environmental Life
Support Systems (CELSS), as developed by various space agencies to support human
spaceflights; and (2) mini-biospheric systems with a complexity of internal ecosystems, also
designed in relation to space exploration. CELSSs will allow for a certain level of openness,
especially for food and air revitalisation whereas bioregenerative LSSs will work as mostly
closed systems where all pollutants and wastes are degraded, transformed and fed back
into the system itself. Solutions for the control of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), toxic
trace gases from outgassing of building components, CO2 build-up and removal of
particulates and microorganisms may find their place in small scale and increasingly closed
buildings. Such solutions from both types of closure may be relevant to ZEBs, though from a
conceptual point of view the closure within CELSS is most similar to ZEBs. Also,
bioregenerative technology may be appealing for applications in buildings as they help

NASA (1991a) Sewage Treatment. Spinoff Database -NASA Stennis Space Center; NASA (1991b)
Water Conditioner. Spinoff Database - NASA Johnson Space Center.

100

provide a high quality indoor atmosphere while being pleasant for the inhabitants as a cobenefit (Wolverton, 1988) .
The Sabatier reactor is another of many technological solutions for closed living
environments, notably studied for in-situ resource utilization on Mars (Holladay, 2007) The
Sabatier reaction (Eq. 1) has been studied for space use and may find interesting
applications in other fields if adapted appropriately.

CO2 + 4H2

CH4 + 2H2O

(1)

CH4 + 2O2

CO2 + 2H2O

(2)

Both the Sabatier reaction and the combustion of methane (Eq. 2) are highly exothermic.
Buildings on Earth may benefit from these reactions if adapted correctly. For example, a
small scale Sabatier reactor could be used to remove CO2 from the indoor environment of
buildings on Earth. The Sabatier reactor could be used directly as a heat source for the
building while the methane produced by the reaction is stored and used as fuel for a space
or water heating system. If renewably-generated hydrogen is available, this system could be
used to both assure acceptable levels of carbon dioxide within the building and act as a
sustainable central heating system unit (Hoekman et al., 2007;Brooks et al, 2007). The CO2
produced from the combustion of methane would not count towards the emission calculation
of a theoretical ZEB as it originally derives from human respiration.

4.2

Materials derived from space technology

As explained earlier, the thermal balance of spacecrafts in outer space is virtually driven by
radiation alone. In order to keep spacecrafts and their payload within their operating
temperature range, much research has been done on radiative heat transfer, notably
investigations into different types of coatings and multi-layer insulation. Also, in order to
buffer rapid heat gains or losses, and passively keep temperature within certain limits before
heat can be radiated back, different types of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) with a low
mass to thermal mass ratio were developed. Other high performance thermal insulators,
such as aerogels, also underwent various studies in the space field.
The simplest way to control radiative heat transfer to a surface is to apply coatings
which may take the form of simple-to-apply paints to more sophisticated conversion
coatings. When such simple methods are insufficient, Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) may help
prevent great heat gains or losses. When material transparency is desirable, mostly for
human spaceflights, chromic materials are used to regulate the flow of heat. Three types of
chromic materials are relevant here: electro-, thermo- and photochromic materials.
PCMs make it possible to store thermal energy directly as latent heat of fusion. The
information available on PCMs is enormous (Zalba et al., 2003) and it is outside the scope of
this paper to go into detail about these materials. We limit ourselves to point out space
applications that may foster new ideas for integration within buildings. PCMs have mostly
101

been used in space by the USA for Low Earth Orbit (LEO) spacecrafts to cope with the rapid
change in thermal energy input due to the cyclic Sun-facing and Earth-shadow position.
They increase the thermal mass of spacecraft without influencing significantly the actual
spacecraft mass. Also, they have been used as alternatives to batteries as an energy
storage medium.
Other materials of great interest to the building industry include aerogels and photovoltaics
(PVs). Due to their low density, fine mesostructure and transparency, aerogels were first
used in the space field to dissipate kinetic energy of hypervelocity particles and to capture
them intact (Tsou, 1994) Recent research proposes using aerogels as insulators for liquid
hydrogen launch vehicle tanks (Fesmire and Sass, 2008) and more generally as cryogenic
thermal insulation systems (Fesmire, 2006). Aerogels are very promising high performance
thermal insulation materials with a possible widespread use in the building industry (Beatens
et al., 2010). Aerogels developed for space applications are to resist extreme conditions not
encountered on Earth. The research carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory or at the
NASA Kennedy Space Center may, for example, be very relevant in discovering new ways
of solving some of the remaining problems for the adoption of aerogel as the de facto
insulation material for buildings. Finally, photovoltaic technologies underwent intensive
research in the 1950s and 1960s for their high potential as electrical energy producers in
outer space. The technological advancement permitted their integration into commercial
products in the 1970s. Today still, solar cell technologies are continually being improved in
the space sector and findings are being adapted and transferred for commercial use on
Earth.

Conclusion

This work presented space technologies as a potential source of solutions for the design of
sustainable buildings on Earth. Rather than exploring any particular technology in detail, it
aims to serve as an eye-opener, setting up the basis for further investigations into the space
field by building specialists. It identifies potential cross-disciplinary technological solutions for
the building sector by (1) identifying space habitats as ZEBs and by (2) pointing out relevant
space technologies. Notably, this work revealed interesting variables to be taken into
consideration when defining the boundaries for ZEBs, and solutions for indoor climate
problems and the thermal balance of buildings. By providing references in the space field, it
will hopefully help sustainable building specialists to foster innovative ideas for the design of
ZEBs.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway, NTNU, SINTEF and carried
out within The Research Centre on Zero Emission Buildings. The authors would like to thank
Rolf Jacobson for his valuable inputs in reviewing this article.

102

Nasa Innovative Partnerships Program. http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ipp/home/index.html.

European Space Agency Technology Transfer Programme. Available from: www.esa.int/ttp
Biosphere 2 Publications. Available from: http://www.biospheres.com/publications.html.

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Allen, J. (2008) Me and the Biospheres: A Memoir by the Inventor of Biosphere 2,
Synergetic Press.
Allen, J., and Nelson M. (1999) Overview and Design Biospherics and Biosphere 2, mission
one (1991-1993). Ecological Engineering, 13, 15-29.
Allen J., Nelson, M., and Alling, A. (2003) The legacy of biosphere 2 for the study of
biospherics and closed ecological systems. Advances in Space Research, 31, pp.
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Beatens, R, Jelle, B.P., Gustavsen, A., and Grynning, S. (2010) Aerogel insulation for
building applications: A State-of-the-Art Review. Submitted to Energy and Buildings.
Brooks, K.P., Hu, ShuJ. H., and Kee, R.J. (2007) Methanation of carbon dioxide by
hydrogen reduction using the Sabatier process in microchannel reactors. Chemical
Engineering Science, 62, 1161-1170.
Dempster, W.F. (1999) Biosphere 2 engineering design. Ecological Engineering, 13, 31-42
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Official Journal of the European Union, C184E.
Fesmire, J.E. (2006) Aerogel insulation systems for space launch applications. Cryogenics,
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Fesmire, J. E. and Sass, J.P. (2008) Aerogel insulation applications for liquid hydrogen
launch vehicle tanks. Cryogenics, 48, 223-231.
Hoekman, S.K., Broch, A., Robbins, C., and Purcell, R. (2010) CO2 recycling by reaction
with renewably-generated hydrogen. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control,
4, 44-50;
Holladay, J.D., Brooks, K.P., Wegeng, R., Hu, J., Sanders, J., and Baird, S. (2007)
Microreactor development for Martian in situ propellant production. Catalysis Today,
120, 35-44.
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Studies in the Residential Sector, Paris, France, IEA Publications.
Levine, M., rge Vorsatz, D., Blok, K., Geng, L., Harvey, D., Lang, S., Levermore, G.,
Mehlwana, A.M., Mirasgedis, S., Novikova, A., Rilling, J., and Yoshino, H. (2007)
Residential and commercial buildings. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution
of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)],
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, Cambridge University Press.
Maccallum, R., Poynter, J., and Bearden D., (2004) Lessons Learned From Biosphere 2:
When Viewed as a Ground Simulation/Analog for Long-Duration Human Space
Exploration and Settlement. International Conference On Environmental Systems.
Colorado Springs, CO, USA.
Marszal, A. and Heiselberg, D.P. (2009) A literature review on ZEB definitions - Draft report
for discussion. Aalborg, Denmark, Aalborg University.
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Morowitz, H., Allen, J.P., Nelson, M., and Allinga, A. (2005) Closure as a scientific concept
and its application to ecosystem ecology and the science of the biosphere. Advances in
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Pynter J. D. B. (1997) Biosphere 2: A Closed Bioregenerative Life Support System, An
Analog for Long Duration Space Mission. Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems.
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Definition. ACEEE Summer Study Pacific Grove, California; and
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(NZEBs). Published by IEA Solar Heating & Cooling Programme - Task 40 and IEA
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104

Towards a Definition of Zero Impact Buildings

Shady Attia 24) and Andr De Herde

25)

Abstract
There have been several attempts to define zero impact or near zero impact buildings. Most
of these are based on measuring performance or on metric benchmarks regarding the
quantity or quality of the various resources employed during a buildings life cycle. However,
the problem underlying these efforts is that the resources are measured independent of
each other, leading to restrictive overall design approaches. Most existing definitions focus
on breaking even with a single resource, such as energy, water or materials, during the
buildings life cycle. In fact, the building community needs to set a collective definition for
what constitutes a zero ecological impact building, conflating all the resources involved. In
this paper, we discuss this deficiency and suggest a shift in thinking necessary to define
zero impact buildings. The resulting definition allows us to examine broader criteria including
land management, carbon neutrality, energy neutrality, water efficiency and material
neutrality. This paper reviews existing definitions or perspectives on zero impact buildings in
order to redefine a more comprehensive definition of zero impact.

Introduction

The Brundtland Report (1987) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Report both agreed in describing the current environmental imbalance as one where in: the
human demand on the planet is exceeding the planet's regenerative capacity. (Solomon,
2007, pp.996). In order to correct this imbalance, current generations have taken on the
challenge of better resource conservation and management. Many scholars and committees
have analysed how to close the energy cycle of buildings, or for that matter how to close the
land, water or material cycles of buildings (ASHRAE, 2008; IEA, 2009; Nadav, 2008; David,
2010; Raymond, 1998; Rovers, 2009). However, these endeavours rate the different
resource flows and cycles separately. At the other end of the spectrum, sustainability
indicators such as eco-footprint analysis and life-cycle analysis are too broad, too complex
and require the input of variables (food, waste, occupant behaviour and transportation) that
are beyond building design practice (EEA, 2008).

24) Architecture et Climat, Universit Catholique de Louvain, Louvain La Neuve, Belgium

shady.attia@uclouvain.be;
25 ) Architecture et Climat, Universit Catholique de Louvain, Louvain La Neuve, Belgium;

105

In fact, we cannot achieve zero impact buildings (ZIBs) without setting a

comprehensive definition of ZIBs. A definition that includes all resource cycles during a
buildings life will reveal where the potential lies for maximum impact of environmental
decisions on the overall life cycle of buildings. We need a definition that is based on metrics
and benchmarks and that therefore can lead and guide the design process. It must also be
based on a universal benchmarking standard and provide a framework that allows
comparison, analysis and a perspective on opportunities that optimize the use of resources.
This paper aims to examine and refine this issue, particularly by comparing existing
definitions and reviewing them in light of a more comprehensive ZIB definition. Our goal is to
provide a defensible and realistic definition of innovative ZIBs that cater to the cradle to
cradle (C2C) philosophy (McDonough and Braungart, 2002). The need for clarity has
become increasingly important as the ZIB concept has become more widespread. Yet
without a universally accepted definition of what zero impact entails, the issue has become
confused. Without consistent parameters to determine ZIB compliance there is no way to
achieve our sustainable objectives. Without the performance indicators or metrics, the end
result is predictable: buildings will continue to be produced on the basis of the same practice
that has produced our existing built environment.

Existing definitions and perspectives

The following section explores the different resources contributing to the life cycle of a
building, in what way these resources are viewed as zero impact, and how this compares to
a more comprehensive definition of ZIBs. We should note that determining if a building is
truly zero impact is a complex task. Definitions by default are constricting because they are
static, while the reality is that buildings and cycles are dynamic.

2.1

Land use

According to the European Union Directive (2005), land is the scarcest resource on earth,
making land development a fundamental component in effective sustainable building
practice. Worldwide over 50% of the human population is urban. Environmental damage
caused by urban sprawl and building construction is severe and we are developing land at a
speed that the earth cannot compensate. Buildings affect ecosystems in a variety of ways
and they increasingly overtake agricultural lands and wetlands or bodies of water and
compromise existing wildlife. Most contemporary cities must deal with surface runoff,
surface temperatures, and urban heat island effects, all problems related to intensive land
use.
When discussing land resource definitions two aspects have to be taken into
consideration. The first is quantitative, involving the degree of density or the ratio of
available building land to the building footprint. The second is qualitative and considers the
adaptation of site facilities to the buildings context, including the management of site water,
heat island effects, habitats and pollution. However, land use policies are still an open area
of research at present and lack definition as to the role of land use in achieving zero impact.
Current research is more concerned with the classification of existing urban land use, land
coverage, spatial structures, including the housing density, the mean housing and plot sizes,
and the spatial aggregation of built up areas (Herold and Menz, 2000; Frohn, 1995).
106

Yet ZIB designers require strategies and performance indicators for sustainable land
use that guide decision making and the design process that leads to zero impact buildings
(Dunster et al., 2008). Designers are looking for ways to integrate buildings into the biotic
and abiotic surrounding context, and to conserve material and land resources through
optimized use of land including long-term retrofit plans.

2.2

Energy

Energy is the building resource that has gained the most attention within the built
environment research community. There are several approaches to achieving zero impact
from this perspective: energy metrics (kWh or MJ), boundary balance (net zero) and balance
period (monthly, seasonally or yearly). Research has also stated the importance of
comparing design data to the monitored data and to quantifying on-site production against
on-site consumption. There are also discussions on the energy quality (primary), type (solar,
wind, CHP) and storage in relation to grids and transmission.
In trying to achieve zero impact through energy reduction, many practitioners have
aimed for a net zero energy goal per site, meaning the import into the building must equal
the export. However, a zero impact building should mean that a buildings energy efficiency
is maximized, therefore taking into account the grid generation and transmission losses,
utility emission rates, and utility cost structures.

2.3

Material

Building materials are another limited resource within a buildings life cycle. In contrast to
energy and water, materials circulate within a near closed-loop system (Rovers, 2009;
Rovers, 2008; Bryan and Trusty, 2008). The regeneration period of most materials used in
current building construction is extremely long since they were millions of years in the
making. The only renewable building materials are organic materials including wood and
bamboo. Unfortunately, little research is being conducted to ascertain the viability and
sustainability of using renewable organic materials.
There are several tools available that aim to assess the environmental impact of
building materials, including Ecobau, Green Guide, EcoBat and EcoInvent. However, most
existing strategies follow the cradle to grave approach, with no regard for the existing
building stock. The soundest methodology for material use in buildings is described by
Rovers (2009). In this definition building designers borrow materials as a credit, which they
materialize temporarily in the building stock, and are re-used or further refined in future
buildings.

2.4

Water

Water is a key resource that lubricates the building sector as much as oil does. Buildings
require water during construction and during occupancy. In fact, water efficiency is like
energy efficiency (Sharma, 2009). Water efficiency is a key metric in evaluating building
sustainability. As yet, there is no procedure that makes zero water consumption in buildings
possible. Nor is there a metric that encompasses the demand for water, seasonal
107

fluctuations, variation across geographies and the potential for harvesting water. There are
sufficient methods, programs, and regulation controlling the use of water fixtures and
devices in buildings (Arpke and Hutzler, 2005). However, the major problem with these
approaches is that they consider water as a revenue-neutral resource.
It is therefore important to formulate a definition that not only takes the water life cycle
within buildings into account, but also the energy costs and carbon emissions associated
with obtaining water. Any water usage metric should consider the energy impact of water
usage as a whole.

The problem of existing definitions

Thus far the role of land use, energy, materials and water in achieving zero impact has been
reviewed from a conceptual perspective (USGBC, 2010; Lippiatt and Helgeson, 2009; ASTM
2005). The common procedure is to define the parameters of the definition of a ZIB by
choosing a metric and setting a boundary limit. To a large extent most of these definitions
aim to reach a balance. However, there are major problems with this. This section discusses
the major faults of existing definitions from a technical standpoint along with an examination
of the relevant characteristics of the zero impact building philosophy.
The primary problem that has weakened previous attempts to define a zero impact use
of resources is the tendency of researchers to deal with every resource separately,
regardless of the total CO2 emissions. In fact, sustainable building design should aim to
optimize the use of all resources. More importantly, each and every resource used in the
building has a history of energy consumption behind it: the energy of manufacturing,
transporting and processing the resource. Therefore, in order to truly achieve zero impact,
we need to be willing to see and deal with all the resources phases and to pursue a more
integrated approach that takes this into account. Additionally, it would be beneficial to create
a CO2 index for every resource so that we have a consistent understanding of the resources
impact within the building process.
Secondly, the existing parameters derive from the notion of neutralizing the resource
consumption and define this as zero impact. In fact, the break even approach is very
limiting. Restricting the boundaries to zero' or net zero' is misguided because it discourages
the potential to research how buildings can in fact generate a resource. A comprehensive
definition of ZIBs would emphasize the viability of harnessing renewable resources. The
zero' goal limits innovation and creativity in achieving long-term sustainable building
practices. If energy generated on site or water collected on site prove to be abundant
resources, why then should we limit our objectives to zero?
Thirdly, most definitions focus on linking resource consumption efficiency to building
area regardless of occupancy size. In fact, taking into consideration the needs of occupants
is equally as important as building area in achieving consumption efficiency. In the energy
field, Switzerland is considering a resource efficiency measurement per capita. The Swiss
2000-Watt Society proposes defining energy consumption relative to the number of
occupants (Morrow and Smith-Morrow, 2008). Similarly, the United Kingdom is proposing a
Personal Carbon Allowance (PCA). The PCA concept is based on setting tradable domestic
quotas at around 5 tonnes of CO2 per capita per year.
Fourthly, most perspectives neglect context as a factor of influence. Researchers have
worked to define universal parameters that do not always correspond with local context or
108

seasonal variations. ZIBs should be defined as context-sensitive, thereby allowing for

diversity and flexibility in buildings relative to their context.
In brief, existing definitions for ZIB are theoretical and require more refinement to reflect
the reality. Up to now, most definitions have not been comprehensive enough to tackle the
zero impact objectives. There is a certain urgency to set a definition for zero impact
buildings, one that considers energy, water, materials and land simultaneously. Also any
definition should seek simplicity and consistency in order to facilitate comparison and
provide effective design guidelines. The four resources should have standardized metrics
and benchmarks that are debated and agreed upon. A conceptual shift in how to effectively
approach ZIB objectives is therefore necessary. This requires a further discussion of the
core subject in this research: the zero impact approach (Herold and Menz, 2000).

Towards an assimilated definition

From the discussion above we can conclude that there are three important criteria that
should converge in a zero impact definition. Firstly, the definition must be based on holistic
building design integrating land, energy, material and water. Secondly, the definition must
incorporate maximizing on the viability of harnessing renewable resources, particularly in the
case of energy and water. Thirdly, the definition must promote a closed-loop use of
resources, where land and materials are up cycled either for re-use or given back to nature.
This brings us back to the core issue behind this paper: how to define ZIBs from a cradle to
cradle perspective and attain a consistency and precision of definition that allows
performance comparison and achieves a sustainable built environment in a feasible manner.
Whilst addressing the problems previously discussed, with an emphasis on the four
essential resources (namely: land, energy, water and materials), a new definition is as
follows:
A zero impact building seeks the highest efficiency in the management of
combined resources and a maximum generation of renewable resources.
The buildings resource management emphasizes the viability of harnessing
renewable resources including energy and water and achieves a closed-loop
of overall material and land use.

The following units are suggested as universal metrics for communicating the
resource management efficiency among all stakeholders involved in the building
industry. The suggested metrics conform with other international units as closely as
is compatible with self-consistency comprehensive, and, in large part, already
employed in practice.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Land: area (m2) / footprint (m2) per capita

Energy: carbon emissions (CO2) / area (m2) per year per capita
Water: water (litre) / carbon emissions (CO2) / capita per year
2
or water (litre) / carbon emissions (CO2) / area (m ) per year
Material: materials (ton) / carbon emissions (CO2) / area (m2) / capita
and abiotic depletion potential / kg antimony equivalent
109

Discussion

The purpose of constructing a combined definition is to create a common framework that

can be built upon. Exposing the definition to a wider audience will allow new ideas and
tighter constructions to be added. The definition is only the beginning of a further process of
definition, which the building design community must pursue. The definition of what makes a
zero impact building fits into C2C perspective. Our goal here is not to advocate a fixed, onesize-fits-all approach to defining ZIBs, but to propose a consistent long-term approach. We
believe that definitions for ZIBs could be successful concepts if they integrate all aspects of
building design and construction practice and are supported by transparent evaluation
methodologies.
An assimilated ZIB definition recognizes synchronous cycles in resources during the
building life cycle. Land, energy, water and materials are interconnected in various ways in
ZIBs. Therefore, a proper definition should focus on an overall balance, diverting resources
where appropriate and giving them back to nature so that buildings are in equilibrium with
their resources. Any zero impact metric should measure the carbon impact of energy
consumption as a whole. The usage of each of the resources reviewed is understood in a
specific way and makes a specific and unique contribution in relation to carbon emissions.
Designers should embrace the proposed standardized metrics and calculation methods as a
means towards integrated design. Researchers should also build on existing knowledge and
link their findings to back into the definition of zero impact buildings.
It would be futile to assert that the proposed collective definition of ZIBs should take
precedence over all others since the C2C philosophy is already so influential and broad in
scope. There is also an emerging trend to create ecologically positive building footprints
where the building design is very efficient and through suitable technologies energy and
water become positive resources. There is a need to create buildings that imitate nature so
that the footprint is ecological, healthy and beneficial in general and not only on the level of
energy consumption. For example, buildings that support life or generate purified air,
distilled water and energy or improve on the microclimate. Our role as human beings is to
contribute to the health of the planet and this we must pursue with vigour.
Finally, a ZIBs life cycle and performance should be better monitored and documented
in databases so that these can help us understand how buildings perform over their lifetime.
Vast volumes of information can help establish real-world efficiency benchmarks per
resource.

Conclusion

The four metric definitions described in this paper promote a sustainable design model
leading to zero impact buildings. The value of these definitions lie in their use as a metric for
designing ZIBs, particularly in regards to land, energy, materials and water. We must
understand that the various resources are merely individual components in the approach to
zero impact buildings. These metrics are intended to facilitate zero impact designs so that
the management of resources becomes measurable. Combined, they provide a framework
that can guide design decisions not only in terms of carbon emissions but also in terms of
the impact within other life cycles relevant to land, materials and water. In this way, we avoid
cradle to grave processes and supplant them with cradle to cradle metrics.
110

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112

Field Study of Retrofit Solutions for Residential

Housing
Davide Cal, Tanja Osterhage and Dirk Mueller

26

Abstract
The complete refurbishment of nine buildings, each containing ten apartments of 72 m is
presented, and preliminary results are shown. The buildings have a different retrofit scenario
in terms of insulation, heat production and delivery, domestic hot water production and airhandling systems. Following the energy saving ordinance for buildings in Germany of the
year 2007 (EnEV, 2007), each building has been evaluated. A monthly energy balance
based on weather data from the German test reference year has been calculated for a one
year period. The results show that depending on the refurbishment solution, the retrofit can
reduce the energy demand up to 93%, and increases thermal comfort. Within the next three
years, the buildings will be monitored in high time resolution. Physical models of the
buildings and the components are under developement using the modeling language
Modelica, and will be validated through measured data. Once validated, the models will be
used, for example, to elaborate regulation strategies for the plants and to create new virtual
refurbishment versions in the direction of a zero-impact building.

Introduction

Human activities in buildings account for 40% of the primary energy used in OECS countries
(IEA, 2008) In the year 2006 the residential sector accounted for 25.9 % of the final energy
consumption in the EU [0]. Since space heating and cooling is the most significant
component of household energy demand [0], this is one of the sectors with highest energy
saving potential. Building refurbishment can be one of the cheapest ways to reduce both
primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas. A large number of buildings constructed
in the second half of the twentieth century consume a big amount of energy due to low
insulation standards and heating systems that are inefficient and outdated.

26) All three authors: Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, E.ON Energy Research
Center, RWTH Aachen University; dcali@eonerc.rwth-aachen.de

113

Figure 1 . East faade of the first block, before refurbishment

In this contribution, he complete refurbishment of nine buildings is presented: the

buildings, located in Karlsruhe, Germany, are built in three blocks and the flats are disposed
on five floors. The 52 m long principal faade of each block (Figure 1), is east-oriented.
The retrofit solutions are here analyzed and compared in order to better understand the
importance of buildings retrofits in terms of primary energy saving per year and square
meters. In parallel the aim is to comprehend which retrofit solution is more effective, in terms
of primary energy saving.
The buildings and buildings performances are compared through the specific heat
demand per year and square meter of floor space qh and the specific primary energy
demand of the buildings per year and square meter floor space qP. Those parameters are
calculated following the energy saving ordinance for buildings in Germany of the year 2007
(EnEV, 2007; DIN V 4701-10, 2003), using the procedure of the monthly energy balance,
and with weather data from the test reference year for the location Karlsruhe.

Block 1,Heilbronnerstae 27(a), 29(b), 31(c).

c
b
a

c
b
a

c
b
a

Block 2, Heilbronnerstae 33(a), 35(b), 37(c).

Block 3, Mannheimerstae 43(a), 45(b), 47(c).

Figure 2 Blocks orientation, a are the first buildings, b the second, c the third.
114

LIVING ROOM
19.7 m

SECOND
BEDROOM
14.4 m

SECOND
BEDROOM
14.4 m

LIVING ROOM
19.7 m

N
Left Flat

CORRIDOR
FIRST
BEDROOM
16.3 m

FIRST
BEDROOM
16.3 m

STAIRS
BATH
4.6 m

Right Flat

CORRIDOR

KITC.
8.3 m

KITC.
8.3 m

BATH
4.6 m

Windows
Wall between
first and
second
Building

Figure 3 Qualitative layout of one floor of the first buildings of each block. KITC. is the Kitchen.. The
total floor space of each building is 721m; the envelope-surface is 1,097m for the a- and c-buildings,
959m for the b-buildings.

The buildings before the refurbishment

2.1

Buildings description

The buildings are built in three identical parallel blocks (Figure 2), each having 30
apartments. To realize an effective comparison of the different refurbishments
measurements, the three blocks are refurbished with increasing heat insulation standards. In
each of the three buildings of each block several innovations are adopted in terms of
technical plants: each block have technical plants with increasing energy efficiency.
Each building contains ten apartments; each of them has a kitchen, a bathroom, a
living room, two sleeping rooms and a small central corridor, for a total floor space of 72 m)
(Figure 3)..

2.2

The buildings before the retrofit

The buildings were built in 1955, originally without insulation and with single glass windows.
The heat was provided by a cackle stove installed in each living room, domestic hot water
(DHW) was supplied by electrical or gas circulatory type water heater. In a later time the
buildings had been lightly refurbished. Before the complete refurbishment presented in this
work, the buildings were in the following condition:

double glass windows with an overall heat transfer coefficient U equal to

3.1 W/(mK), (those windows had been installed during a previous
refurbishment process in the eighties),

only the south and the north faades were insulated with 4 cm insulation
with =0.04 W/(mK), the U-values for the external walls were between
1.22 and 0.55 W/(mK),
115

the ceiling of the last floor, under the pitched roof space, had a U-value of
2.58W/(mK),

the floor between basement and ground floor had a U-value of 1.93
W/(mK),

the walls between the flats and the stairs had a U-value of 1.25 W/(mK).

250
200

194.1

183.4

193.8

150
100
50
0
a

qP in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

qh in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

The qh and the qP have been calculated, and the results are shown in
Figure: the b-buildings have a minor energy demand because of the minor external
envelope surface (see Figure 2).
The a- and c-buildings have a small difference in terms of qh: this is produced by small
geometric variations of the buildings (windows orientation). The heating system, as well as
the DHW plant, is equal for each building: as consequence, qh and qP are proportional (in
equation 1 the correlation between qP and qh is described; eP is a parameter indicating the
quality of the heating plant as primary-energy/heat- DHW- and ventilation-energy-demand
ratio, qHW is the DHW energy demand, for the EnEV calculation qHW is assumed to be 12.5
kWh/(ma) (DIN V 4701-10, 2003)).

400

352.3

334.0

351.9

300
200
100
0

Figure 4. Left: the specific heat demand of the buildings, per year and mfloor space. Right: the specific
primary energy demand of the buildings, per year and mfloor space.

qP = eP (qh + q HW ) ,
3

(1)

The refurbished buildings

The first block has the simplest refurbishment solutions (both in terms of thermal insulation
and plant) and for this reason will be considered as reference case: this is also the standard
retrofit realized by the company which owns the three blocks for other buildings in the city of
Karlsruhe. The retrofit of the second block, if compared to the first block refurbishment,
postulates the use of more insulation and a more advanced plant technology, which are
easy to find on the market, anyway. The most advanced refurbishments solutions
116

Figure5.. Refurbishment solutions: the white text on dark background is related to the thermal insulation,
the dark text on the gray background is related to the technical plant solutions.

are realized for the third block: with the use of vacuum panels together with high efficiency
heat pumps and waste heat recovery units this block is designed to reach the lowest primary
energy demand. In Figuree 5 the refurbishment solution are described. WHRU indicate
waste heat recovery units, the number in percent next to WHRU is the efficiency of the heat
exchange process. The thermal conductivity of the insulation is indicated by a number
in each box, for example 035 means = 0.035 W/(mK).

Heat and primary energy demand of the first block

The first block has already been completely refurbished and is now inhabited: qh and qP
have been calculated and are portrayed in Figure 6 The qh is lower in the middle building
because of the minor external envelope surface and also for this case, the difference
between the a- and the c-building is brought by minimal geometrical differences of the
buildings. All the three buildings are supplied by district heating and have exactly the same
technical plant; however, the connection to the district heating is built in the c-building, which
means for this building a smaller amount of heat losses through the hot water pipes installed
117

38.9

36.0

Heilb.
27

Heilb.
29

39.5

Heilb.
31

qP in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

qh in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

50
40
30
20
10
0

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

55.6

52.7

54.6

Heilb.
27

Heilb.
29

Heilb.
31

Figure 6. Left: the specific heat demand of the buildings, per year and mfloor
primary energy demand of the buildings, per year and mfloor space.

. Right: the specific

space

in the cellar, compared to the a- and the b-building. For this reason, even though the abuilding has a lower heat energy demand than the c-building, the primary energy demand
for the c-building is lower (the eP of the c-building is smaller than the one of the a-building).

Heat and primary energy demand of the second block

50
40
30
20
10
0

36.9

34.8
26.4

Heilb.
33

Heilb.
35

Heilb.
37

qP in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

qh in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

The second block has already been refurbished and has been inhabited since February
2010. The qh and the qP have been calculated and are portrayed in Figure Figure 7.
The lower heat energy demand of the b-building, compared to the one of the a- and the
c-building, is not only caused by a minor external surface of the b-building, but also by the
use of passive house standard windows. Though the a-building has lower heat transmission
losses than the c-building (for geometrical reasons), it has a major qh: this is explained by
the art of the installed ventilation plant which comports higher ventilation losses for the abuilding. Although the qh of the b-building is much lower than the one of the other buildings
for this block, the primary energy demand of the three buildings is almost equal: as seen in
equation 1 the qP is directly influenced by the eP. The a-building has a lower eP (compared to
the b-building) because of innovative waste heat recovery units installed directly on the
windows of each sleeping room and of each living room. In the c-building the lower eP
(compared to the b-building) is brought by a thermo solar plant (tube collectors) for the DHW
production: the solar DHW production plays a fundamental role in the direction of zero
energy buildings.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

44.7

45.0

45.5

Heilb.
33

Heilb.
35

Heilb.
37

Figure 7. . Left: the specific heat demand of the buildings, per year and m floor space. Right: the
specific primary energy demand of the buildings, per year and m floor space.

118

Heat and primary energy demand of the third block

50
40
30

29.9

28.5

34.1

20
10
0
Man. 43 Man. 45 Man. 47

qP in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

qh in kWh/(mfloor spacea)

The third block presents the most advanced refurbishment solutions available today on
the market, both in terms of insulation and technical plants. The complete block will be ready
by the end of 2010. An interesting comparison has to be done between the b-buildings of the
second and the third block: the U-values of the walls and windows are practically equal (the
advantage in the use of vacuum panels is in the thickness of the insulation, 16cm for the
second block, 8cm for the sandwich-built insulation with 4cm vacuum panels and 4cm
standard insulation 035), nevertheless the qh of the b-building in the second block is better
than that in the third block: this is explained by the art of the installed ventilation plant which
comports higher ventilation losses for the b-building of the third block. Looking at Figure 7
and
Figure 8 and comparing the qh of the a-buildings, the role of the passive house standard
windows emerges: the transmission and ventilation losses are for the two entrances the
same, but the a-building of the third block has a 19% lower heating demand.
When looking at Figure 8, it emerges that the CO2 tubes heat pumps (installed in the aand the b-building) ensure better energy performances than the air heat pump (installed in
the c-building). The eP of this block is anyway clearly influenced by the use of waste heat
recovery units with heat exchange efficiency up to 90 %; the positive effect of the high
efficiency WHRU is evident looking at the qP of the buildings of the third block.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

25.0

21.2

Man. 43 Man. 45 Man. 47

Figure 8. Left: the specific heat demand of the buildings, per year and mfloor
primary energy demand of the buildings, per year and mfloor space.

32.6

. Right: the specific

space

Result evaluation

In order to portrait the thermal transmission losses of the three blocks before and after the
refurbishment, the HT' (specific heat losses per square meter envelopment and per Kelvin)
are shown in Figure 9 the intent to create three blocks with three thermal insulation classes
has been reached.
One of the objectives of this work is to outline the possible savings in terms of primary
energy in the field of buildings refurbishment: in Figure 10 are shown the qP of each building
in kWh/(ma) before and after refurbishment, and, in percent, the amount of primary energy
saving brought through the relative refurbishment solution.
The second objective of this work is to evaluate which of the refurbishment measures
can be more effective: the qP of each refurbished building and, in percent, the amount of
primary energy saving brought through the relative refurbishment solution compared to the
standard refurbishment of the first block are shown in Figure 11.
119

HT' in W/(mEnvelopmentK)

1.5

1.40

1.2
0.9
0.6

0.35

0.31

0.3

0.28

0.0
Before
Retrofit

Block 1
Block 2
Block 3
refurbished refurbished refurbished

Figure 9 HTof the three blocks before and after refurbishment: specific heat losses per square meter
envelopment and per Kelvin.

After Retrofit

qP in kWh/(mFloor spacea)

First Block

Second Block

400 352.5
334.5 352.4
350
87.3% 86.5% 87.1%
300
84.2% 84.2% 84.5%
250
200
150
100
55.6 52.7 54.6 44.7 45.0 45.5
50
0
a
b
c Heilb. Heilb. Heilb. Heilb. Heilb. Heilb.
27
29
31
33
35
37

Third Block
92.9% 93.7%

100%

90.7%

90%
80%

25.0 21.2 32.6

70%
60%

Primary Energy Saving

Before Retrofit

Man. Man. Man.

43
45
47

Figure 10.. Primary Energy demand per square meter of floor space and year, of the buildings before
and after refurbishment. In percent, the primary energy saving of the retrofit solutions, compared to the
primary energy demand of the buildings before the retrofit.

qP in kWh/(mFloor spacea)

Third Block
55.0%

350

64%

59.8%

300

40.2%

250
200

32%

150
100
50
0

48%

19.6%

55.6

14.6%

52.7

54.6
44.7

45.0

16.6%

16%
45.5

25.0

21.2

32.6
0%

Heilb. 27Heilb. 29Heilb. 31Heilb. 33Heilb. 35Heilb. 37 Man. 43 Man. 45 Man. 47

Figure 11. Primary Energy demand per square meter of floor space and year of the block after
refurbishment. In percent, the primary energy saving of the retrofit solutions, compared to the primary
energy demand of the buildings of the first block.

120

Primary Energy Saving

Second Block

First Block
400

qP in kWh/(mFloor spacea)

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Before Retrofit
352.5 354.2

334.5 343.0

After Retrofit
352.4 356.4

44.7 41.5

45.0 45.0

45.5 42.6

Heilb. 33

Heilb. 35

Heilb. 37

qPwithoutdetailedTBcalculation,BR
qPwithdetailedTBcalculation,BR

qPwithoutdetailedTBcalculation,AR
qPwithdetailedTBcalculation,AR
Figure 12 . Primary Energy demand per square meter of floor space and year, of the second block,
before refurbishment, BR, and after refurbishment, AR: The results with and without the use of the
detailed thermal bridges (TB) calculation is compared.

Discussion and future perspectives

A well planned refurbishment for residential buildings can bring savings in terms of Primary
energy up to 93.7%. Already a standard refurbishment with 14 cm insulation, =0.035
W/(mK), with connection to the district heating, guaranty energy saving of about 84%.
Between the second and the third block, the most influential factor for the energy saving of
the third block, is the use of high efficiency heat recovery devices.
Although the results here presented are obtained using the most detailed calculation
analysis prospected by EnEV 2007, the results could still be improved with a detailed
evaluation of thermal bridges following the finite element method. A detailed evaluation of
thermal bridges has been done for the not refurbished buildings, and for the second block,
refurbished: the results, directly compared to the results without the detailed thermal bridges
calculation, are shown in Figure 12. If the detailed thermal bridges calculation is executed
and taken into account, the primary energy saving between the not refurbished buildings
and the second block is clearly bigger.
To answer the question: how to get a zero-energy building? the amount of surface of
Photovoltaic panels (Mono-crystalline) that should be installed on the roof to bring the
primary energy balance and the CO2 balance of the buildings of the third block to zero has
been calculated. This calculation has been done only for the third block, since this is the
block with the most performing combination of heating and insulation systems. The two
sides of the roof are inclined of 30 and are in direction east and west. A monthly solar
energy balance has been calculated with the solar radiation data of the climate region 12
(Karlsruhe). For the a-entrance 48 m photovoltaic panels are required, for the b-entrance 40
m, for the c-entrance 64 m. A CO2 balance (using conversion factors between final energy
121

and CO2 given by the IWU (2009) and a primary energy balance for this block has been
executed (see Figure 13): the total energy saved by the own production of the photovoltaic
system of each entrance per year has been divided through the floor space of each
entrance, and multiplied with the primary energy factor for electricity (EnEV 2007), in order
to make it comparable with the primary energy demand per square meter and year of the
entrances.

CO2 in t/a

6.0

50.0

Primary Energy kWh/(mfloor spacea)

DHW

3.0

1.9

1.5

25.0

0.8

0.0

0.0

-3.0

-25.0

11.0

9.1

5.0

VES
HES

-4.2

-6.0

-25.0

PV

-50.0

Block 3, Entrance a

CO2 in t/a

6.0

50.0
3.0

1.9

1.0

Primary Energy kWh/(mfloor spacea)

DHW

0.7

25.0

11.0

0.0

6.1

4.1

VES

0.0
-3.0

HES
-3.6

-6.0

3.0

CO2 in t/a

50.0

3.2
1.0

1.3

25.0

0.0

-9.0

PV

Primary Energy kWh/(mfloor spacea)

DHW

18.7
6.1

7.8

VES

0.0

-3.0
-6.0

-21.2

-50.0

Block 3, Entrance b

6.0

-25.0

HES
-25.0
-5.5

-50.0

-32.6

PV

Block 3, Entrance c

Figure 13 CO2 and Primary Energy balances for the third block, entrances a, b and c. DHW stays for
Domestic hot water, VES for Ventilation engineering system, HES for Heating engineering system, PV
for Photovoltaic system. Both the CO2 and the primary energy balance go to zero since the building are
all using only electricity (for the heat pumps) as energy carrier.

122

The results here presented are related only to a static calculation. Perspectives in terms of
exergy flows are also not shown: an exergy comparison could offer different perspectives
because of the difference between primary energy efficiency factor and exergetic
efficiency factor (LowEx, 2006). For this reason, simulation of the buildings and of the
buildings components using the modeling language Modelica will be run and exergy-flows
will be taken into account and evaluated. The simulations will also work as a tool used to
elaborate new control strategies for the buildings technical plant. To validate the models, a
complete monitoring of the buildings started in February 2010: both parameters related to
comfort conditions (air temperature and humidity in the rooms, CO2 and Volatile Organic
Compounds sensors, etc.) and to the technical plant (air changes per hour, supply and
return temperatures of radiators and floor and ceiling heating systems, water flows through
heating devices, opening-windows sensors, temperature sensor in the stratified storage,
etc.) as well as weather conditions and soil temperatures, will be monitored at high time
resolution. This monitoring phase will also be useful to evaluate how far those buildings are
from a zero energy building. Once validated, the models will be used, for example, to
elaborate regulation strategies for the plants and to create new virtual refurbishment
versions: the possibility to create virtual zero energy buildings will be explored. A
cost/benefits analysis will also be executed.

Acknowledgment
We appreciate the financial support by BMWi (German Federal Ministry of Economics and
technologies), promotional reference 0327400G.

References
EnEV 2007, Energie Einsparverordnung, Energy saving ordinance for buildings, 2007.
IEA, Energy efficiency policy recommendation, 2008, International Energy Agency, IEA.
EEA, Final energy consumption by sectors, 2009, European Environment Agency, EEA.
EEA, Energy and Environment Report, EEA, 2008.
Energetisch Bewertung heiz- und raumlufttechnischer Anlagen, Teil 10: Heizung,
trinkwassererwrmung, Lftung, DIN V 4701-10, 08.2003.
Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings . Part 6: Calculation of annual heat and
annual energy use
Kumulierter Energieaufwand und CO2-Emissionsfaktoren verschiedener
Energietrger und versorgungen, 2009, IWU, Institut Wohnen und Unwelt
LowEx Tagungsband Hamburg 2006 Symposium zum Verbundvorhaben des
Bundesministeriums fr Wirtschaft und Technologie

123

Applications of Appropriate Renewable Energy

Technologies in Chinese Rural Houses in QinghaiTibetan Plateau
Wang Yan, Zhang Peng, Ju Xiaolei, Zhang Yabin

27)

Abstract
This paper presents a demonstration project concerning the rebuilding design idea for a
rural dwelling located in Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. It
develops 0-impact approaches to improve the energy diversity, efficiency and to reduce the
CO2 emission for rural dwellings. Renewable energy technologies are integrated and applied
including solar chamber, solar kang (bed) with cobblestones as heat storage, heat storage
by phase change material (PCM) and solar air heater. All the approaches and technologies
adapt well to the local climate while following the principles for developing in this region and
integrating with local traditional architectural style. Via the application of these technologies,
the level of renewable energy utilization is largely improved and the local peoples dream of
having a safer, warmer and larger house comes true.

Introduction
The urgent problem for us is the heating in winter. There are three rooms in
my house but only one dung stove can be used for space heating. We long for
a better living, but we can not afford the expensive costs.
A farmer in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau., 50 years ago.

Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau covers most parts of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) and
Qinghai Province in China, which is one of the most mysterious, fascinating places in China
(Fig.1). The residents have a strong faith and keep simple folk customs. However, due to the
restriction of geography and climate, most of the people live in vast rural areas with poor
infrastructure. Local residents earn their living by raising livestock and planting crops (Fig 2).
China has made great efforts to the development of TAR by improving the energy
diversity, efficiency and reducing the CO2 emission. Based on the national developing

27) All four authors: China National Engineering Research Center for Human Settlements, China
Architecture Design and Research Group

125

Fig.1 Qinghai-Tibetan plateau (photo Z. Yan, 2008)

Fig. 2 Traditional agriculture (photo Z. Lei, 2008)

strategies, this paper introduces a 0-impact approach in a demonstration project with

minimum impact to environment but maximum heritage of traditional culture and life style.
The research is funded by China National "Eleventh Five-Year" S&T Plan.

0-impact strategies

In order to achieve the targets of 0-impact, the following four strategies should be complied
in the project:

2.1

Traditional culture and life style sustained

Tibetan culture has been deeply influenced by Indian Buddhism, and has absorbed Han and
Nepalese culture, so housing form and living custom in this region are significantly different
from others in China. Thus, the traditional architectural style and Tibetan custom must be
taken into consideration to keep the Tibetan traditional culture and life style sustained.

2.2

Environmental friendly and ecological sounded

Over the years, TAR is always one of the best regions where the original ecological
environment have been well maintained in the world with majestic mountains, clean rivers,
diverse animals and lush plants. It is the real "Shangri-La." Therefore to protect the fragile
ecosystem and keep it balanced, the impact on the ecological environment should be limited
from the beginning of building construction till the daily operation in this region.

2.3

Affordability and accessibility oriented

Due to the current condition of mono-income, low-grade energy, insufficient energy supply,
and inefficient heating equipment, low-cost and easy-handle technologies have to be
adopted to reduce energy costs for living and maintain the life quality by the utilization of
local renewable resources.

126

Fig.3 Full view of the site studied (photo by Li Chungang, 2008)

2.4

Promotion and propaganda approached

The purpose of residential building demonstration project in TAR is not only to improve
single familys life and income, but also to make more residents to participate in house
building and arouse them to focus on life improvement through personal experience in
adopting appropriate technologies. Thus, the technologies chosen should become easyavailable, easy-handle, dependable, convenient-maintained, and can be promoted in local
residential building construction.

Description of the demonstration project

3.1

Location

The site of this project is located in the nature reserve of Mount Qomolangma, north of the
Himalayas, with an elevation 4119m, only 50km away from the Mount Qomolangma. The
geographical and climate parameters of this project are illustrated in Table 1. The full view of
the village is shown in Figure 3.

3.2

Current situation and requirement

The local dwelling is always built by residents themselves with traditional materials and
primordial construction ways. Consequently the consummate building function and
comfortable indoor environment are seldom considered during the process of construction. It
is difficult to improve the standard of dwelling for local residents without professional
designing and financing support.

Table 1 Brief introduction of the site

[1]

*)

Altitude

>4000m

Annual maximum average temperature

12 (Jul)

Annual minimum average temperature

-7.4 (Jan)

Annual average wind velocity

5.8m/s

Solar irradiation and hours

*)
above the Huanghai Sea level, China

7500MJ/sqma, 3393 hr/a

127

Fig.4 (left) House owner and old dwelling (photo by Z. Yan, 2008) Fig.5 (rigtht) Traditional architecture
style (photo by Z. Lei, 2008)

In order to change the situation and to support the improvement of local residents living, a
representative low-income family is chosen to rebuild a new dwelling on the former site (Fig.
4). The family members are all Tibetan Buddhists. Their old dwelling is 40 sqm with poor
indoor environment, out of repair walls/windows/doors. The room temperature could be
minus in winter. Due to lack of storage space and livestock breeding room, the Yak and its
fodder are deposited in the courtyard. It presents the most popular status of local dwellings.
To provide a house with better living conditions, the following aspects should be considered:

Maintain the Tibetan architectural style and space for religious worship;

Enlarge the indoor functional space for the needs of living and working;

Improve the indoor living conditions;

Increase the utilization of clean energy, especially solar energy;

Provide opportunity of multi-income by updating housing facilities.

Technologies applied and integrated

4.1 Building design layout function and passive design oriented

The building design emphasizes the heritage of local history and culture. After satisfying the
basic subsistence need, it also upgrades the extension ability of dwelling function.
Traditional Tibet architectural style i.e. the door lintel, window lintel and dense rafter
under parapet are well conserved. Facade colors are selected via the traditional template.
For instance, the snuff color footstone means dignity, white wall represents chastity and
luck, black parapet and window frame stands for stateliness and awe, and red foursquare
wall on the roof indicates brightness and relaxation (Zongwei, 2004), as seen in Fig.5.
Traditional subsistence mode is kept.

Unattached courtyard is designed to dry the crop and breed livestock;

Family hall for worshipping Buddha is designed to fulfill the religion need;

Living room is surrounded by bedroom, kitchen, and forage depot to

form the hierarchy pattern which is accordant with local traditional
architecture style (Fig.6).
128

Fig.6 Layout design

Reception function for tourists is extended. Large numbers of mountain climbers as tourists
pass by every year for it is only 50 km away from the base camp of Mount Qomolangma

The interior living area is largely improved from 40 sqm to 100 sqm.

Bedroom and living room are laid in southeast part while accessory
space (depot, kitchen, etc) is put in the north part of the dwelling so as to
resist the strong wind from northwest and southwest direction in winter.

The master and guest bedrooms are separated by living room to ensure
the privacy and security.

4.2
Material mix-used and recycled, conformation optimized and seismic
structure oriented
Selection of a local material with low-cost, good thermal performance and profitable for the
environment is the core of the demonstration project. The walls adopt locally popular used
clay bricks, and the roof consists of good thermal performed wood and earth. All the
materials can be recycled after years and have no harm to the environment. The building
envelope and heat transfer coefficient are shown in table 2.

Table2 Building envelope and coherent heat transfer coefficients*

Living area
100 sqm

External wall
400mm Clay
block
K=0.6W/(sqm)

Roof
Veneer covered
with 150mm
earth
K=0.5W/(sqm)

External window
Double glazed
insulating with
plastic steel frame
K=2.7 W/(sqm)

* parameters by design.
129

Fig.7

4.3

Illustration and completed solar chamber (photo by Zeng Yan, 2009)

Energy system optimized

The construction site has the most abundant solar energy in the world. Therefore the
building should be fully integrated with solar technology to increase energy consumption for
daily life and tourism services, otherwise to make no harm to the environment. Both passive
and active solar technology means have been explored in the project.

Solar chamber
The solar chamber is arranged in the south with the function of capturing thermal energy
from sunshine and storing it in the back wall (Yuanzhe 1993) (some with heat storage
material). The solar chamber, bedroom and living room are linked by manual control window
or door, so that the storage heat can be transmitted simultaneously in the daytime and keep
indoor warm by closing windows and doors in the nighttime of winter. On the contrary,
manual control windows in the upper and lower part of the solar chamber are used to
ventilate the air in summer to prevent overheat, see Fig. 7.

Thermal stored skylight with PCM

The phased change material (PCM) is attached on the manual control window sash of the
bedroom roof. The PCM will absorb and store the thermal energy by transforming into liquid
during daytime and release the heat backwardly during the night (Zhu Qing 2005) see Fig.8.

Fig.8 Illustration and completed thermal stored skylight with PCM, ((photo

130

by Xiao Wei, 2009)

Fig.9 Illustration and completed Chinese solar kang (bed) (photo by Xiao Wei, 2009)

Chinese solar kang (bed) with thermal storage cobblestone

Kang (bed) is the traditional heating tool in rural area of Chinese cold climate zone. The
solar kang is combined with a cavity under it where cobblestones absorb heat from the
sunshine. Meanwhile adjustable baffles with insulation and glisten materials outside the
cavity are open to receive sunshine in the daytime and close to keep warm in the night time.
When air temperature drops the cobblestones will start to release the heat to the kang board
during the night, seen in Fig.9.

Solar air panel

The solar air panel as space heater is installed in the south faade of the dwelling (Fig.10).
The heating, ventilating and cooling principles are as follows.

There are two holes open to outdoor and anther two open to indoor.

The outdoor holes will be close in winter.

The indoor holes will be open generally in summer to make good

ventilation.

Differ ways to open and close the holes may improve the ventilation and
indoor climate.

Fig.10

Illustration and completed solar air panel (photo by Zeng Yan, 2009)

131

( a) Winter

( b) Summer

Fig.11 Indoor temperature comparison 11a: Winter; 11b: Summer

Evaluation

In order to evaluate the technologies used in the project a durative monitoring and a
valuation of the performance of old and new-built dwellings have been in process by
environment simulation software. Key indicators for evaluation including indoor thermal
environment changes, energy consumption for heating, CO2 emission as well as technical
cost will be monitored and evaluated.

5.1

Indoor thermal environment improved

As shown in Fig.11a, the thermal environment of old dwelling in winter is so uncomfortable

that indoor average temperature is only 5.1. Even the main spaces such as living room
and bedrooms could only reach to less than 8. After rebuilding, the situation is improved
obviously that the average temperature rises from 5.1 to 9.0 while those of the living
room and bedrooms are above 10. The comparison of summer condition shows little
difference between old and new dwelling (Fig.11b). It ranges from 15 to 18.
Correspondingly heating in winter is more important than cooling in summer.
The frequency distribution of temperature is another factor for estimating thermal
environment. Fig.12a shows that the annual temperature is divided into low temperature
interval (T<14), middle temperature interval (14<T<28) and high temperature interval
(T>28), it is an obvious sign of improved indoor thermal environment that low temperature
duration decreases 18.5% and the middle temperature increases 11.3%, the range of indoor
temperature from winter to summer is much narrower than the old dwelling (for old -2~32,
for new 4~30), seen in Fig.12b. Monitoring and analysis of temperature shows that the
indoor thermal environment improved obviously.

5.2

Energy efficiency increased and CO2 emission reduced

Because of the cool weather in summer, seldom energy is used for cooling in this region.
The energy consumption of building concentrates in heating season from September to
April. By using environment simulation software, the evaluation result of the difference
132

1800

7000
6000

1600

11.3%

before
after

hours number

1200

18.5%

3000

1000
800
600

2000
1000

heating
o
<14 C

400

cooling

comfortable

>28 C

14 C~28 C

200

0
-2/0

low temperature

middle temperature

2/4

6/8

high temperature

10/12

14/16

18/20

22/24

26/28

30/32

temperature

Fig.12 Annual Indoor temperature distribution.

12(a)(left Comparison of temperature distribution hours; 12 (b) right Temperature frequency distribution

between old and new dwelling (Fig.13) shows that heat load decreases from 90W/sqm to 63
W/sqm, nearly 30% down. By alternative use of solar energy the annual fossil energy
consumption reduces from 3.24 tce to 1.85 tce with 42.9% CO2 emission reduction
equivalent (Fig.14). The effect of energy saving and CO2 emission reduction is remarkable.

5.3

Cost of construction affordable

fossil energy consumption(tce/a)

80

60

40

20

3.0

6.00

2.5

5.00

2.0

4.00

1.5

3.00

1.0

2.00

0.5

1.00

0.0

after

before

Fig.13 Comparison of heating load

before

after

Fig.14 Heating energy and CO2 emission

133

CO2 emission (tce/a)

Cost has a significant impact on the prospects of spreading the relevant technologies. As
shown in Table 3, the total cost of this project is 76650 RMB, 11650 RMB higher than
normal local dwelling, in which the expenditure of high-performance glass and heat storage
material accounts for 75% of the cost increases. The unit cost of the new dwelling is 766.5
RMB/sqm, 18% higher than normal one (650 RMB/sqm). With the reduction of material cost,
the expenditure for construction should decrease gradually in the future.

heat load(W/m )

hours number

4000

before
after

1400

5000

According to the incentive policy in TAR (Bi Hua 2008), the government and the enterprises
support about 30% of total cost by each respectively, the other 40% will be covered by tax
free loan in the following 3 years. Thus the local families can be affordable for the total cost.

Table 3 Total cost of the case dwelling (in RMB*)

foundation
and
structure

65000

solar
chamber

4200

solar
kang
(bed)

950

thermal
stored
skylight
with
PCM
4500

solar air
panel

2000

total
cost

76650

unit cost
(RMB/sqm)

766.5

st

* 1 Euro =8.4 RMB approximately (Exchange rate, June 1 , 2010)

Conclusion and discussion

Technologies applied in the case dwelling design and construction are meaningful to the
rural dwelling construction in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. Firstly, the low-cost, effective
technical means with combined use of clean renewable energy and conventional energy are
applied for the improvement of common familys lives. Secondly, the cooperation
mechanism between professionals, house owners as well as enterprises can help local
people to know, to accept and handle the technical means when they move into the new
dwellings. Consequently the new type dwelling is not only a comfortable living space, but
also offers house owners the opportunity to rent out rooms to tourists. However, there are
still questions to be discussed:

The prototype of this demonstration project could or could not has the
adaptability to the local development with propaganda to the other parts
of TAR. Further field studies will be continued and long term monitoring
should not be stopped.

Figure 15 (a) Before rebuilding (photo by Li Chungang, 2008)

134

Figure 15(b) After rebuilding (photo by Zeng Yan, 2009

How to develop a design toolkit for energy self-maintained individual

dwelling with reasonable database. Can a user friendly toolkit for the
pre-schematic design evaluation be developed soon?
How to calculate solar gain by monitoring temperature distribution hours
and temperature frequency distribution.
How to monitor and collect data of solar gain by instruments or by
alternative means for solar chamber.

Acknowledgement
The research in this paper is funded by China National "Eleventh Five-Year" S&T plan with
project number of 2006BAJ04A01, 2006BAJ04A05. Thanks to the contribution from Prof. He
Jianqing, Prof. Zeng Yan and Mr. Lu Yongfei, China National Engineering Research Center
for Human Settlements; Mr. Zhang Lei, Mr. Zhang Ke and Mr. Li Chungang, Beijing
Alwaysone Century Physical Culture Co., Ltd; Dr. Xiao Wei, Tsinghua University.

References
Bi Hua (2008) The process of New Socialist Countryside Construction in Tibet Autonomous
Regionhousing project.[J] China Tibetology
Developing strategy research group of Chinese renewable energy. Developing research
series of Chinese renewable energy Solar energy volume, [M] China Electric Power
Press, 2004
Yuanzhe, Li (1993) Passive solar house design and construction, Tsinghua University Press
Zhu QingLiu Zhaohui, et al., (2005) Utilization of phase change material in building
envelope, [N] China Construction
Zongwei. Xu (2004), Guideline of Traditional Architecture in Tibetan Autonomous Region,
[M] China Architecture & Building Press
135

Planning 0-Energy Cities Using Local Energy Sources

Wouter Leduc

28)

Abstract
The world is urbanizing rapidly and the demand for urban resources is increasing. Cities
depend heavily on foreign fossil energy sources. Incoming resources are used inefficiently only part of the energy input is used and the rest is wasted. To reduce dependency and
increase self-sufficiency, cities must search for local and renewable energy sources. Cities
are a reservoir of untapped energy sources. Cities can support themselves to achieve 0energy status and to become independent. Cities have unused space available to capture
incoming energy. Although several technologies are available, they are not widely
implemented. Therefore, further effort should focus on planning and implementing these
technologies. In addition, urban planning should support resources management.
The proposed method, based on the Urban Harvest concept and exergy principle,
towards planning 0-energy cities, consists of five steps. It gives an overview of urban energy
demand and potential supply, and describes how supply and demand can be coupled
effectively.

Introduction

For centuries, cities have been seen as both consumers and waste producers, but not as
having their own resource potential. Cities depend heavily on external inputs and have next
to no connections with the location of their sources. Evidence of this lies in their ecological
footprints: cities largely overshoot their bio-capacities (Doughty and Hammond, 2004).
Resources come in and waste goes out. Steel (2008) illustrates the concept of a hungry
city and links it to what may be termed a fossil fuel-focused energy system. Accelerating
urbanization, increasing scarcity of resources and climate change are all pressing us to
manage and design our cities sustainably, moving towards closing cycles, minimization of
impacts and strategic management of resources. In research already conducted, Leduc and

28) RiBuilT, Research Institute Built Environment of Tomorrow, Hogeschool Zuyd Heerlen, and
Landscape Architecture Chairgroup, Wageningen University and Research Centre.
wouter.leduc@wur.nl

137

Rovers (2008) and Agudelo et al. (2009) have argued that cities offer ample possibilities to
harvest local resources and thus become less dependent.
Therefore, interaction between urban planning and resource management is crucial.
This paper proposes a method based on the Urban Harvest concept and exergy principle to
overhaul urban energy planning in order to achieve 0-energy cities. The 5-step method,
tested on Kerkrade-West (Southern Netherlands), gives an overview of urban energy
demand and potential supply, and describes how to couple supply and demand effectively.

Theoretical background

Urban Metabolism
The concept of urban metabolism provides a holistic framework for analyzing a citys input
output relationships with its surrounding biophysical environment. Cities are seen as
organisms, using the metaphor of biological metabolism, i.e. the chemical process within an
organism involving intake of resources, their transformation into more or less complex forms,
and the subsequent excretion of wastes to describe urban processes (McDonald and
Patterson, 2007, p.180). In recent decades, urban metabolism has been used as a
framework for providing valuable information about energy efficiency, material cycling, waste
management and infrastructure in urban systems (Kennedy et al., 2007). Urban metabolism
is a way to quantify the overall flux of resources in a specific region or city.
Nowadays cities show linear metabolism: non-renewable resources are imported,
inefficiently captured and transformed, and used. After use, waste is exported and valuable
resources lost (fig. 1a). In order to move towards 0-energy cities, cities must evolve to
circular metabolism closed-cycle resource management (Rovers, 2008). Circular
metabolism implies that incoming, renewable resources are captured and transformed for
efficient and effective use within the city, and waste is minimized by applying recycling and
cascading (fig. 1b).To close cycles, function and resource flows within the built environment
should be optimized.

Urban Harvest, sustainable resource management and urban planning

The Urban Harvest (UH) concept, based on the urban metabolism concept (fig.1b),
developed as a strategy to investigate all possible options for harvesting local resources and
(re)using emissions and wastes within the city. UH deals with capturing any renewable
primary and secondary resource within an urban system and its aims for (re-)use, and is
thus closed-cycle resource management (Rovers, 2007, 2008). One major principle
underlying UH is exergy. Exergy, or quality of energy, refers to the second law of
thermodynamics (Wall, 1977; Dincer and Rosen, 2005). By way of example we may take a
waste-flow: an outgoing flow which remains after activity completion. In an open system,
remaining qualities will be wasted. In a closed-cycle approach, this outgoing flow is not seen
as waste but as flow with lower quality. Flows with lower quality can be useful to perform an
activity requiring lower quality, and cities can be seen as reservoirs of both renewable and
residual un-used energy qualities, or exergy.

138

Harvesting of water,
wind
and energy

Non-renewable energy,
water, materials

Emissions to soil,
water and air

Reused and recycled waste

materials, gases and liquids

b. Urban Harvest
a.

Sources-and-sinks

Figure. 1 Linear vs. circular urban metabolism (Agudelo-Vera et al., forthcoming)

However, in order to harvest and convert local resources within a city, we need to know
when and where resources are available (Leduc et al., 2009). If resources with remaining
un-used qualities are not available at the right time and place, or cannot be converted or
stored, they are lost. Four parameters: quantity, quality, location and time characteristics,
link the field of resource management to urban planning. Integrating these four parameters
in urban planning is necessary if we are to achieve 0-energy cities. Urban planning must
include urban circular metabolism objectives, and should also explore infrastructure patterns
and networks. Cities could exploit their mixture of urban functions and structures, all in close
proximity, by optimally exchanging residual and renewable resources (Van Kann and de
Roo, 2009; Van Kann and Leduc, 2008). Infrastructure integrates the four parameters, but to
use infrastructure effectively, urban planning should develop synergies between clusters of
spatial functions within appropriate distances (Leduc and Van Kann, 2010).

Method

The UH-concept uses the Urban-Tissue as a functional unit: a quick scan visualizing urban
land-use distribution, resources demand and supply potential (Leduc and Rovers, 2008 ).
Urban-Tissue is a standard unit - 1 hectare - which makes identification of several urban
flows possible and is a means to express typologies of built environment (Rovers, 2007).
Formula 1 describes the major parameters within the UH-concept:

Urban Maximum Technical Harvest = Potential Urban Harvest x tech x urban (1)

139

Potential UH is the maximum amount of source available or collectable within the

boundaries of Urban-Tissue. However, to calculate how much of this maximum potential can
be captured and converted within the city Urban Maximum Technical Harvest (Urban Max
Tech Harvest) some reduction applies: tech relates to technical efficiency restrictions, and
urban relates to urban characteristics and typology restrictions (Rovers, 2007; Agudelo et al.,
2009).
The proposed method builds on the description of Dutch Urban Average Tissue,
UrbAT-NL (see Rovers, 2007; Leduc and Rovers, 2008). The method to develop the specific
urban energy tissue (see also Agudelo et al., 2009) consists of five steps (fig. 2):
1. Urban land-use distribution: Inventory of urban functions and surfaces;
2. Demand inventory: Hierarchical quality identification and quantification
of urban energy use;
3. Demand minimization strategies and supply inventory: Inventory of
measures to limit urban demand; hierarchical quality identification and
quantification of urban energy sources, renewable and residual;
calculation of technical feasibility;
4. Couple supply demand: Try to ensure that quality of energy is as
high as required for use but no higher, by using principles of multisourcing and cascading; use decision tree (fig. 3) to define if resource
can be applied locally;
5. Optimize supply demand: Apply recycling principles; identify, localize
and connect clusters and install networks; optimize storage and
exchange with other systems; calculation of Urban Max Tech Harvest by
scenario development.
The specific urban energy tissue, EN-UrbAT, is developed to support the accounting,
coupling, and planning of urban energy demand and potential supply.

1. Land use
distribution

Initial
demand
ID

2. Demand
inventory

Figure 2

140

Minimization

measures
Demand
Inventory
(Quantity,
quality, location
and time

3. Demand minimization
strategies and supply
inventory

Minimization

Supply

Demand

4. Couple supply Demand

Application of UH-concept in cities

measures
Cascade
measures
Recycling
measures
Demand Multisource
5. Optimize supplydemand

Decision tree Existing BE

Decision point

RESOURCE
potential

Urban Harvest
(UH)

IN-system

Couple Supply
& Demand

export to
other system
YES

Storage

NO

Demand

NO

Skip
redevelopment;
Look for other
location;
If location
doesnt have
potential, better

YES
Exergy by
biodiversity

Potential
(energy quality)
used for other
purpose

NO

Capture

YES

To location were certain

quality is missing, or no
local potential

Conversion
Max. implementation

Fulfill
other
demand

Quality +
Quantity

Matching?
QQTP

NO

Adapt development accordingly

Make optimal use of local
potential

Later use

NO

Storage

NO

YES

export to
other
system

Time +
Place OK?

YES

Cascading
qualities

Fulfill
ENERGY
demand

Remaining
re-used

UH, coupling, limit unused qualities, capture

remaining, results in:
Closing cycles of system
Remaining
not usable
in-system
Capture

MINIMIZE
YES

Figure 3

NO
Entropy

Decision tree existing built-up area

141

Figure 4 Indication of spatial function in Kerkrade-West. The black line indicates the administrative
borders of district

Results

The author developed the EN-UrbAT and tested the UH-concept at Kerkrade-West, a district
in the Kerkrade municipality in the south of The Netherlands. Kerkrade is located in a former
coal-mining region, which has shaped the characteristics of the municipality. Kerkrade-West
has a surface area of about 1000 hectares with almost 16,000 inhabitants, various building
densities, a mix of spatial functions, and also agricultural, forest and water areas. Kerkrade142

- Offices

- Shops

Locht
- Industry

Houses

100m

Roads
V

E
S

Business

Recreation
Gaia-park

Lake & green

Dentgenbach
Cranenweyer

Spekholzerheide-business

Houses

A
C

Agriculture

A
N
Business

Willem-Sophia
Figure 5

Abstraction of land-use distribution, Urban-Tissue Kerkrade-West, in 1 ha (100 m by 100 m)

West was once an energy supplier through coal mining, but is now an energy demander and
dependent on external resource supplies.
The first step of the method shows urban land-use distribution with an inventory of urban
functions (see figure 4 and figure 5), a quick-scan of urban land-use distribution downscaled
to one hectare. Tables 1 to 3 show land-use distribution and urban function specifications.
Most of the urban area in Kerkrade-West is built up with houses, business, retail, schools,
etc. This is followed by a large agricultural and green area (t. 1). The specification for the
total business area (t. 3) shows that most surfaces are for warehouses, with some heavy
industry and large-scale shops. In the Spekholzerheide business park there is: machinery
industry, medical appliances production industry, chemical film production industry and brick
producing industry. In Dentgenbach business park there is: an aluminum smelter, a large
bakery, four chemical industries producing synthetic fibers and pharmaceutical products, two
paper/cardboard industries, two synthetic material processing industries, and rubber
processing industry.
143

Table 1: Land-use distribution, statistical data, ha (CBS 2003, 2008)

Total
1006

Land
987

Water
Urban
Semi built-up**
100

Built-up*
426

Recreation
120

Non-urban
(agri & forest)

traffic
61

19

279

*: area for houses, business, retail, hotels & restaurants, education, care
**: mainly vacant land and wreck storage
Table 2: Number of houses, total and specified, and estimated surfaces with other urban functions
(Municipality Kerkrade, 2003; CBS 2008)

Houses, total number

7215

Detached
866
Surfaces, ha
3.2
14.0
3.0

Schools
Care
Hotel & catering
industry
Retail
Offices

Semi-detached
1443

Row
3968

Apartments
938

13.0
4.0

Table 3: Estimated business area specification, in ha (Parkstad Limburg, 2003)

Business area
De Locht
Rodaboulevard*
Spekholzerheide+
Willem-Sophia**
Dentgenbach

Offices

1.1

Large-scale
Shopping
11.3
1.9

Hotel & catering

industry

Warehouses

Industry

11.3
0.6
25.4
23.2
85.3

8.2
25.1

*: soccer stadium is in this area, total area (stadium + parking) is 9 ha

+: also waste collection point and storage, 8.5 ha
**: also quarry, 9.9 ha
Table 4: Energy demand quantities of several energy qualities for studied urban functions per year

Function
Houses
Schools
Care
Hotel & Catering industry
Retail
Offices

Elec, MWh
24,300
880
760
3700
15,000
520

Public lighting

670

Business area

435,000

Transport fuel, liter

144

17,000,000

Heat/gas, GJ
481,000
11,250
6800
26,500
54,000
1100
2,072,000

Other fuel, GJ

3300

The second step is the inventory of current urban energy demand, categorized according to
type of energy demand - quality, and amount of energy demand - quantity. Table 4 shows
the results for four energy qualities studied: electricity, heat, other fuel and transport fuel.
Business areas account for the largest demand for different specified energy qualities, and
heavy industry accounts for the largest contribution. Furthermore, houses represent a
substantial energy demand, as does retail within the district. Another large consumer is
transport and traffic. Table 5 shows the specification for industrial heat demand and possible
sources. In this case temperature indicates quality, with higher temperatures denoting higher
quality.
The third step constitutes an inventory of measures to cap urban energy demand, and to
identify the quality and quantity of available urban energy sources. Firstly, urban demand
can be limited by improving process efficiency or adjusting the performance of processes.
See table 6 for an overview of possibilities for two studied scenarios (see also step 5):
Scenario-moderate (Sc-mod) and Scenario-max (Sc-max).
Secondly, the author studied the potentials of local renewable and residual resources:
solar and wind energy; road potential; biogas and hydrogen; hydropower; and biofuel
production, from algae. Table 7 and figure 6 give an overview of maximum technical feasible
amounts according to energy quality and quantity.

WIND SCENARIOS
Existing Power = 5 MW
Potential Extra Power = 77,5 MW

11 km
km

New:
1 WT = 2,5 MW

Existing:
1 WT = 2,5 MW

New, in existing
business area
1 WT = 1,5 MW

0,5 km2

Figure 6

2
km
11km

Proposal for wind turbine location

145

Table 5: Heat demanded, differing temperatures and possible urban sources

Industry

Demanded temp., C

Brick production
Aluminum smelter
Synthetic materials

1200
600-700
95-240

Source

Delivered temp., C

Biogas, hydrogen
Steam industry
Cooling-water
industry

600-1800
100-300
40-100

Table 6: Estimated reduction potential, fossil, for studied efficiency, and function change measures

Measures, changes

Electricity,
MWh

Heat, GJ

Other, GJ

Transport
fuel, l

Passive house
standard a

Sc-mod

1800

157,000

Sc-max

3600

314,000

Adjustments
b
business area

Sc-mod

5000

20,000

Sc-max

180,000

410,000

Transport +
mobility c

Sc-mod

-9150*

8,500,000

Sc-max

-18,300*

17,000,000

Public lighting
Full-service
e
laundry shop

Sc-mod

330

Sc-max

330

Sc-mod

700

Sc-max

1400

3300

: passive house standard applied on existing housing stock, not full passive standard
reachable; Sc-mod: 50 % of houses, Sc-max: 100 % of houses;

: see t. 3 for specification; Sc-mod: 50 % of shopping and office area is virtual, resulting in
30 % lower energy demand; Sc-max: IDEM Sc-mod + changes in heavy industry (some
remain, some deleted and changed to warehouse, new industry only when renewable
energy and materials)

: split into cars, vans, trucks; small distances (>5 km): no motor transport allowed, car
sharing (12 %), car and van kilometers electric, truck kilometers: 50 % electric, 50 % biofuel
(see t.6); Sc-mod: 50 % electric and biofuel potential applied, Sc-max: full electric and
biofuel potential applied;
d

: use of more efficient materials and less lights, maximum reduction of 50 %; already for Scmod;

: replace 10 individual household laundry machines/dryers with 1 full-service laundry shop

(larger laundry machines/dryers); Sc-mod: applied for 25 % of houses, Sc-max: applied for
50 % of houses;
*: additional electricity demand due to changes to electric mobility and transport

146

In step 4, the decision tree (fig. 3) is used to couple available potential, via multi-sourcing
and cascading, with local energy demand. This decision tree indicates crucial decision
points. To fulfill a certain demand there should be a local potential, such as incoming sun,
and an energy demand. If there is not, the potential can be captured and stored for later use,
or exported for use in another system. If there is resource potential it is possible to capture
and convert the harvest potential and couple the received quality and quantity with demand,
of the same value, at a given place and time. Furthermore, we may also try to cap the use of
higher-valued sources for lower-valued demand. For example, PV-cells can be used to
capture sun and either have it converted to electricity for direct use or fed into the grid and
stored for later use. When demand is fulfilled we collect the remaining quality and cascade it
within the system, curtailing the waste of un-used qualities, for instance, use outgoing,
heated ventilation air to pre-heat incoming ventilation air, thereby lowering the demand for
heat energy. The remaining quality energy should be captured if it cannot be re-used in the
system and exported to another system where it can be useful. Wasting (no-capture) should
be minimized so as to keep quality loss down.
In step 5 the author used two scenarios: Sc-mod and Sc-max (step 3, t. 6-7) to calculate the
Urban Max Tech Harvest of Kerkrade-West. These scenarios are used to link the quality and
quantity of energy demanded to the potential energy supply. Figures 7a-c show the
scenario-results, where the vertical dimension represents demand (downwards) and supply
(upwards). Table 8 gives an overview of demand vs. supply. By using the decision tree,
based on the exergy principle, remaining qualities are captured and converted to be re-used,
for instance capturing heat from industrial exhaust air and delivering it to the heat network to
supply other industries or other urban functions. In order to apply cascading, recycling
optimally, and thus to use remaining qualities, it is important to localize clusters and identify
missing links, and also to connect these. For instance, we may cluster several industrial
facilities to one system or even expand the system to other urban functions close by such as
houses, shops, offices, greenhouses. Another possibility is to offer potential for a specific
new industry or function to fill in gap, such as industry that functions on lower temperature
heat or greenhouses that need CO2 and heat.

147

Table 7: Estimated renewable potential, energy qualities and quantities

Technology/application
PV on roofs, vacant land, floating, railway
cover a
Solar boilers on house roofs

Electricity

Heat

Transport fuel

MWh

GJ

Sc-mod

134,000

Sc-max

223,000

Sc-mod

126,000

Sc-max
Wind turbines on vacant, low density land

Heat-producing road technology d

Hydropower, outlet lake

252,000

Sc-mod

171,000

Sc-max

405,000

Sc-mod

80,400

Sc-max

165,500

Sc-mod

200

Sc-max

200

Biogas from green household waste and

f
black water

Sc-mod

Hydrogen production via electrolysis (wind

turbines) g

Sc-mod

Not included

Sc-max

1,500,000

Biofuel production, algae ponds

15,000

Sc-max

27,300

Sc-mod

1,020,000

Sc-max

2,040,000

: estimated industrial building roof area = 41.6 ha, house roofs = 15 ha (25 m /house) + 1.9 ha (20
m2/apartments), PV-field on vacant industrial land = 11 ha, stadium roof = 2.2 ha, floating on lake = 6
rd
ha, railway cover: railway area = 15 ha, assumed 2/3 available; Sc-mod: PV-efficiency = 15 % (for NL
= 150 kWh/m2), Sc-max: PV-efficiency = 25 %;
b

: estimated surface per house = 3 m = 35 GJ heat/house; 500 houses already equipped with solar
boiler; Sc-mod: half of remaining houses get solar boiler (yield of existing added); Sc-max: all of
remaining houses get solar boiler (yield of existing added);

: 2 wind turbines (WT) of 2.5 MW each already existing, added 5 WT of 1.5 MW & 28 WT of 2.5 MW
3
(see fig. 5); formula: Eyear = b*V *A (b = measure for total returns, NL average = 3.7); Sc-mod: average
wind speed = 6 m/s; Sc-max: wind speed = 8 m/s;
d

rd

: see de Bondt and Jansen, 2004; total road area = 37 ha; Sc-mod: 1/3 of road available for heat
rd
production; Sc-max: 2/3 of road (25ha) available, incomplete surface due to fewer future asphalt roads;
e

: rainwater run-off to lake to increase discharge; 1,400,000 m rain; exchange rate: water discharge of 1
m3/s = 35 kW power 100 MWh produced; doubled by adding treated grey water run-off from houses;
Sc-mod & Sc-max: max. potential;
f

: local collection of green household waste and black water from houses and local conversion into
biogas (added to grid); Sc-mod: half of potential possible; Sc-max: full potential reached;
g

: hydrogen production via electrolysis, extra electricity delivered by WT (included in WT-estimations);

Sc-max: 1 MJ = 1/12 m3 H2, 1 m3 H2 demands 2.5 kWh electricity (and 0.5 l water), improved process
(normally 5 kWh and 1 l);
h
: for trucks assuming that 50 % of fuel (or km) can be electric, remaining 50 % must be produced via
2

biofuel; assumed BTU for diesel: 36,500 BTU/l; assumed algae production: 1 m algae pond produces
5,000,000 BTU; Sc-mod: 50 % of remaining truck fuel via algae; Sc-max: 100 % of remaining truck fuel
via algae.

148

Business
Gaia
Stadium

Lake +
green

Houses

2
4

Agriculture
1

Vacant

Roads

Business

Figure 6a Electricity demand (left) and supply, sc-mod (middle) & sc-max (right); business area demand
in 1 bar, houses represents all other demand; houses 1 is reduction due to passive house, full-service
laundry and public lighting changes; houses 2 is PV-option; wind turbines on vacant land (3); 4,
represents business area function changes.

2
1

4
3
5

Figure 6b Heat demand (left) and supply, sc-mod (middle) & sc-max (right); business area demand in 1
bar, houses represents all other demand; houses 1 is reduction due to passive house standard; houses
2 is solar boiler option; road heat potential (3); 4, represents business area function changes; hydrogen
produced with wind turbines (5)

Figure 6C Fuel demand (left) and supply, sc-mod (1) & sc-max (2); road represents demand;
agricultural area represents biofuel production

149

Table 8: Overview of demand and potential supply, Sc-max, for Kerkrade-West

Demand

Type/measure

Base

Total

Elec,
MWh

Heat, GJ

480.800

Other
fuel, GJ

2.652.000

Transport
fuel, l

3300

17.000.000

Renewable energy generation

Renewable
potential, existing
+ added

PV

223.000

Solar boilers

252.000

Road technology

165.500

Wind turbines

405.000

Hydropower

200

Biogas
Hydrogen
production

27.300
-306.000

1.500.000

Further energy reduction

Function change
and efficiency
improvement
measures

Passive house
standard

3600

314.000

Adjustments
business area

180.000

410.000

Public lighting

330

Transport +
mobility

-18.300

Full-service
laundry

1400

Remaining
a

: technology also generates cold, 52.000 GJ;

150

3300

17.000.000

Discussion and conclusion

Applying the UH-concept and exergy principle means harvesting, capturing and converting
all available renewable and residual urban potential within the urban area to minimize
external inputs and outputs. Results show that it is possible to supply urban energy demand
with local potential by integrating quality, quantity, location and time characteristics of the
energy flows.
To achieve the full 0-energy option, the author proposes some major adjustments in
industry. This would result in less heavy industry and could entail fewer jobs. If planners take
local potentials into account, industry may change from energy-dependent to energy-neutral
or even energy-producing, for example by cascading residual heat. Furthermore, a city
should not only maximize energy flows but planning should also focus on where materials
come from. This increased focus on local potential and characteristics will increase
production, leading to more jobs.
0-energy cities can only be achieved by harvesting maximum potentials. This implies
that significant adjustments and measures must be implemented, which will have an impact
on the urban environment. Therefore, urban planning needs to adapt and include UH into
planning, in order to facilitate capturing and harvesting the available energy potential. UH
assists in coupling urban supply and demand more effectively and in achieving urban
circular metabolism and thus more optimal urban systems.
The proposed method shows the importance of taking an inventory of the urban landuse distribution. It further analyzes energy demand and potential supply, to couple supply
and demand in an optimal way towards 0-energy cities. The decision tree is a tool to support
the decision-making process, by evaluating multiple scenarios based on the local context.
The encountered difficulties should be seen as challenges rather than threats. Such
difficulties offer possibilities for innovative ideas. Further, including this method based on the
UH-concept towards 0-energy cities in planning practice means that planners should also
look outside administrative borders because synergies might well emerge just across the
border.
Although the author tested this method on an existing built-up area, it is also feasible to
expand the method to new-to-built urban districts in which planners do not face restrictions
imposed by existing conditions. This would mean that planning can directly apply the UHconcept towards 0-energy cities.
In order to achieve 0-energy cities, the proposed measures maximize urban energy
potential. However, if we are to obtain optimal urban systems, the focus must be broader
than merely on energy. Urban planning must factor in other urban flows such as materials
and water. And in order to optimize cities, urban planning should aim for an integrated urban
system, focusing on harvesting all urban flows and finding a way to combine flows to
achieve 0-energy, 0-material and 0-water cities.
The proposed method to study urban energy demand and supply and couple them,
based on UH and exergy, shows how urban planning can evolve and how optimal urban
systems can be developed towards 0-energy cities.

151

Acknowledgement
The author is a researcher on the SREX-project, the Dutch abbreviation for Synergy
between Regional Planning and Exergy (www.exergieplanning.nl), which is supported by NL
Agency, a department of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs.
I wish to thank my colleagues Claudia Agudelo, Ferry Van Kann and Leo Gommans for
their help and contributions to this final result.

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153

Towards 0-Impact Industrial Sites

a 0-impact tool
Katleen De Flander
Abstract
The aim of the Sustainable Industrial Sites (SIS) project (INTERREG IV-A Euregio MaasRijn) is to create a clear reference frame within the Euregio and beyond for sustainable
industrial sites (see www.sustainableindustrialsites.eu). Therefore, a tool is being developed
that uses 0-impact as the main structuring element. For each module of the SIS-Tool, a set
of indicators measures how far a site is from target 0.
The SIS-Tool is a tool with a low threshold that can be used by developers to perform a
free quick scan to get a first indication of where they are, what can be improved and how
they can set an ambition level to work towards.

Introduction

The execution of sustainable measures on a building level has increasingly become a logical
step in the building process. Governments have become more engaged and supportive,
information and advice is plentiful and the scale is manageable. However, at higher scale
levels, be it a neighborhood, city or in this case an industrial site, the whole matter becomes
more complex.

Because nearly one third of the worlds energy consumption and 36% of its
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are attributable to manufacturing industries
(Gielen Dolf et al, 2008), governments are also now focusing increasingly on
industrial sites as they will need to comply with the EU 20-20-20 targets by 2020.
However, one significant issue regarding the manufacturing industry (which
accounts for a large proportion of industrial site occupation) is that the development
and widespread use of new materials and processes is a protracted effort that is
limited by capital stock turnover, norms and standards for new materials, as well as
acceptance by the market. Therefore, such changes must be implemented in the
coming decade if they are to have a substantial impact by 2050 (Gielen Dolf et al,
2008).
Growing numbers of public and market parties 29) are talking about their sustainable
industrial sites. But what exactly is a sustainable industrial site? As for CO2-neutral or

29)

industrial site developers are either public, for instance municipalities or regional governments, or
private developers

155

carbon-neutral cities, the question we must ask is: what are we talking about here? Is it a
well-defined mission, or is it just marketing? (Rovers, R., Rovers V., 2008). Sustainability is
an often used and misused term. Without clear definitions and clearly set boundaries for the
system concerned, such language is empty and worthless.
In Flanders, a new law that includes CO2-neutrality as a requirement for receiving
public subsidies for the development of a new industrial site has pushed many parties to
start thinking about sustainability. Unfortunately, in this case only energy is addressed and
the definition of CO2-neutrality only includes electricity. Notwithstanding, the upside is that
the first step has been made and some industrial site developers, which in Belgium are often
municipalities, now want to go a step further and gain a green image.
Indeed, this is how the development of the SIS-Tool started. Questions such as: How
do we make a sustainable industrial site? What can we ask from the companies that want
to settle here? How far can we go without scaring businesses away?, are all in the minds of
many developers aiming at an attractive green image. The last question is particularly
important for municipalities and local regions as industrial sites are an important part of their
local economies. However, competition between adjacent municipalities trying to attract new
economic power makes them less willing to set environmental demands on sought-after
business owners. Ideally, agreements over larger regions (and cross-border) would be made
in order to eradicate the competition effect, although we are still far from achieving this.
A further reason why it is often difficult to implement environmental measures at the
industry or company level is that building owners are rarely the same as building users.
Environmental measures do not yet equal a higher rental price per m2, so why would
building owners make the higher initial investments if they will not feel the benefits of their
actions? Although things are slowly changing, for instance with the EPB Directive on
buildings energy performance, this is seldom a decisive factor for tenants who attribute
greater value to location, size and services.

2
2.1

The SIS-Tool
Objectives and 0-impact approach

The aim of the Sustainable Industrial Sites (SIS) project (INTERREG IV-A Euregio MaasRijn) is to create a clear reference frame within the Euregio and beyond for sustainable
industrial sites. Since looking at energy alone is not enough, several modules are developed
to deal with the various aspects of sustainability. More about this follows later in this paper.
The tool offers the possibility to measure, plan by means of setting ambition levels and draw
inspiration from existing examples (Figure 1).
The central approach of the SIS-Tool is not to-do-a-bit-better-than-now but to set the
clear target of 0, for energy, materials, water, mobility and so forth. 0 becomes the
structuring element and everything is measured in terms of how far a site is from the 0
target.

156

Figure 1: Measure - Plan - Execute cycle for continuous improvement towards a sustainable industrial
site. Source: Author for SIS-project ; Graphic Design: Visuell, Aachen

2.2

Quantitative vs qualitative

A review of the factors that influence the sustainability of an industrial site immediately
reveals that they can be split into two categories: measurable and unmeasurable. We have
chosen to keep these two categories separate and not attempt to quantify albeit highly
important social or legal aspects, for instance, as this would lead to subjectivity.
The qualitative aspects have been molded into a roadmap for developers in the form of
a Metroplan (Figure 2), guiding them in the consecutive phases of a site development
through the different aspects of sustainability. The qualitative aspects were laid out by and
according to the JERTS (Legal-Economical-Spatial-Technical-Social) management system
from the MRB research group of Ghent University (Van Eetvelde G. et al).
The quantitative aspects selected by the SIS-team are as follows:

Energy - developed by the Centre of Sustainable Building Flanders with

input from VITO (Flemish institute for technological research),

Water - developed by Hydroscan (Leuven),

Materials building - developed by Matriciel (Louvain-la-Neuve)

Materials output - developed by the Centre of Sustainable Building

Flanders with input from OVAM (Public Waste Agency of Flanders)

Mobility home-work, professional, freight - developed by ICEDD

(Namur)

Biodiversity - developed by JNC-AWP International (Nivelles)

These aspects form the various modules of the SIS-Tool in its pilot phase. Other modules
may be added at a later date.

157

Figure 2: Roadmap for developers showing the qualitative aspects of a sustainable industrial site in the
form of a Metroplan laid out by and according to the JERTS (Legal-Economical-Spatial-TechnicalSocial) management system from the MRB research group of Ghent University. Source: Author for SISproject; Graphic Design: Visuell, Aachen

2.3

Practical delimitations of the SIS-Tool

The SIS-Tool does not aim to be an all-inclusive instrument as this would take years to
develop each module. Nevertheless, scientists were either hired or consulted for the
development of each module. The SIS-Tool aims to be a tool with a low threshold that can
be used by developers to perform a free quick scan so as to get a first indication of where
they are, what could be improved and how they can set an ambition level to work towards.
The tool will be programmed online generating immediate results. After deciding on where to
focus their work, a more detailed analysis can be requested, for which other existing tools
could be used.
One major obstacle when developing indicators for industrial sites is the huge disparity
in the size and nature of the sites and the companies that constitute them. It is precisely
because of these great differences (ranging from harbors to SME sites), that it is difficult to
calculate indicators in terms of m2, m3 or number of employees, as would be the case for
housing or office buildings.
158

Figure 3: Dashboard model with the differing module meters. Source: Author for SIS-project; Graphic
Design: Visuell, Aachen

2.4

Dashboard model

As mentioned above, the aspects that form the different modules of the SIS-Tool are energy,
water, materials, mobility and biodiversity. Rather than adding up these modules to produce
one result, they are visible alongside each other on the company dashboard and the
industrial site dashboard (which is the sum of all of the companies and the public part of the
industrial site), thereby giving a clear overview of total performance (Figure 3). This
modularity means that not all modules have to be analyzed at once; one or several can be
selected and they can also be spread over time. In the future, the dashboard can be
extended to include new modules if desired.
For each module, the SIS-Tool uses a set of indicators to measure how far the site is from
target 0 at any given moment. In other words, the tool measures a distance-to-target-0
(DDT) of 25%, 50%, 75% or more. These percentage distances make up the differing
ambition levels: level 4 (=target = 0-impact), level 3 (<25% DDT), level 2 (<50% DTT), level
1 (<75% DTT) and level 0 (>75% DTT). In addition to indicating the current performance
status of the industrial site, they can also be used to set an ambition level. The indicator
formulas are fed by a simple quantitative question data list for each module which requires
input from the companies and the site developer or administrator. Error notifications will be
built in if impossible numbers are filled out in these data lists, although it is impossible to
verify all answers. Should the tool be required in the future to grant subsidies or for
competition purpose and so forth, a control mechanism will need to be developed. This,
however, is beyond the scope of the SIS project.
Since this is a modular system, the tool allows a different ambition level to be set for
each module. The developer can also choose to leave some freedom of focus to the
companies, for instance: level 3 for 1 module of choice and level 2 for 2 modules of choice.
159

Figure 4: Visual representation of the different ambition levels; Source: Author for SIS-project; Graphic
Design: Visuell, Aachen

A play mode is included in each module to show what happens to the level when the
survey values are changed and to see how much the values have to be adapted to trigger a
level increase. The reason behind this is that it is impossible to write general
recommendations on how to increase the ambition level of an industrial site for a given
indicator, again because of the great differences in size and character.
As can be seen in figure 4, level 4 represents the 0-impact target where by harvesting
and closing cycles for all in- and outputs, the system becomes closed within its system
borders. Level 0 is how things often work at the present time with in- and outputs merely
160

flowing in a linear fashion through the system. Levels 1 to 3 make up the levels in between,
as explained above.

2.5

Defining target 0 for each module

For each module, 0 must be defined separately. Each module has one or several indicators.
The indicator value gives a score from 0-100%, which is actually the inverted value of the
distance-to-target-0. (Table 1). This is best illustrated by reference to a few practical
examples of how the indicators are defined:
Table 1: Indicator values; Source: Author for SIS-project

level 0

level 1

level 2

level 3

Indicator value

0%

25%

50%

75%

level 4=
0-impact
100%

Distance-totarget-0

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Example 1: water module (Hydroscan, 2009)

Indicator 1: water use
This indicator assesses whether the most optimal water sources are used according to the
principal that the use of tap water, surface water and above all ground water must be
discouraged as much as possible. The use of rain water, rough water (water of lower quality
than tap water provided by another company) and reclaimed water from an in-house water
treatment installation are valued as sustainable.

For certain sanitary uses (showers, sinks, kitchen and so on), tap water is
recommended for hygienic reasons. Therefore, for half of sanitary water use tap
water is permitted without a negative assessment. The production of certain
consumer products (food products, care products, medicines, etc.) demands the
use of high quality high water. Therefore is the use of tap water, surface water or
ground water allowed for the volume of fluids that stays behind in these products.
ambition level 4 can be reached when no tap water, ground water or surface water (other
than for manufacturing products that demand this) is used, except for a limited part for half
of sanitary water use. This is the target 0-impact.
ambition level 3 can be reached when less than 25% of water use (except half of sanitary
water use and for manufacturing products that demand this) is from tap water, ground water
or surface water; if ground water is used, this can account for no more than 10% of water
use
ambition level 2 can be reached when less than 50% of water use (except half of sanitary
water use and for manufacturing products that demand this) is from tap water, ground water
or surface water; if ground water is used, this can account for no more than 20% of water
use
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ambition level 1 can be reached when less than 75% of water use (except half of sanitary
water use and for manufacturing products that demand this) is from tap water, ground water
or surface water; if ground water is used, this can account for no more than 30% of water
use

Example 2: mobility home-work module (developed by ICEDD, Namur)

For this module at this time it is not entirely realistic to define target 0 as 0-emissions. We
cannot expect all employees to cycle or walk to the industrial site. Therefore, in this case
target 0 is defined as follows:
40% of employees travel on public transport
10% by soft transport (bike, on foot)
20% by car-sharing
30% by car / motorbike

(current average in Wallonia = 8.8%)

(current average in Wallonia = 4.7%)
(current average in Wallonia = 4.8%)
(current average in Wallonia = 77.5%)

The pilot tests of the project will reveal if this definition of target 0 is extensive enough or if it
needs modification. The target 0 definition can also be adjusted over time, for instance when
electric cars are more common.

Concluding remarks

The SIS-Tool was born of a need to define a Sustainable Industrial Site. By using 0-impact
as a target, it will become clear that there is often a long way to go to reach this. However,
as a structuring element, target 0 makes it possible to compare, benchmark and plan for the
future.
The tool will give not only municipalities and other public or private industrial site
developers but also governments the opportunity to take action and set quantitative
restrictions, whether they be voluntary or mandatory.
After programming the modules online, a first set of industrial sites will be tested with
this performance tool. The outcome of these pilots will clarify if the 0-targets are defined
well, where the tool needs to be adjusted and if it gives the expected result. After this pilot
phase, the SIS tool will be publicly available on the website: www.sis-tool.eu and via the
general SIS-project website: www.sustainableindustrialsites.eu.
The tool may also provide valuable information about the companies taking part in the
test. Companies can also use the tool to carry out a self-scan without participating in a
complete site.

References

Gielen, Dolf (IEA, France) et al, 2008 Reducing Industrial Energy Use and CO2 Emissions:
The Role of Materials Science, MRS Bulletin, Volume 33, April 2008, pp471-477
Hydroscan, 2009 Report for SIS-Project - Module water (unpublished, for content see
www.sis-tool.eu online after the test phase of the SIS-project)

162

Rovers, R., Rovers V., 2008 0-energy or Carbon neutral? Systems and Definitions
Discussion
paper,
unpublished,
see
www.sustainablebuilding.info
SIS-Project website: www.sustainableindustrialsites.eu and future SIS-Tool website:
www.sis-tool.eu
Van Eetvelde G. et al, Groeiboeken duurzame bedrijventerreinen, Vanden Broele,
www.dbt.ugent.be

163

Urban Morphology and the Quest for Zero Carbon

Cities
Serge Salat

30)

and Caroline Nowacki

31)

Abstract
Ever-increasing environmental constraints demand a profound change in natural resource
consumption. Technical solutions now make it possible to increase a buildings energy
efficiency, reducing its negative ecological effects. However, these solutions must be
integrated into a more comprehensive urban planning process, steering urban forms and
human behaviour towards more efficient models. Our paper reveals that zero carbon cities
can emerge from in-depth analysis of spatial structures and urban forms.
Research at the CSTB Urban Morphology Laboratory describes the morphology of
cities using geometrical parameters, such as street lengths and building heights, to obtain
indicators that tell us something about energy efficiency as well as social, architectural and
economic aspects. This approach allows us to compare the performance of cities across the
world in order to characterize different urban issues which could help decision-makers in
choosing between different opportunities in the development of their cities.

Introduction

Our paper highlights the role of urban morphology in the search for zero carbon cities. Our
Urban Morphology Lab proposes a model of urban development that presents the assets
and defaults of different urban typologies and concludes that dense cities comprised of
medium-size courtyard blocks allow the saving of at least half the energy consumption and
carbon emissions that are common today. Furthermore, by using a method that links form
with flow, double energy savings can be achieved. Such results can be very useful in
organizing tomorrows cities.
Our research is guided by the conviction that decision-makers and local authorities
should be aware of the structural challenges they will be confronted with when tackling
energy issues. To this end, we will present some key tools and illustrate them by providing
the reader with various examples.
30

) Serge Salat, Director of the Urban Morphology Lab, CSTB, Paris; serge.salat@free.fr
) Caroline Nowacki, Research Projects Coordinator, Urban Morphology Lab, CSTB
nowackicaroline@gmail.com

31

165

The importance of urban morphology at an urban scale

2.1
Transportation energy and the importance of density in the energy
performance of cities
Density is a key factor in the energy performance of cities both through energy spent on
transportation and through urban typology. Transportation energy is linked to density by a
simple law. The Newman-Kenworthy curve shows that the amount of transportation energy
used is an inverse function of demographic density: E=k/D. This law implies that the amount
of energy spent in a metropolitan region is the squared size of the region. In other words, a
metropolitan region whose span is 5 times larger than another one will tend to use 25 times
more energy. An important parameter used by the lab is the urban density ratio which is the
total number of built square meters divided by the entire surface of the site including public
spaces and roads. In traditional European urban areas a building footprint can be as high as
65% of its site while in sprawling American cities or modernist urban areas it may be lower
than 10%. In Le Corbusiers modernist utopian city of 3 million inhabitants, much ground
was left empty for the enjoyment of city parks. Sadly, in reality the space between buildings
has been allocated to giant highways and turnpikes and huge parking lots. In most parts of
Paris the urban density, that is the ratio between total floor space in square meters
(including every storey of every building) and the square meters of the area, is around 4 to
5. In Shanghai or Guangzhou the urban density is, in fact, four times lower since the scale of
the whole city allows for greater square meters of open space. Now, the level of motorization
in Shanghai is extremely low (5.9%) but due to improvements in living conditions and the
sprawling expansion of the city, it may in the future reach the same level as in Los Angeles
(80%). On the basis of the tremendous size of the urban region alone, the transportation
energy per inhabitant in Shanghai will likely be 5 to 10 times higher than in the dense cores
of European cities. Already an 8 to 16 fold difference in car-use energy can be observed
between some dense Asian cities such as Hong Kong, Seoul, and Tokyo, and the sprawling
west-coast cities of America such as Los Angeles.

Figure 1 Relationship between transport and land use. The Newman-kenworthy curve shows a strong
link between demographic density and transportation energy needs

166

2.2

Urban typology and density

The different levels of density are statistically associated with different urban block
typologies. As explained below, urban density does not equal verticality. In fact modern
vertical urban forms are 4 to 5 times less dense than traditional European urban blocks. The
explanation is very simple. In Paris, 65% of the ground is built with 7-storey buildings. If we
divide the occupied ground space by 6.5 so that it equals the 10% of occupied ground space
in Pudong, we need to multiply the number of floors by 6.5 in order to get the same density,
and this leads to building towers of 45 floors. We have checked these results by analyzing
numerous Chinese urban fabrics. To describe the relationship between density and urban
form, we will rely on the work done by Agma in Density and urban forms in the metropolis of
Marseille. In this book, density is measured at the scale of the building block using the FAR
(floor area ratio).
Detached houses are the least dense urban form. The density of a traditional village is
identical or even higher than some tower blocks, which are high but scattered. Again we see
that density does not correspond to verticality. The traditional courtyard of 4 to 7 floors is the
urban form with the higher density. Tower blocks are generally 4 times denser than
detached houses, and traditional courtyards are 4 times denser than high rises. This means
the difference in densification between detached houses and traditional courtyards is 16fold! Statistically, densities are associated with specific typologies of form. To achieve higher
density, the most appropriate urban form is clearly the collection of traditional courtyards,
like Haussmanns 19th century courtyard blocks in France, and not the modernist high-rise in
an open setting.

Figure 2 Six types of urban forms. From left to right: scattered detached houses (FAR=0,04); detached
houses (FAR=0,25); traditional village (FAR=1,5); terraces (FAR=1 to 1.2); courtyards 4 to 7 floors high
(FAR=5); slab and tower blocks (FAR=1,25). Source: "Densits et formes urbaines dans la mtropole
Marseillaise," Urbanism Agency of the of the City of Marseille.

167

These variations on urban forms with densities rising to a factor of 16 have sizeable
32 )
consequences in energy consumption. Jean Pierre Traisnel
studied the energy
consumption of three typologies found in the Paris region, looking at heat and other building
functions as well as travel by the inhabitants. The first typology corresponds to the centre of
Paris made of dense, traditional, medium-size courtyard blocks. They date back to the 19th
century and are not well insulated, yet their heating consumption is not very high because
the envelope does not have many windows (which are higher thermal bridges). The second
typology is a 1960s tower block with a large surface area of windows. Here the area of heat
loss is greater and its location in the suburbs means less public transportation (as opposed
to the higher density of transportation zones in the city centre) though an increased energy
use for the everyday transportation taking people to amenity/activity zones spread out in the
suburbs. The third typology is grouped pavilions built recently in a suburb of Paris, where
there is very little public transportation. Though these houses have been built recently and
benefit from a much higher insulation in its walls and roof compared to the two other
typologies, its heating needs are basically 30% to 40% greater than insulated collective
housing. The new pavilions use as much heat as the buildings of the past which are not
well-insulated.
The first typology allows for the creation of a dense urban fabric, with a mix of activities
and good connections by public transport. This is why transportation transfers account only
for 25% of the total energy consumption by their inhabitants, versus 50% for the pavilions
and tower blocks. Total energy consumption for a new construction in the centre of Paris is
800 MJ/km2 per year versus 1300 MJ/km2 for a new pavilion (+60%) and more than 2000
MJ/km2 for an old pavilion. Unless by reducing individual transfers, which is not possible due
to the form and organization of the suburbs, it is impossible for pavilions to be as energy
efficient as courtyard blocks in the town centre: they would need to have 0 loss through the
envelope. Carbon emissions due to transfers in the suburbs are 2 to 3 times higher than
emissions for heating in the suburbs. Moreover they are twice as high as the emissions of
the centre of Paris. The emission rate in new high-rise suburbs is 40% higher than in central
Paris. When considering energy consumption for buildings only, it is 20% higher in the
suburbs in comparison with Paris. This shows that new technologies cannot be the solution
alone since inhabitants of very well-insulated pavilion create twice as much carbon
emissions as inhabitants of a renovated old building in central Paris.

Toward a parameterization of the morphological factor

The second part of our article is dedicated to the presentation of the parameters and
indicators associated with the morphological factors. This information should be used to
create efficient urban designs.
There are four main sets of morphological parameters influencing the energy efficiency
of an urban area.

Building mass organization (built-up area, FAR, contiguity, building

height, compactness)

Openness to the sky (occlusivity, solar admittance)

Passive volume (i.e. the volume less than 6 meters from the envelope)

Street networks
32

Traisnel, J.P. Habitat et dveloppement durable, in Les cahiers du CLIP, April 2001, pp. 37-59

168

3.1
A measurement of parameters describing the interaction of the citys
fabric with its environment
By selecting various samples of urban fabric in a particular city, calculating their
morphological parameters, and associating these with their respective energy consumption,
it has been possible to determine the energy-efficiency of different urban textures, the most
relevant parameters, and their respective impacts. Further analysis of the fabric of a citys
street network provides a measure of the connectivity and diversity of route choices in the
area. Various characteristics can be calculated such as: density of streets, density of
intersections, distance between intersections, and the average number of connections
between two points (cyclomatic number). These results indicate an areas degree of
connectivity and accessibility, and can then be used as indicators for traffic flows and
congestion, and the resultant fuel-usage and pollution effects. The results can be used to
inform more energy-efficient urban development by: identifying the most/least efficient urban
areas in the city and thus areas requiring high priority; assessing the urban growth potential
of selected sites and identifying areas for low-impact development; assessing the energy
performance of development proposals; and guiding the design of future urban
developments. The benefits of such an analysis to a citys urban planning policies and
strategies are great, since the energy performance of the current design guidelines can then
be evaluated, the information can assist in the calculation of a set of sustainability indicators
for the city, and action can be taken to make the guidelines more energy-efficient.

Figure 3 200 x 200 meters urban sites. Kyoto low-rise areas of 2 to 5 floors have the same density as
Shanghai areas of 10 to 25 floors, while Guangzhou recent developments need to multiply the building
height height by 10, and to reach 30 floors to multiply only by 2,5 the density of low-rise Kyoto.

169

3.2

The urban fabric in Asian, Chinese and European cities

Paris, Kyoto, and the ancient fabrics of Guangzhou and Shanghai, have very similar
parametric profiles. Hong Kong is different (2 times denser than Paris in built form and 10
times higher in building height with severe problems of solar admittance, stagnation of
pollutants and urban heat effects, that demonstrate the limits of high-density through very
tall buildings). Some high-rise districts in Shanghai and Hong Kong with more than 45 floors,
have similar or lower urban densities than 7-storey neighborhoods in the historic centre of
Paris. This was predictable for geometric reasons and because of land use, but it still
remains a very striking finding: very tall high-rises are in reality medium or low density
despite their perception as imposing and dense. This has significant effects on the
sustainability and adaptability of this type of vertical urban fabric.

3.3
Building mass and street grids: the effect of a fine urban grain (a tight
collection of small buildings) versus a loosely-connected urban grid (largescale buildings in a larger setting)
The street patterns of the studied cities are also very different. We have used comparative
graphs to assess the efficiency of street networks. An important parameter is the cyclomatic
number, the number of different paths between 2 points in a network. This number is high in
Paris, Hong Kong, Kyoto, Tokyo and the ancient parts of Chinese cities, although this is
divided by 15 in the new Chinese developments. The average distance between
intersections is more than 3 times higher in Guangzhou CBD than in Paris, while the density
of intersections is 10 times lower in Guangzhou than in Kyoto.

Figure 4 200 x 200 metres urban sites. Three very different patterns of street grids.

170

A clear range of urban patterns reveals itself in this parameter. At the lower end, Kyoto
and Tokyo have a very finely grained street pattern with an average distance between
intersections of 50 m and very high levels of connectivity (cyclomatic numbers higher than
90 and going up to 150). The street pattern in Tokyo is organic and follows the topography,
while in Kyoto the square shapes of the neighborhoods (ch) are a 1200 year-old heritage,
planned in 794 when the city was called Heianky, and inspired by the Tang dynasty
Chinese capital of Changan. Nevertheless the mathematical analysis of the street grid
reveals the same underlying structure in both Kyoto and Tokyo, planned almost 1000 years
later. Both are typical pedestrian cities in Asia, influenced by Chinese culture. The middle
ground can be found in 19th century European cities, with striking similarities between Paris,
Hong Kong and the centre of Melbourne, all planned by Europeans. The average distance
between intersections is usually 150 m and the cyclomatic numbers range from 60 to 90.
These cities were planned as pedestrian cities and provided with good public transportation.
Finally, at the opposite end are contemporary Chinese developments with huge distances
between intersections (between 500 m and 600 m) and very weak levels of connectivity,
with cyclomatic numbers around 6 (thus 15 times weaker than in Europe). These street
patterns are typical of car-oriented cities.

3.4
Traditional medium-rise and connected urban blocks are more energy
efficient than isolated high-rise buildings isolated from a continuous urban
tissue
Our analyses have shown that for both lighting and thermal comfort energy (the parameters
of compactness and passive volume) as well as for transportation energy, the compact, lowrise urban blocks of traditional European cities are more efficient than recent low density,
high-rise Chinese developments by at least a factor of 4. The only reason why Chinese
cities do not spend 4 times more energy than European cities is the low level of motorization
in China and the relatively low level of thermal comfort. However, with an increase in
motorization and in the criteria of comfort, the car-oriented large-scale and looselyconnected patterns of contemporary Chinese urban fabrics have the potential to lead to an
explosion in energy demand. Therefore, improving the design of the fabric of Chinese cities
and steering them in the direction of more compact transit-oriented development, is key to
the future sustainability of Chinese cities.

Conclusion

An understanding of urban morphology has a large part to play in the achievement of zero
carbon cities. Our work shows that the morphological factor can be evaluated by different
parameters such as building mass organization, openness to the sky, passive volume and
street networks. Relevant indicators such as compactness, solar admittance and contiguity
can be used to define these key factors. This information is valuable to decision-makers and
can help them to shape cities on the basis of effective and intelligent urban forms, both at
fabric level and at the wider urban scale.
Urban morphology proves itself to be one of the four decisive factors influencing the
carbon emission of cities, alongside the widely-discussed influence of building technology,
171

energy systems, and consumers behavior. We believe that urban morphology should play a
leading part in the quest for zero carbon cities, as urban forms are the starting point and
thus greatly influence the choice of one technology over another, as well as influencing
inhabitants behaviors. For example, a compact and high density city is likely to favor the
use of a public transportation network. Defining the urban morphology allows us to explore
the maximum efficiency of new technologies, for example by choosing a form that increases
the buildings receptiveness to daylight. The quest for zero carbon cities should therefore
take urban morphology into account to fully exploit the opportunities and energy savings
needed.

172

The Urban Harvest Plus approach to 0-impact on built

environments, case study Kerkrade West
Ronald Rovers, Herwin Sap, Wouter Leduc, Vera Rovers
Gommans 34 ), Ferry van Kann 35 )

33 )

, Leo

Abstract
The need to restructure our society into a sustainable society has been recognised
by many. However, a clearly defined methodology to guide such an objective is
usually lacking. At the Research Institute for the Built Environment of Tomorrow
(RiBuilT) a proposed method has been summarised as the Concept of O: O for a
circular approach to resource management and 0 (zero) for 0-impact on resource
use, 0-energy, 0-materials, 0-water, 0-land use and 0-air pollution. This paper looks
at applying this approach to existing urban environments.

Introduction

Cities are among the most vulnerable systems in the world. Today more then 50% of the
global population live in cities and depend on provisions and supplies from distant sources.
The systems have become very complex and a small change in resource supply can cause
great distress in urban environments (Atkinson, 2008). In fact, cities have no back-up
whatsoever to cope with the crises that may lie ahead of us. Resources of all kinds can
become scarce and yet they are interdependent: if oil runs out, the shipping of food will be
obstructed. If biofuels are sown and harvested, renewable materials (as an alternative to the
high energy consumption of steel and cement) will be under pressure. In fact there is a
direct correlation between the provision of energy, food and materials to urban areas. This
will only increase when in the future, as is widely recognised, society will have to shift
towards more organic and renewable resources. A sustainable city in the future enables all
its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their well-being without damaging the
natural world or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the future.
(Girardet, 2000)

33) Rovers, Sap, Leduc, Rovers: Research Institute for the Built Environment of Tomorrow [RiBuilT],
Zuyd University, Heerlen, the Netherlands
34) Technical University of Delft [TUD], the Netherlands
35) Rijks Universiteit Groningen [RUG], the Netherlands

173

The search for a sustainable city has already generated opinions (Frey, 2004) and actions,
like several climate-neutral city initiatives. In the United Kingdom and the Netherlands a
formal government program is ongoing (Rovers, 2008).
To evaluate the vulnerability of a city for stress in its resource provisions, the Urban
Harvest method was developed (Rovers, 2007). This method calculates the viability of an
urban environment: its ability to negotiate the difference between resource demand and the
potential to produce its own resources within the urban system. It explores the transition
from consumptive cities to productive built environments.
This approach is a starting point in evaluating the potential for transition of existing urban
environments, and the potential for expanding the method to see if it can also lead to the
reduction of resource consumption to zero; that is to say, self-sufficiency wherein everything
needed is produced within its own boundaries, leading to a closed cycle. This will reveal not
only direct potential, but also additional measures needed to reduce demand, like change in
functions within a system and strong reduction in demand for existing functions.
The analysis is use-based, and will not only explore technological improvements, but
alternative use allocations as well. For example, its no use improving laundry machines if a
laundry shop can provide the service more effectively by reducing overall energy use and
material production and raise comfort at the same time. The strategy discussed was
developed partially on the basis of the findings by a research program which explores the
36
use of exergy principles in spatial planning. SREX ) is a long-term Dutch research program
advancing a step-by-step strategy in analysing urban areas to create a conceptual
redevelopment plan.
The strategy researched here, called Urban Harvest Plus (UH+), is based on the four
principles of closing resource cycles:

close the cycle

reduce the volume in the cycle
reduce the speed of use of resources in the cycle
limit the energy that drives the cycle

A step-by-step approach was then developed for each resource to optimise its use, and a
maximisation phase was analysed to deal with conflicts such as resources claiming the
same surface areas in their optimisation.
Exergy analysis in the field of urban planning (SREX 2010 research) shows that in
order to maintain the highest quality in a system (small or large), the use of an external
source is the most profitable. However, enlarging the system size to a global scale reveals
that this is attainable only through solar power since in all other cases neighbouring systems
are decreased in quality. The optimisation of such an urban environment system would lead
to a solar radiation based balance. Since converting solar radiation into useful resources for
human application is always related to access to radiation, this has consequences in terms
of square meter space.
Analyses of closed cycles have shown that they can only exist infinitely if renewable
resources are applied in the cycle; that is, renewable in the sense that they are re36) SREX. Research program financed by the Dutch government exploring the exergy principle in
spatial planning. See http://www.exergieplanning.nl

174

established or regenerated within the time of use. Also, renewable material resources are
mostly organic and solar radiation based. The same is true of food, which leads to the
conclusion that a system can only be optimised when solar radiation is used for all sources
together: food, materials and energy. To harvest only energy from solar radiation would be a
sub-optimisation and neglects the claims materials and food make on a system, since these
also require access to radiation in square meters. The Urban Harvest Plus method therefore
optimises an urban environment by looking into all these resources simultaneously and
calculating the potential to provide them in the square meters within the area.

The 5 step UH+ method

The method is as follows: The premises is that an existing urban area probably consumes
more than it generates within the systems borders. The aim is to create an equal balance
(zero measurement) of consumption and (possibly small scale) production. From this point
on the UH+ process can be applied in five steps:

Fig. 1. The 5-step process illustrated in a flow chart

175

The five steps of the UH+ process:

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Calculate maximum potential productivity for each resource;

Explore functional changes that reduce need and demand (alternative
services, dematerialisation);
Apply maximum reduction measures for functions staying the same
(renovation for low-energy standards, etc.);
Optimise each resource separately, combining the remaining demand
with potential production, for example by matching qualities (e.g.
temperature cascading) and double land use, etc. This leads to an
optimised plan for each resource. However, there can be overlaps in
claims, which leads to the next step;
Maximisation process for all resources together.

The end balance should be zero or reveal the required imports and exports still
needed but that could not be solved within the system.

Maximisation, principles and rules

Step 5 requires some explanation. This is a crucial step. When the demand and production
potential for each resource are optimised, the plans for each resource are drawn together to
maximise on combining need and potential for resources.
In both the optimisation of a single resource and the maximisation of combined
resources, it is clear that a set of principles and rules is needed to help make choices
regarding priority resources and necessary land use.
The method defines a set of principles to facilitate decision making. Rules are defined
as practical interpretations of the principles. In this process an initial list of both rules and
principles was developed and tested. One of the most interesting findings was that in order
to rank the importance of different resources, it was necessary to define priorities in the
survival of humans. The basic necessities of survival, as it turns out, are the most useful
principles. Following on from that, energy is the least important in that ranking (external input
of energy). Securing air, water, food and material has a higher priority in times of crisis;
without air we have only minutes to live, without water we have days, without food we have
months, without materials we have years and (without technological) energy decades.

Pilot study: Kerkrade-West

The town of Kerkrade West, an area of around 7000 houses, 16,000 people and 980
hectares, was taken for this pilot study. The town includes an industrial district, a shopping
mall, a recreational area, housing in a village setting and agricultural land.
The actual flow of resources through the area was analysed as was the process of
transferring the areas resources into a closed cycle. This was based on the hypothesis that
in 20XX fossil fuels would be abandoned and the main part of the resource flow would be
produced within the area, either from primary sources such as agriculture or through
secondary sources by recycling. Water would be locally harvested and treated.
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NATURE
Survivalofnature/bioecologyisattheheartofanyapproach

CYCLES
Theclosingandmaintenanceofcyclesisabasicprinciple
Closingcyclestodayincludesreducingthevolumeandspeedof
useofresourcesinthecycle,andlimitingtheenergydrivingthat
cycle.

QUALITY
Amaximumexergeticperformanceisthebenchmark
Exergy,ameasureforthequalityofenergy,alsoappliesto
mass.Thecombined(andsustained)quality,orminimal
decreaseofit,determinesthebestsolution,withsolarradiation
astheonlyqualityaddingsource.

SYSTEMS
OnlysystemswithdefinedborderscantakepartinaCC
approach;thisisabasicrequirement.Exchangebetween
systemscanonlytakeplacewhenbothareevaluatedaccording
toprinciples1and2.

HUMANS
Basichumanneedsrankedinorderofimportancetosurvival,is
theguidingprincipleinchoicesregardingresourcecycles.
Thereisapreferredorderintheresourcesnecessarytohumans
inbuiltupenvironments:airwaterfoodmaterials
(technological)energy.

This phase of research did not consider social or demographic changes in the coming
decades, so the end situation involves approximately the same amount of people and
needs.
In an upcoming phase of the project the findings will be compared with and tested
against the predicted changes in the area, exploring different scenarios and which choices
might be socially acceptable or economically feasible. Changes accepted on the basis of
social or economical reasons will, of course, influence the timeframe in which the region
could become self-sufficient.
The outcome of the research shows that the cycles can only be closed if all possible
options are cultivated and there are some changes within society itself. This pertains not to
the level of welfare, but involves a different social organisation. It has been shown
necessary to shift to a more serviced society whereby certain functions are serviced
communally rather than individually.
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Food - scale level

In terms of food production, it has been found that the scale of a small built-up area is too
small to supply the current pattern of food consumption. Since food was only one of the
resources in the study, the issue of scale was resolved by supplementing the study with an
area the size of the province of Limburg. On this level the region can provide its own food
on a vegetarian basis (so this will require a change in society). With this basis for the case
study, the land currently in use for agriculture would consequently remain land reserved for
food production. This reduces the remaining available space or surface area for other
resources. (Recent research shows that potentially more food could be produced on a small
surface area, however this has not been addressed here.)

Water
The study showed that it was possible to close the water cycle within the area. This relies
heavily on harvesting rainwater as a primary input for all processes, including use as
drinking water. Where possible it would be put into direct usage (such as toilet flushing).
To level out seasonal differences a second storage basin could be created in the urban
area. The area benefits from a 40 meter altitude difference, so this could also be used to
generate energy. The basin could be used as energy storage as well, to meet demand.
Since the objective is 0-impact, the (rain)water leaving the area would have to be as
clean as when it came in, necessitating a large array of helophyte cleaning areas. Yellow
and black water can be treated and cleansed separately or jointly and used to generate
biogas or for food composting and materials production.

Energy
In a 0-impact situation energy would be completely based on renewables: mainly solar and
wind energy, plus some hydropower, and the use of a mine water source (these are former
coal mines filled up with water that has reached a useful subsurface temperature).
The (strongly) reduced demand for heat however, would be met mainly by solar heat
collectors and the mine water source. Since high temperatures will remain an integral part of
industrial processes, a hydrogen scheme could be developed. This requires additional
electricity, by wind, solar power and hydropower. All possible options would have to be
exploited to meet demand, leading to an additional 28 wind turbines of 2 MW each and all
roof surfaces used for photovoltaic panels (PVs).
In this scenario, the demand has been significantly reduced. Buildings and houses are
renovated to passive house (low energy) standards. Some uses have been adapted, for
example there are no more laundry machines but laundry shops. Public lighting employs
LED systems. Mobility is reduced by distant working schemes and internet shopping. Car
sharing schemes are implemented and all mobility would be based on electricity (and partly
hydrogen).

Materials
Most crucial and space-demanding for a 0-impact scenario are the materials. All remaining
square meters have to be used or cleared for the production of enough organic materials to
meet yearly demand and to supply the planned renovation of the buildings. This is
supplemented by 100% re-use of all other materials becoming available in the area.
178

Figure 3. The materials situation before and after transition.

Biomass as a source for energy is therefore not an option in the area because of its
large land-use. New bricks can be produced from local soil, freed by land excavations,
bearing in mind of course the additional need for high (brick-baking) temperatures that would
be based on renewable resources and the hydrogen scheme.

Even then, a strong reduction in demand is required. There is hardly room for
new construction, so new square meters will have to be found in the reduction of
shops and office space and their refurbishment for new uses. Roads would be
halved in the area, leaving only one-way traffic. This would open up space for new
agricultural areas, reduce maintenance needs and supply a lot of secondary
materials to harvest. What the study did not resolve was the need for steel, or
metals in general. New research has to be carried out to see how this could be
solved, possibly via new technologies (bio-based materials).
Maximisation
A maximisation phase was carried out after the separate resource plans were determined.
Some resources claimed the same surface areas while others required more area. Passive
house renovations (alterations for low-energy) require the production of additional materials.
A scheme to evaluate the balance is necessary, with the principles and rules guiding the
decisions on spatial claims. This leads to an even balance for all resources within the area.

Change in character
Ultimately, the area would emerge with a new look, at street level as well as from an areal
perspective. Hard surface areas in public space are reduced, mainly as a result of residues
and the use of free space for helophytes and the cultivation of crops. Houses have new
passive-house-style architecture, with roofs adding to production potentials by PVs and
glass houses. Cars in the street will have become rare due to central parking lots and car
sharing. In certain districts there are regular service modules for cleaning water, laundry
179

shops, car sharing, second-hand businesses and a lively, productive landscape all around.
Every square meter has its role in a resource cycle, though can also be combined with a
recreational use. The lake is partly used as an off-shore PV plant (floating panels in the
lake) and soccer fields have moved to industry roofs to free up land for agriculture.

SummaryofRules

Onlyrenewableresourceswillbeusedtoclosecyclesina
system.Nonrenewablewillbedepletedsoonerorlater(or
lostindilution)

Whatgoesintoacycleforhumanuse,hastoberegenerated
withinthetimespanofitsuse.
Inotherwords:renewablesareonlyrenewableiftheyare
regenerated(replanted,recaptured,etc.)

Massmustremainmass
Wastedoesnotexist,thereisonlyenergyandmassin
differentforms,timesandlocations.

Solaraccesssquaremeterstimeframe.Thisisthe
determiningfactorincomparingefficientconversions.
Itallcomesdowntolanduseforaspecificperiodtoproduce
usefulresourcestohumansfromsolarradiation,whetherthis
bedrinkingwater,food,massorenergy.

Usinginternalsystemqualitiestakespriorityoverexternal
systemqualitiestomeetdemand.Thepotentialtogenerate
usefulresourceswithinasystemisthecruxofaclosedcycle
approach.

Demandsaretobemetwiththemostdirectandnearest
availableoptions.

Sinceresourceuseismostlyrelatedtoprovidingservicesfor
humans,itisatthelevelofusagethatoptimisationshaveto
beaddressed.

Indecisionsregardingphysicalspaceandtimeallocatedtoa
specificresource,watertakespriorityoverfood,foodtakes
priorityovermass,masstakespriorityover(technological)

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Next: Phase 2

We now have a clear picture of the (reduced) demand and the potential of an urban
environment to attain a sustainable scenario in which it can cope with crises and function in
a balanced way with the consumption of resources. However, stating the potential does not
yet make it happen. A transition plan is required to implement measures over a period of 20
or 30 years. Models for this transition period have been researched in many books and
studies (Kemp et al, 2007).
In practice this means that the (clinical) resource plan has to reflect peoples wishes and
needs. Only if it does so will plans be adopted and the ultimate target of 0-impact be
reached. In this case study we have not dealt with an even more intriguing development: the
shrinking of the regions population. A natural initial assumption is that a shrinking population
would reduce the demand for resources, and in fact create a new opportunity within the
system: re-using resources from empty buildings as building parts in other projects. In this
light, we hope to develop a model with a standardised approach to growth and shrinkage (or
negative growth).

Conclusions

It is possible to increase the viability of an urban area to a level that can cope with all crises,
making it post-carbon instead of post-crash (i.e. adapting voluntarily rather than by force
due to system crashes) (Rovers, 2009). And it is possible to establish a truly self-sufficient
area, even whilst maintaining most of the current level of welfare. Adaptations in lifestyle
however are needed: transportation will change (both in type and use) and shopping and
office work will change (the city is the office) (Harrison, 2001). People will be more involved
in the area due to the development of co-ownership and jointly managed services, like
energy management, water management, and other services. Roofs will change in character
and ownership.
It must be stated that this is still a limited research. Not all data were obtained, national
averages or educated guesses had to be used in some instances, and the study did not
examine goods (televisions, furniture, etc.) going through the area. This will require another
study.
The study did reveal that one aspect absolutely determines the potential of urban area
transformations: the square meters.
The principle conclusion in the Urban Harvest Plus method is that every square meter
in the system area must be evaluated: whether it is the roof area, road surface, dis-used
land or soccer pitch, the central question is how each and every square meter can contribute
to a balanced use of resources or reduce the demand for them.
In a follow-up paper within the SREX research program, how the universal value of a square
meter (or the exergetic value of space) can be reappraised to create a sustainable and
balanced approach to our built environment will be explored further.

181

References
Atkinson, Adrian. (2008) Cities after oil3, Collapse and the fate of cities, City, Vol. 12(1)
Frey, Hildebrand W. (2001) The Search for a Sustainable City, paper presented at Plea2004
Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19-22 September 2004
Harrison, A. (2001) Accommodating the new economy: the SANE Space environment model
in Journal of Corporate Real Estate Vol. 4 (3)
Herbert, Girardet. (2000) Cities People, Planet, Liverpool, UK, Schumacher Lectures April
2000
Kemp R, Loorbach D, and Rotmans J. (2007) Transition Management as a Model for
Managing Processes of Co-Evolution towards Sustainable Development, in
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, p78 - 91
Rovers, Vera. (2008) Carbon neutral cities in the Netherlands, Scupad conference
Salzburg 2008
Rovers, Ronald. (2007) Urban Harvest, and the Hidden Building Resources, Paper
CIB2007-474 CIB 2007, www.cibworld.nl
Rovers Ronald. (2009) Post Carbon - or Post crash managing the Orbanism, in World
Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 14 (4), page 7-17
SREX : Long term research program financed by Dutch Governement, exploring the exergy
principle for Spatial planning. Universities of Groningen, Delft , Wageningen and
Heerlen, reports. http://www.exergieplanning.nl/

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Prefabricated timber as a means of achieving zero

carbon
Gavin White

37)

Abstract
This paper examines the definition of zero carbon and outlines why embodied carbon should
be considered as an integral part of that definition. Currently about 20% of a buildings
carbon footprint is associated with embodied carbon, and the relative importance of this is to
increase. By focusing on a case study of the Open Academy, Norwich, a building
engineered by Ramboll UK, this paper shows that it is possible to create a zero carbon
building out of cross laminated timber panels that is economical to build and architecturally
appealing.

Why all the fuss about zero carbon?

The zero carbon issue really boils down to an attempt to halt climate change. It is widely
accepted that CO2 emissions are the main contributor to climate change, whereby
greenhouse gases, of which CO2 accounts for nearly 80%, absorb infrared radiation
and disrupt the balance of energy flowing into and out of the earths atmosphere. Since 50%
of the UKs greenhouse gas emissions come from running buildings, and 10% from
producing building materials, zero carbon is a hot topic in construction.
In Great Britain for example, the Government has stated that all (new) building types
should be zero carbon by 2019 38). Zero carbon, in this context, is defined as solely relating
to operational carbon i.e. the carbon emitted from the use of a building. Embodied carbon,
that is the carbon associated with extracting and processing construction materials, is
specifically excluded from the governmental aim. The reason given for this is that there is
insufficient reliable data to be able to set targets in relation to embodied carbon 39).
As structural engineers however, we typically only consider operational carbon when it
interfaces with what we do. For example, when designing an exposed concrete soffit, an
37) Ramboll, UK
38) As set out in the Strategy for Sustainable Construction, June 2008.
39) We do not believe a full consideration of embodied carbon is practical or realistic in the short-tomedium term. Evidence on the lifetime carbon costs of particular technologies is weak, and varies
considerably depending on where and how they are manufactured. Paragraph 3.12, Building a Greener
Future: policy statement, DCLG.

183

engineer should consider that it could be used to assist with night-time cooling. Otherwise,
as structural engineers, our primary responsibility is in relation to embodied carbon i.e. the
carbon associated with the materials we use.

Zero carbon operational or embodied?

If zero carbon is defined as simply pertaining to operational carbon, then we can maintain
the argument that zero carbon is achievable. However, we must not ignore the fact that
about 20% of a buildings carbon footprint is associated with embodied carbon (Figure 2).
40
This is likely to rise to 40% with new legislation such as that coming into force in the UK ) ,
which requires a reduction in operational carbon emissions. The relative importance of
embodied carbon within a buildings frame is therefore set to increase.
Equally, there is an argument for reducing the carbon emitted by buildings today, rather
than waiting for a carbon offset to be delivered in the future by better operational carbon
efficiency. As engineers we should recognise that actual carbon savings made now have a
greater impact on climate change today than savings we hope to make in the future.
As sustainable engineers, we should therefore understand the concept of zero carbon
as applying to both operational and embodied carbon.

A Zero carbon reality check

3.1

How much carbon are we really talking about?

To put the issue of embodied carbon into context, lets consider the output of an average
structural engineer at Ramboll UK. Each engineer is responsible for approximately 1,750m2
internal area of building construction each year. If these structures use steel or concrete
frames, this means that each engineer is responsible for embodied carbon emissions of
41
approximately 350t of CO2 ). This is a significant figure. To put it in perspective, an
42
average person in the UK has a carbon footprint of around 10t per annum ) .
In this context, the appeal of timber as a sustainable material becomes apparent. Even
ignoring the sequestration of carbon (the fact that as timber grows it absorbs and stores
CO2), timber has a substantially smaller carbon footprint. The same 1,750m2 of timberframed building construction would contain approximately half the embodied carbon of a
steel or concrete frame.
Furthermore, if we do allow for the sequestration of carbon we can argue that the same
gross internal area of timber frame building stores around 650t of CO2 i.e. a net potential
reduction of 300t of carbon emissions to be applied to a construction project. Therefore the

construction project, instead of being indebted by 350t of CO2, as it would be with

a steel or concrete frame, starts with 300t CO2 in the bank.

40) Changes to the Building Regulations: Part L

41) Based on the Inventory of Carbon and Energy, University of Bath and Ramboll Carbon
Calculator software.
42) This figure rises to 20t CO2 per annum if the carbon associated with imports is taken
into account Sustainability without the hot air Professor MacKay.

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Figure 2 Graph showing the increasing importance of embodied carbon

Timber construction materials benefits/costs

4.1

Sequestration of carbon

Timber is generally viewed as one of the best materials for sustainable construction projects.
However, whilst the sequestration of CO2 cannot be denied, we do have to consider that
timber will ultimately decay and the CO2 (or worse methane) will be released. That being
said, as structural engineers we well know that as long as a building is looked after, it might
well stand for in excess of 200 years. Furthermore, we can control to some extent how the
CO2 is released. The demolished timber frame could be burnt to produce energy which
would otherwise have to be generated by other carbon intensive means. In addition, with the
current trend towards reclaiming materials it is feasible to foresee the reuse of construction
materials, including timber.
There can be a temptation therefore, to tick the sustainability box simply by proposing
the use of timber in a project whether or not it is appropriate to that design element. For
example, in designing a large open plan office space an engineer should assess whether
timber could efficiently take the structural load. Is it good design to use double the amount of
timber (vs. concrete or steel) simply to improve your sustainability credentials? Is it really
better from a zero carbon perspective?
Ultimately, structural engineers should not focus on simple choices such as concrete
vs. timber. Instead, a more holistic approach should be adopted. Questions that should be
185

asked include, what does a building need and how hard can I make the materials work to
achieve this? In essence what is the overall lowest carbon option?
43
In the UK at least, timber is also viewed as a relatively expensive material ). As
engineers we must be mindful of the clients budget, and also the fact that winning new
business is often about providing an economical solution. When bidding for work there is
little point in specifying timber throughout a design if it renders the package of works
financially unattractive. A zero carbon design is one thing, a design that will be built is
another.
Ultimately, as engineers we should be looking at a lowest embodied carbon scale,
whereby, all things being equal, we specify materials in order of their sustainability
credentials.

4.2

Timber is flexible

Traditionally timber frames have been associated with rectilinear buildings. Indeed, one of
the principle criticisms of timber use in construction is that it limits creative options in design.
However, the Open Academy case study below illustrates that with appropriate thought,
timber can be as flexible in design as steel or concrete.

4.3

Prefabricated timber panels

One of the less well recognised benefits of timber use in construction is in prefabrication
(figure 3). By using cross laminated timber panels, on site wastage can be dramatically
reduced, with an associated cost saving for the client. This reduction in waste is significant
in reducing the carbon footprint of a building as, on average, about 20% of construction
materials on every new building ends up in a skip.

Figure 3

Typical cross-laminated timber panel

43) Not least because, in the absence of a local supplier, UK construction projects have suffered foreign
currency fluctuations on imports of cross-laminated timber.

186

Figure 4

Open Academy, Norwich, UK during Ficonstruction

Striving for a real zero carbon building

5.1

Case study Open Academy, Norwich, UK

The Open Academy in Norwich, UK, is a 20m new school building. The building has three
storeys and houses classrooms, a theatre and a sports hall. The total floor area is over
9,500m2, at the centre of which is a glulam tied arch roof that forms an atrium.
What is special about the Open Academy is that the entire superstructure of this sizeable
development is constructed out of cross-laminated timber panels. The finished development
represents the UKs largest solid timber panel building.
The Open Academy illustrates that timber design (as opposed to a traditional steel or
concrete frame) can be both a sustainable and financially viable proposal:

Carbon neutrality - The principle benefit of using timber is that it has the lowest
embodied carbon of any construction material. The carbon footprint of the
Open Academy, by being constructed out of cross-laminated timber, is at least
half that of a comparable steel or concrete structure.
Furthermore, construction of the Open Academy used some 3,500m3 of
timber, which is thought to store around 3,000t of CO2. If we take account of
this carbon store, the carbon footprint is not halved, indeed it is negative,
thereby offsetting the buildings operational carbon for a period of 10 years 44).
The building is therefore carbon neutral for 10 years.

44) The operational energy consumption of the Open Academy is predicted to be around
30kgCO2/m2/year. Therefore, the yearly CO2 consumption of the building will be 9500 x 30 =
285tCO2/year. Equating the CO2 stored within the timber in the building to the operational energy gives
2900t CO2 / 285tCO2 per year = 10.2 years. Hence, it is possible to express the carbon stored within
the structure as a period of years that the school is able to operate as a carbon neutral school.

187

Figure 5: Open Academy, Norwich circulation space

Air tightness this is a key factor in the drive to reduce operational carbon
because heat (i.e. carbon) escapes through gaps in the building fabric. UK
Building regulations require an air tightness of 10m3/(h.m2) 45), but the Open
Academy achieved 3 with the cross-laminated timber system with no additional
measures to the normal fixing details.

Foundations timber panel construction is a relatively light weight form of

building compared to steel or concrete. This generates a carbon saving,
because less material is required to support the building loads. A corollary of
this will be a cost saving for the client.

Construction Waste The Open Academy has shown that it is possible to have
virtually no waste on site from the structural frame erection. This highly unusual
situation is derived from the use of pre-fabricated timber in construction. The
total waste produced during the superstructure erection phase has been less
than the volume of two standard sized UK skips. Further still, this minimal
timber waste has been passed to a timber merchant for recycling.

Programme In construction it is well known that time is money. The use of

cross-laminated timber in the superstructure for the Open Academy has halved
the superstructure construction period. It was built in just 18 weeks. A time
lapse presentation of the quick construction technique this framing solution
allows can be seen at http://www.open-academy.org.uk/building-the-academy

45) A performance level of 10 m3/(h.m2) at 50 pascals represents a reasonable upper limit for air
permeability

188

Figure 6: Open Academy, Norwich Atrium roof

The use of cross-laminated timber also virtually eliminates the need for
secondary steelwork as the timber panels also form the cladding substrate for
the walls. This will also reduce programme length considerably.
The overall shorter programme should also reduce the operational carbon of
the build itself i.e. the CO2 emissions generated by the contractor.
The timber panel system itself also enables construction firms to achieve early
weather-tightness, as the panels themselves form the weather-tight structure.
There is no need to add further weather-tight measures. A direct benefit of the
early weather-tight date is that following trades e.g. plaster work, can start
earlier in the programme than under traditional structures. These efficiency
gains should translate into cost reductions due to the shorter program length.
Furthermore, due to the precision cut nature of the cross-laminated timber
panels (typically 1-2mm tolerance), it is also possible to pre-order the windows
as the exact opening size can be guaranteed. This not only reduces the
program length, it also facilitates an earlier weather-tight date.

Scaffolding the use of timber in design can provide benefits that a structural
engineer might not immediately consider. The use of cross-laminated timber
panels in the Open Academy has afforded significant cost savings by avoiding
the need for scaffolding for the 3 storey building. This has been achieved by
the choice of cladding system and clever integration of the edge protection to
the slab with the panels before they are lifted into place.

Architectural creativity The curved faade of the Open Academy was created
using facetted panels and the classroom layout was optimised to make efficient
use of the timber cross-laminated timber system. This shows that criticisms of
restricted architectural creativity in timber buildings are unfounded.
189

Following the work on the Open Academy, and data gathered as part of the
research for the Open Academy design, a Ramboll team has created a Carbon
Calculator that enables us to estimate the embodied carbon figures for different
designs. By considering structural capacities of different materials we can then
compare the embodied carbon of different building layouts and frame types. We
can then advise clients of the carbon impact of different solutions, including timber
frames.

Figure 7

Extract from the Carbon Calculator

Conclusion

This paper shows that it is possible to create a zero carbon building out of cross laminated
timber panels, which is economical to build and architecturally appealing. Cross laminated
timber panels can be used in large scale structural engineering projects to provide the
following benefits; carbon neutrality, reduced construction waste, minimal strip foundations
and programme savings whilst still delivering the building that the client requires.

190

Photo Catalytic Degradation as a Tool for the

Reduction of Ambient Air Pollution
Cyriel Mentink, Toon Peters, Paul Donners, Jan Theelen, Wouter
Snippe, Martijn Janssen, Jacob Pijnenburg, Paul Borm 46)
Abstract
Air pollution is a major problem in most large cities all over the world. Reducing the amount
of pollutants is one approach to reduce exposure due to local imissions. The purpose of this
study was to test the efficacy of the Smartscreen a porous sound screen coated with a
photo catalytic coating- for its potential to reduce particulate matter and NOx in a laboratory
environment. Pollutant levels were monitored at the start and end of a tunnel equipped with
and without the SmartScreen. A 30% reduction could be seen in the amount of particulate
matter (PM10 and PM2.5) but only a slight decrease was observed in NOx levels. However,
most of these results on particle levels could be ascribed to changes in air velocity and
direction.

Introduction

Most cities in industrialized countries have to cope with poor air quality due to increased
traffic burden. Major airborne pollutants like particulate matter, ozone and NOx have an
enormous impact on quality of life, morbidity and mortality of the population of these cities.
Removing or reducing the source of these pollutants, mostly traffic, is the most efficient
method in reducing these negative health effects but this is not always feasible or desirable.
Reducing the amount of pollutants is a second approach to reduce exposure due to local
imissions. In this respect, the Smartscreen was designed as an efficient and easy-to-apply
tool to reduce particulate matter (PM) en NOx.
The Smartscreen is a porous screen coated with a photo catalytic layer (TiO2) which
can be fitted to most modular sound screens used today. In this way, both noise and air

46) Cyriel Mentink,Toon Peters, Martijn Janssen, Paul Born: Centre of Expertise in Life Sciences, Zuyd
University, Heerlen, The Netherlands; Paul Donners: DGMR, Sittard, The Netherlands; Ballast Nedam
NV, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands;Jacob Pijnenburg, Dept. of Environmental Enforcement & Monitoring,
Province of Limburg, Heerlen, The Netherlands

191

Figure 1. 3D impression of the Smartscreen (left) and detailed view of the porous mats (right)

pollution can be dealt with. This porous screen mimics the physical process which
vegetation uses to filter particulate matter from the air.
In recent years, many studies have been performed to investigate the mechanism of this
filtration. The efficacy of this filtration depends on both biological and physical processes.
Porosity of the vegetation ensures a reduction in air velocity, thereby causing coagulation of
smaller particles into larger agglomerates which are deposited on the screen (Beckett,
2000a; Beckett, 2000b; Woodruff, 1954). Resuspension of deposited PM is a major problem
and may also occur on the Smartscreen. In order to reduce resuspension, the
Smartscreen is wetted during its use (Wesseling, 2004; Nowak, 1994).
TiO2 is a photo catalytic semiconductor which can react with a various number of
organic and inorganic materials. Under the influence of UV light of sufficient energy, TiO2
initiates a redox reaction which can break down the NOx present in the air. Many research
has been done on the general mechanism of the catalytic properties of TiO2 (Diebold, 2003;
Rodriguez, 2001; Beeldens, 2006). In order to expand the working range of TiO2, TiO2 has
been doped with metals and non-metals, preparing oxygen-deprived TiO2 and coupling TiO2
with narrow band-gap semiconductors. This all results in TiO2 which can function in the
visible light region and thus under artificial (non-UV) light conditions (Maggos, 2007;
Fujishima, 2008).
In this study, the Smartscreen was tested in a pilot laboratory setting for its efficacy
to reduce both PM and NOx.

Materials and methods

The porous part consisted of a varying number of polyamide mats (Enkamat 7020, Colbond,
Arnhem. The Netherlands) coated with photocatalytic active TiO2 (S5-300A, Millenium
Inorganic Chemicals, Rueil Malmaison, France) by dipcoating. Coating was checked by
electron microscopy (JSM-840A, JEOL Europe BV, Nieuw-Vennep, The Netherlands).
192

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the pilot laboratory setting. Ventilator and exhaust inlet are
situated at I. Porous parts of the Smartscreen are placed at H between the two revolving parts of the
test rig. Upper part: top view, Lower part: side view
A: 50 cm
B: 90 cm

C: 160 cm
D: 205 cm

E: 70 cm
F: 30 cm

G: 60 cm
H: 20 cm

I: 50 cm
J: 20 cm

Particle size of the TiO2 was checked using a Nanosight (Nanosight LM20, Nanosight Ltd.,
Wiltshire, UK) and the presence of nanoparticles in the air during dipcoating was tested with
a CPC counter (Condensation Particle Counter, Model 3022A, TSI GmbH, Aachen,
Germany).
The porous part of the Smartscreen was tested in a pilot laboratory setting (figure 2),
consisting of a 4.1 m long tunnel, constructed of HDPE, divided in two parts in which the
exhaust of a Mercedes truck type 1013 was used as input at a flow rate of 4.73 m/s at base
concentrations of PM10, and PM2,5 levels of respectively 328 and 299 g/m3. Polyamide
mats were wetted to keep resuspension as low as possible.
In order to ensure that enough UV light reached the porous part of the Smartscreen, the
tunnel was equipped with two quartz windows mounted with a UV lamp (Osram ultra-vitalux
,ULTRA-VITALUX 300W 230V E27 FS1, OSRAM Benelux BV, Capelle a/d Ijssel, The
Netherlands).
Pollutant levels were monitored at the beginning and the end of the tunnel equipped
with or without a varying number of the polyamide mats at six different points. Measuring
points were evenly distributed on a horizontal line at 100 cm from the mats (three before and
three behind). PM levels were measured using a Grimm 1.107 (Grimm Aerosol Technik
GmbH & Co. KG, Ainring, Germany), NOx levels using an online monitor (42 W Thermo
Electron, Breda, The Netherlands) and air velocity and pressure were measured using a
Testo 400 meter with L-pitot tube (Testo BV, Almere, The Netherlands).
193

Results

3.1

TiO2 coating

As can be seen from the SEM pictures (figure 3), dipcoating of the polyamide mast was
successful even after rinsing with water (sample 4b). However, leaching of the TiO2 was
visible in the rinsing fluid but this was not investigated any further. In this respect, NOX
measurements were only performed with dry TiO2 coated mats. Coating on the mats
appeared to be very brittle and it is not known how much TiO2 was lost during the
measurements. Average size of the TiO2 was 60 nm and no particles were detected during
the dipcoating process.

Figure 3. SEM pictures of TiO2 coated polyamide mats. Sample 1b direct after dipcoating, 2b after 15
minutes washing, 3b after 30 minutes washing and 4b after 60 minutes washing.

194

3.2

Air velocity and pressure profile

The results show that inserting an object (mat) in the airstream induces a change in both the
air velocity and pressure. A reduction of 2 m/s can be seen both in front and behind the
mats. The effect is more pronounced for the dry mats than for the wet mats. (Figures 4 and
5 below)

3.3

PM measurements

It is shown that upon introduction of two dry mats or one wet mat a 30% reduction in PM10
and PM2.5 levels could be seen (figure 6 and 7 on next page). Introducing an extra mat did
not have an additional effect on these results. No difference could be seen between PM10
and PM2.5.

3.4

NOx measurements

NOx levels showed a slight decrease after the introduction of one mat, but an increase with
respect to starting levels after the introduction of extra mats. Data of NO and NO2 showed a
similar pattern. (see figure 8 on next pages)

Figure 4. Air velocity and pressure profile with a varying number of dry mats

Figure 5. Air velocity and pressure with a varying number of wet mats

195

Figure 6. PM10 (left) and PM2.5 (right) levels with varying number of dry nylon mats

Figure 7. PM10 (left) and PM2.5 (right) levels with varying number of wet nylon mats

Figure 8. NOx measurements with a varying number of TiO2 coated mats

196

Discussion

It should be emphasized that this was a pilot set-up to test the efficacy of the porous part of
the Smartscreen. Although much insight on the behavior of the test rig was obtained
during the experiment, it is not a validated instrument for quantification.
In order to obtain a laminar flow, the test channel should be round and according to the
ISO 10780 (Stationary source emissions- Measurement of velocity and volume flow rate of
gas streams in ducts) measurements should be performed at a point as far away as
possible from an obstruction. Due to the use of quartz glass, a round channel could not be
used and the desired length of the tunnel could not be reached due to practical issues. Next
to this, the test rig consisted of two parts which can rotate easily, thereby changing the
overall shape of the tunnel and affecting the air velocity and agglomeration of PM.
A diesel engine was used as a typical source of PM and NOx but appeared to fluctuate
during stationary operation. Performing all measurements simultaneously (before and
behind the mat) might could resolve this problem.
Dipcoating of the polyamide mats appeared to result in a functional coating but TiO2
leaching could be seen upon washing. Taken together with the brittleness of the coating, this
method is not suitable for coating of larger areas. Incorporation of TiO2 within the polyamide
of the mats might overcome these problems. The photo catalytic activity of TiO2 was not
tested, but recent research showed that doping TiO2 with additives not only expands the
working range of the coating into the visible light region but can also increase its overall
activity. No nanoparticles were detected during the coating process which is vital for the
health of the workers handling nanosized materials.
It was clearly shown that introduction of an obstacle in the air stream induced a 30%
decrease in PM10 and PM2.5 levels. This coincided with a marked change in both air speed
and pressure. Changing the air speed and pressure would make the smaller particles
agglomerate to larger ones which can subsequently be deposited on the screen.
Extrapolation to a real-life situation using computer fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations,
showed that a 10% reduction could be achieved 10 meters behind the Smartscreen with a
diminishing effect upon increasing distance.
NOx levels showed a small decrease with the introduction of one mat but an increase to
almost normal levels of NOx upon introduction of multiple mats. Using a high energy UV light
could induce the formation of ozone and result in the formation of NO and NO2. Together
with a non-validated TiO2 coating, it is not possible to quantify the reduction of NOx levels.
The Smartscreen appears to be an attractive solution for reducing air And the results
demonstrate a tendency towards reduction of particulate matter. Extrapolation to a real-life
situation with CFD calculations showed that most of the results obtained are probably due to
changes in air flow and pressure. Field tests with similar solutions in the innovation platform
air quality (IPL) of the Dutch government showed similar results (Innovatie Platform
luchtkwaliteit, 2009) It was also shown that a traditional sound screen had a similar effect,
questioning the additional effect of specialized sound screens. However, using TiO2 and
porous structures in a more enclosed environment like a street canyon or a tunnel could
have a more profound effect (Fujishima, 2008).

197

Acknowledgements
Parts of this publication were published as a contractor report as part of the IPL program.

References
Beckett K.P., Freer-Smith P.H., Taylor G.(2000a). The capture of particulate pollution by
trees at five contesting urban sites, Journal of Arboriculture 24: 209-230.
Beckett K.P., Freer-Smith P.H., Taylor G.(2000b). Effective tree species for local air quality
management, Journal of Arboriculture 26: 12-19.
Beeldens A. (2006). An Environmental Friendly Solution for Air Purification and SelfCleaning Effect The Application of TiO2 as Photocatalyst in Concrete (thema 11.7
New Materials and Techniques). Conferentie Transport Research Arena (TRA).
Diebold, U. (2003). The surface science of titanium dioxide Surface Science Reports 48:
53-229.
Fujishima A., Zhang X., Tryk D.A. (2008). TiO2 photocatalysis and related surface
phenomena Surface Science Reports 63: 515-582.
Innovatie Platform luchtkwaliteit 2009, Invloed TiO2 coatings op de luchtkwaliteit;
Eindrapport onderzoek naar de werking van TiO2 coatings op geluidsschermen ter
vermindering van NO2 concentraties in de lucht langs snelwegen, available at:
www.ipluchtkwaliteit.nl/data/Eindrapport%20titaandioxide%20IPL%204a%20sept%202
009.pdf
Maggos Th., Bartzis J.G., Liakou M., Gobin C. (2007). Photocatalytic degradation of NOx
gases using TiO2-containing paint: A real scale study, Journal of Hazardous materials
146:, 668-673.
Nowak, D.J. (1994). Air pollution removal by Chicago's urban forest, In: McPherson, E.G.,
Nowak, D.J., Rowntree, R.A. (eds). Chicago's Urban Forest Ecosystem: Results of the
Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station. General Technical Report NE 186.
Rodriguez, J.A. (2001).Chemistry of NO2 on Oxide Surfaces: Formation of NO3 on TiO2
(110) and NO2O Vacancy Interactions J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123: 9597-9605.
Wesseling, J.P., Duyzer J., Tonneijck A.E.G., van Dijk C.J. (2004). Effecten van
groenelementen op NO2 en PM10 concentraties in de buitenlucht TNO Milieu, Energie
en Procesinnovatie, Apeldoorn.
Woodruff, N.P. (1954). Shelterbelts and surface barrier effects on wind velocities,
evaporation, house heating, snowdrifting Technical Bulletin 77: 5-27.

198

Zero-Impact Water Use in the Built Environment

M.M. Nederlof and J. Frijns

47)

Abstract
Zero-impact water use in the built environment entails far more than merely saving drinking
water. In this paper, the zero-impact goal is embodied in the concepts of sustainability and
cradle-to-cradle, and takes the whole urban water cycle into account. Several impacts are
identified, ranging from energy consumption to waste production. In terms of sustainability,
zero-impact water use implies reducing use of fossil fuels, waste production and scarce
mineral spillages. Insofar as cradle-to-cradle is concerned, the targets may be more
challenging: complete reuse of waste materials as a high quality source (waste is food),
production of renewable energy on site and development of various concepts adapted to
local conditions (celebrate diversity). However, the main challenge seems to be the
unraveling of the biological cycle (including water) and the technological cycle (including
manmade products such as heavy metals, pesticides and pharmaceuticals). Reuse of
sewage sludge as a fertilizer for agriculture, for instance, has become impossible as a
consequence of mixing these cycles. In the built environment the key challenge is also to
connect water and energy flows. Warm water conservation measures, for example, will
become an important factor in energy performance improvement in housing design and
construction.

Introduction

In the Netherlands, as in most Western European countries, drinking water and sanitation
meet very high quality standards. The quality of Dutch drinking water is regulated by the
Dutch Water Act which is even more stringent than European Drinking Water Quality
Standards. As a result, consumer confidence is very high. Wastewater is efficiently collected
and treated in wastewater treatment plants to reduce the contaminant burden on surface
water. In most cases, the receiving surface water meets the water quality criteria laid down
in the European Water Framework Directive. With the exception of a few Legionella
incidents, there are no longer waterborne diseases caused by contaminated drinking water.

47)
KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the
maarten.nederlof@kwrwater.nl

Netherlands,

www.kwrwater.nl;

199

Contaminants
Minerals

Source

Drinking water

Energy
Chemicals

Value for
consumer

Consumption

Energy
Faeces, urine
Rain water

Energy,
Nutrients,
Contaminants

Waste water

Discharge

Energy
Chemicals

Figure 1 Schematic picture of energy, contaminant, nutrient and waste streams in the urban water
cycle.

Water supply companies also claim to be environmentally friendly by minimizing energy

consumption, chemical use and waste production. This paper deals with the question of
whether the domestic water cycle has a (negative) impact on the environment and if so,
what the possible measures are to create a zero-impact urban water cycle (see figure 1).
Possible impacts of the present urban water cycle can be found in the following fields:

water use in the water cycle;

presence of contaminants;

wastewater and other waste materials;

nutrients and minerals;

distribution of contaminants;

energy use, CO2 emissions;

consumption of chemicals.

1.1

Water use

In the Netherlands, 127.5 liters of drinking water are used per person per day. This
primarily goes on flushing the toilet, bathing and washing clothes (table 1).
Only 2 liters are directly consumed by drinking, either directly or indirectly via cooking in
water. In most cases the resulting domestic wastewater is mixed with rain water to produce
a final wastewater stream of 300 l per person per day. In order to supply all citizens with
enough high quality drinking water, 676 million m3 of groundwater and 490 million m3 of
surface water are extracted in the Netherlands as a source to produce 1,140 million m3 of
drinking water per year.

200

Applications
Bath
Shower
Sink
Toilet
Washing clothes, hand
Idem, machine
Washing dishes, hand
Idem, machine
Cooking
Coffee, tea, drinking
Rest
Total
Table 1

Consumption in l per person per day

2.5
49.8
5.3
37.1
1.7
15.5
3.8
3.0
1.7
1.8
5.3
127.5

Domestic drinking water consumption (Source: Vewin, 2010)

The extraction of water as such has hardly any impact on the environment, except for
those cases where groundwater tables become too low (drought in vulnerable areas). In
such cases there is an imbalance between the amount of rain feeding the aquifer and the
water extracted for drinking water.

1.2

Contaminants

Contaminants show up at two places in the water cycle. Firstly, drinking water sources may
contain contaminants, including organic micropollutants (e.g. pesticides) and
pharmaceuticals (Halling-Srensen et al., 1998; Ter Laak et al., 2010). Secondly, numerous
contaminants are added to (waste) water during consumption. In fact, water is mainly used
as a carrier to dispose of contaminants. The former is not an impact of the water cycle on
the environment but rather an impact of the environment on drinking water production. As a
result, sophisticated technologies are needed to remove these contaminants in drinking
water production. Examples are advanced oxidation and membrane filtration with energy
consumption in the range of 0.3-0.5 kWh/m3 for produced drinking water. The contaminants
that are added to wastewater before disposal have a negative impact on the receiving
surface water quality. Limiting the discussion to manmade anthropogenic compounds alone,
residues of pharmaceuticals, paint, oil, heavy metals and so forth, are disposed of to surface
water. These components are partly removed by wastewater treatment plants, which are
mainly designed to remove COD, N and P.

1.3

Wastewater and other waste materials

Some of the chemicals introduced or already present in the source end up as waste. A
major issue is whether these waste streams can be used as a resource for other processes.
Caustic soda, for instance, as a result of the softening process becomes calcium carbonate
pellets that can be used in steel production. The total production of softening pellets is 66
201

kton/year (Reststoffen Unie, 2008). Due to the presence of toxic compounds, coagulation
sludge must be disposed of as chemical waste. For the same reason, wastewater sludge
cannot be used as a fertilizer, but is incinerated for cement production or used as fuel for
energy plants. In total, 350,000 kton (after dewatering 1500 kton) of sludge is produced by
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Netherlands, of which 80% is incinerated due
to strict regulations for fertilizers. As such, wastewater does not necessarily have a negative
impact on the environment as long as contaminants are effectively removed. Besides toxic
components, N and P are important parameters to prevent eutrophication of the surface
water.

1.4

Nutrients and minerals

In fact, nutrients like N and above all P have a twofold environmental impact. Firstly, they
may cause water quality problems to surface water when wastewater treatment is not
sufficiently effective. An excess of nutrients leads to eutrophication of surface water (algae
blooms). Secondly, nutrient resources are depleted - for instance, P originating from mines
is used as fertilizer (18 kton P per year; Vergouwen, 2009) which eventually ends up in
domestic wastewater (14 kton P in wastewater per year, 12 kton P per year ending up in
wastewater sludge), resulting in an ongoing mining of limited resources. It has been
estimated that there is only enough P available to last another one hundred years
(Vergouwen, 2009).

1.5

Energy consumption

For the various steps in the water cycle, energy is required. It is needed to produce and
distribute drinking water and to collect and treat wastewater. The respective amounts
concerned are 570 MWh/y and 545 MWh/y + 29 Mm3/y gas. The total volumes of drinking
water distributed and wastewater produced are 1,093 million m3 and 2,068 million m3
respectively. Energy consumption per m3 is equal: 0.5 kWh/m3 for both drinking water and
wastewater. This results in a CO2e footprint for the water cycle of 1700 kton/year (Frijns et
al., 2008).
It is interesting to note that the energy required to heat water for bathing, washing
machines and so forth is far more than that required for drinking water production and
wastewater treatment put together (1,200 kWh/per person per year versus 62 kWh/pppy for
the water cycle; Sukkar et al., 2009). It has been calculated that a 6% reduction in warm
water use, or a 10% recovery of heat from domestic water would offset the total energy use
of the water cycle (Frijns et al., 2009).Taking the shower as an example, it is possible to
conclude that water consumption is coupled to energy consumption. Thus, a water-saving
shower device is at the same time, and more importantly, an energy-saving device.

1.6

Chemical consumption

Various chemicals are used during drinking water production and wastewater
treatment. Examples are: caustic soda for pellet softening, coagulants for surface
water treatment, ferric chloride for P-binding in wastewater treatment and organic
polymers for sludge treatment. Although their consumption as such has little direct
202

impact on the environment, the energy required to produce such chemicals might
be significant. For instance, to produce caustic soda 3kWh/kg energy is required
(www.eurochlor.org); assuming a hardness reduction of 1.5 mmol/l, this means an
3
extra energy consumption of 0.1 kWh/m for produced drinking water. This is five
times the direct energy consumption of the softening process mainly used for
pumps (Frijns et al., 2009). The energy consumption for softening is presumably
offset by a 20% reduction in gas use for heating water in households.

Critical impacts of the present water cycle

In a nutshell, environmental impacts are often described in terms of sustainability

with various tools to quantify sustainability and, more recently, in terms of cradle-tocradle. In both approaches responsibility for future generations is taken as a
starting point.
2.1

Sustainability (resources, energy and waste products)

Frequently, sustainability is further considered in terms of the three Ps: People, Planet and
Profit. Limiting sustainability to the Planet aspect, if we acknowledge that alternative
technical solutions should be affordable (Profit) and acceptable (People), the concept of
sustainability can be made operational by defining a number of sub-criteria: energy
consumption, use of non-renewable resources, waste streams and claims on space in the
direct vicinity of treatment facilities.
Taking sustainability literally means identifying those resources that are used in such a
consumptive way that at some time in the future the water cycle will stop working because of
a lack thereof. With reference to the possible impacts set out above, the following aspects
are identified:

use of fossil energy (either directly or indirectly via chemical production);

chemical waste resulting from drinking water and/or wastewater

treatment;

spilling of scarce minerals such as phosphorus.

It was concluded in LCA(Life Cycle Analysis) studies by KWR that material use for assets
has a negligible environmental impact as long as the assets have a long useful life (e.g.
piping for 80 years) and provided that they are not classified as chemical waste at the end of
their useful life. Claims on space such as limiting fertilizer and biocide use in an area where
groundwater is extracted are not critical in the sense that they promote environmentallyfriendly agriculture.

2.2

C2C: the technological and biological cycles

Cradle-to-cradle is underpinned by three leading principles (Braungart and McDonough,

2002): a) waste is food, b) use renewable energy sources powered by the sun, and c)
celebrate diversity. One criticism put forward in the cradle-to-cradle concept is that recycling
in sustainability definitions is eventually down cycling to a lower quality of the initial
203

resource. Keeping quality high is one of the main challenges in the C2C concept. An
example of this would be that softening pellets are not just recycled but upcycled to high
value applications. Another important principle is the distinction between the biological
cycle and the technical cycle. Water belongs to the biological cycle; indeed, as such the
hydrological cycle is very much C2C because water does not disappear (it is recycled again
and again and does not lose its quality), and it is powered by the sun. The technical cycle
contains manmade products using finite resources which can be made C2C by using the
materials over and over. A famous example of this is the C2C chair that can be stripped
down to its basic components, from which a new chair can be made.
In fact, water as such is not the issue in our countries, in contrast to more arid areas
(such as Southern Europe). Applying the C2C concept to the domestic water cycle, the
critical impacts are:

the mixing of the biological and technical cycles, resulting in resources

being lost: sludge cannot be used as a fertilizer, manmade chemicals
are thrown away without reuse possibilities;

the use of non-renewable energy sources, where unlike sustainability the

assumption is that energy consumption might increase as long as this
energy is renewable;

lack of diversity as a result of the relatively large scale on which drinking

water and wastewater treatment plants are designed, the advantage of
which is generally believed to be the economies of scale principle.

Technical ways to a zero-impact water cycle

3.1

Making the water cycle more sustainable

Cutting fossil fuel use

The simplest way to reduce consumption of fossil fuels is to buy green energy from an
energy supply company. In the Dutch benchmark between water supply companies this
option is rewarded with a positive environment score. A second step could be to reduce
energy consumption as much as possible. For drinking water treatment this means
optimizing water treatment steps with regard to energy consumption. In particular, advanced
treatment techniques to remove organic micropollutants such as advanced oxidation
methods and membrane filtration significantly increase energy consumption per m3 of
produced drinking water. Another example of an energy-consuming technique is reverse
osmosis for seawater desalination (about 2 kWh/m3). With regard to wastewater treatment,
energy consumption can be reduced by optimizing the aeration of wastewater in aerobic
wastewater treatment. Energy can even be produced by applying anaerobic processes
producing methane.
More importantly, energy consumption related to drinking water use in buildings could
be slashed. The energy used to heat water for showering (530 kWh per person per year;
Sukkar et al., 2010), for instance, could be cut by about 50% by installing a heat exchanger.
With a return on investment of 2-8 years, such a device seems to be economically
worthwhile.

204

Reduction of chemical waste

Both drinking water production and wastewater treatment inevitably result in the production
of waste. In drinking water treatment, waste can be reduced by using clean sources. With
surface water treatment, waste can be reduced by optimizing treatment steps such as
coagulation. The choice of the coagulant (iron or aluminum) largely determines whether the
resulting sludge is classified as chemical waste or not.
Different types of waste are produced according to the type of technology used.
Membrane filtration results in a concentrated brine stream which must be disposed of.
Although this stream may be reduced by increasing the recovery of the membrane filtration
installation, the salt load will remain the same. Rapid sand filtration results in (iron
containing) backwash water, which can be reduced by treating the backwash water with
membrane filtration. Although such reduction efforts will lessen the amount of waste, the
overall energy consumption will increase.

Reduction of scarce mineral spillages

While disposing of wastewater effluent to the surface water, the water cycle may in fact be
closed. However, the minerals still present in the effluent are also disposed of. This applies
especially to phosphorus which comes from phosphorus mines. This mineral then becomes
part of our food via artificial fertilizers. Our food will be digested, resulting in feces and urine
containing phosphorus. In wastewater treatment most of the COD is removed but with P this
only occurs to a limited extent. New European regulations will tighten the P standard for
receiving surface waters. Even when P is included in sludge, its use as a fertilizer is not
permitted. There are several options for phosphorus recovery from wastewater (Vergouwen,
2009; de Graaf, 2010). The first is struvite precipitation from urine and/or blackwater after a
fermentation step (which produces biogas) or recovering P from the ash after incineration
(the Thermphos process). In the DESAR project (decentralized sanitation and reuse),
blackwater from a vacuum toilet is first fermented to produce biogas and then P is
precipitated as struvite (Vergouwen, 2009). In conventional wastewater treatment P can also
be partly recovered.

3.2

Making the water cycle more C2C

Following the three main C2C principles, several measures can be taken to make the water
cycle more C2C-proof.

Waste is food
The primary and most challenging idea in the cradleto-cradle concept is that no waste is
produced, only resources. In principle, these resources should retain their quality so that
they can be used over and over again. For drinking water treatment this would mean that
coagulation sludge should be treated in such a way that the coagulant is retained. Since this
is practically impossible because of chemical reactions, other types of water treatment
should be preferred. One possible alternative for coagulation could be ceramic membrane
filtration for which no or only a small dosage of coagulant is necessary.
Alternatively, preventive measures should be taken such that no toxic compounds are
present in the source and thus neither in the sludge. Although numerous incentives are
being brought in to improve source water quality (European Water Framework Directive), in
the coming decades toxic compounds will still be present in drinking water sources.
205

Membrane concentrate could be a useful resource by removing salts and using the
remaining water.
Insofar as wastewater treatment is concerned, the challenge would be to use the
nutrients present in the wastewater for fertilizer. Wastewater treatment should be redesigned
in such a way that a fertilizer product is produced with both an optimal nutrient ratio (N,P,C)
and an absence of toxic compounds. This entails completely removing toxic compounds in
wastewater treatment combined with preventive measures to avoid unnecessary spills of oil
and paint, for example. One of the main challenges will be to separate organic contaminants
(e.g. pharmaceuticals) from the organic waste fraction, where the question is at which point
in the urban water cycle such an intervention is most efficient.

Use solar-powered renewable energy

When renewable energy is used to recover scarce resources time and time again, in
principle resources may be used abundantly. Brackish groundwater and sea water are in
plentiful supply in many countries. The main problem is the amount of energy required to
produce drinking water from these sources. One example that obeys the abundance
principle is the C2C islands project (Ameland in the Netherlands and some other European
islands), which aim to become independent from the mainland by producing their own
renewable energy by wind and/or solar power.
Wastewater itself can also be used as an energy source. The biodegradable fraction
can be converted to methane in an anaerobic process. When all of the COD (chemical
oxygen demand) is used from the wastewater, assuming an 80% recovery of organic matter
to biogas, 9400 TJ energy could theoretically be produced. This is far more than the energy
required for wastewater treatment. Wastewater treatment plants could therefore become net
energy producers (Frijns et al, 2009). This idea of the energy factory fits in very well with
the C2C concept. It has been calculated that by introducing anaerobic fermentation of
wastewater sludge in combination with combined heat power generation (CHP), 70% of the
required electrical energy could already be produced on site (Sukkar et al, 2009).

Celebrate diversity
Depending on local differences, be they cultural, determined by presence of resources or
availability of financial resources, differing solutions might be optimal for each situation. In
arid areas where water is a scarce resource, reuse of wastewater for drinking water might
be necessary. Examples of this can be found in Singapore and Namibia. In cities near an
ocean or sea, sea water desalination might be applied, provided that renewable energy is
used.
Decentralized systems (such as the DESAR concept) may be used to efficiently
remove pharmaceuticals from urine and/or blackwater (de Graaf, 2010).
Finally, perhaps we need to rethink the whole system. This means evaluating the uses of
drinking water and the required quality for each different function. Naturally, we need
drinking water to drink, but to flush the toilet and for many other applications such high
quality is not necessary. Different sources could be used for different applications, such as
rain water or brackish water for flushing the toilet. We might even consider options that need
no water at all (washing clothes with CO2 or ozone, for instance).

206

Discussion

The distinction between sustainability and cradle-to-cradle is not as clear-cut as presented in

this paper; both concepts focus on the interest of future generations. Sustainability seems
mainly to entail reducing energy, resources and waste streams. In the short term, while
using the existing infrastructure of the water cycle, this is a good thing to do and in practice
many (technical) possibilities are emerging. In the long run, however, a paradigm shift is
necessary: we must rethink the system including re-evaluating functions and the required
quality of water. By factoring in the C2C concept we can change our mindset to thinking in
terms of possibilities rather than restrictions. It is clear that the availability and affordability of
renewable energy is a critical factor in future water cycle designs.
The concepts of sustainability and cradle-to-cradle can be used to define zero-impact
water use in the built environment. In the Netherlands and surrounding countries, water
consumption as such is not the crux of the matter.
Critical impact factors of the domestic water cycle at present are:

energy consumption, especially for water heating;

introduction of toxic compounds to wastewater;

scarce resource spillages, especially phosphorus.

Fortunately, there are several technical possibilities to improve the domestic water cycle in
terms of sustainability and/or cradle-to-cradle. Examples of these have been discussed in
this paper.
As long as renewable energy sources are not abundantly available, (renewable) energy
should be used wisely.

Recommendations

In order to create a zero-impact water cycle, the water sector and related research institutes
should work together with at least the building and energy sectors. There can be no zeroimpact water use without zero-energy buildings. The relative contribution of energy needed
in houses for warm water heating is likely to increase with the Dutch policy to further cut the
Energy Performance Coefficient for new houses. Houses are already being built with only
750 m3 natural gas use per year, which means that warm water now accounts for about 50%
of domestic gas use. Warm water conservation measures are therefore an increasingly
important factor in energy performance improvement in housing design and construction.
Moreover, the urban metabolism concept facilitates the integration of different cycles (water,
energy, nutrients) in the built environment. Future city planners must consider water, energy
and nutrient flows together rather than separately, and will have to design with flexibility for
future changes.
Using the sustainability and C2C concepts, non-sustainability factors in the present
water cycle can be identified and common goals could be defined. Such common goals can
be built upon to come up with new concepts in the water cycle. However, much work is still
required to make these new concepts a reality. In the transition phase, tools in the field from
transition management may be used. Two critical aspects in further developing and
implementing sustainable concepts are acceptability and affordability for the consumer.
207

Here, the other Ps: People and Profit, are essential. Finally, pilot studies and frequent
evaluations will prevent the sector from taking an unrealistic, mistaken direction.

References
Braungart, M. and W. McDonough (2002). Cradle to Cradle, remaking the way we make
things. New York: North Point Press.
Frijns, J., Mulder, M. and J. Roorda (2008). Op weg naar een klimaatneutrale waterketen,
WaterKIP (Stowa and KWR), Stowa Report 2008-17. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Stowa.
(in Dutch)
Frijns, J., Hofman, J. and A. van Wezel (2009). Water as energy carrier: climate mitigation
and renewable options in the water sector, Proceedings IWA Water & Energy
Conference, 29-31 October, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Graaf, M.S. de (2010). Resource Recovery from black water. Wageningen University.
Halling-Srensen, B., Nors Nielsen, S., Lanzky, P.F., Ingerslev, F., Holten Ltzhft, H.C.
and S.E. Jrgensen (1998). Occurrence, fate and effects of pharmaceutical
substances in the Environment A review, Chemosphere 36:2, pp357-393.
Pamminger, F. and S. Kenway (2008). Urban Metabolism, improving the sustainability of
urban water systems, Journal of the Australian Water Association, 2008, p45-46.
Sukkar, R., Kluck, J., Blom, J. and J. Averesch (2009). Mastercase energie in de
waterketen, Stowa Report 2009-46. Utrecht: Stowa, the Netherlands (in Dutch).
Ter Laak, T., Van der Aa, M., Houtman, C., Stoks, P and A. Van Wezel (2010). Temporal
and spatial trends of pharmaceuticals in the Rhine. Nieuwegein, the Netherlands:
Association of River Waterworks, RIWA.
Vergouwen, A.A. (2009). Fosfaat, van leegloop naar kringloop, Stowa Report 2009-40.
Utrecht, the Netherlands: Stowa (in Dutch).
Vewin (2010). Drinkwaterstatistieken, de watercyclus van bron tot kraan. Rijswijk, the
Netherlands: Vewin (in Dutch).
Reststoffenunie (2008). Annual Report. Nieuwegein, the Netherlands: Reststoffenunie (in
Dutch).

208

Tilburg: A Road Map for Becoming a Zero-Carbon City

in 2045
Erik Alsema, Jappe Goud, Geurt Donze

48 )

, Martin Roders

49 )

Abstract
The city of Tilburg wants to become a zero-carbon city by the year 2045. To this end,
various policy options have been investigated and a road map to achieve this has been
drawn up. This paper firstly discusses how the policy target of net zero carbon can be clearly
defined. Among other issues, this definition concerns the choice about which options for CO2
mitigation will or will not be allowed. Secondly, scenarios have been developed for
achieving a net zero-carbon building stock for the three housing associations in Tilburg.
Starting from a full assessment of the present CO2 emissions of the building stock, these
scenarios investigate the possibilities to improve the existing housing stock, taking into
account autonomous portfolio developments as well as intensified improvement
programmes. Furthermore, the contributions from new-built low-energy houses are
considered as well as the potential for generating renewable energy on or for the total
housing stock. This approach shows that it is possible to bring about net zero carbon for
housing. Lastly, a list of key action points are provided for cities that wish to devise a zerocarbon action plan.

Introduction

The city of Tilburg and its Social Housing Organizations (SHO) take climate change
seriously. It is for this reason that the municipality has drawn up a declaration which was
signed by the four SHOs of Tilburg in addition to more than 40 other local businesses at the
beginning of 2009. The goal of the declaration is to become a zero-carbon or climate-neutral
city by the year 2045. Although this target is still several decades away, action needs to be
taken now in order to achieve it. The assignment of the declaration ties in closely with the
energy-saving policies of the SHOs, which in 2002 joined forces on this issue, regarding
three consecutive energy covenants.
During the recent covenant (2006-2010) the SHOs mapped the energy performance of
the existing building stock. All dwellings were given an energy label. A logical phase after
48) W/E Consultants Sustainable Building, Utrecht, the Netherlands
49) Tilburgse Woonstichting, Tilburg, the Netherlands

209

this inventory is to create a long-term perspective for adapting the building stock. The
climate declaration came just in time to provide the overall goal for such a long-term plan.
However, the main question for the SHOs was whether it is possible to achieve zero-carbon
in their buildings by 2045. Therefore, the Tilburg SHOs together with the municipality of
Tilburg commissioned W/E Consultants to investigate this and to devise a road map to
achieve the goal of zero-carbon building stock. The road map produced by W/E showed that
this target can indeed be attained.
The year 2010, which is the last year of the third energy treaty, will be used to explore
the possibilities of establishing a fourth covenant, in which SHOs and the municipality agree
on what concrete measures will be taken to make their building stock zero-carbon. The
guidelines provided by the zero-carbon road map will serve as the foundation for the
agreement.

Project definition

In this paper we consider two questions concerning zero-carbon planning. We shall focus
here on carbon emissions from the housing stock owned by the three housing associations
in Tilburg.
The first issue concerns precisely defining the zero-carbon target: what are the system
boundaries and what exact means will be allowed in order to accomplish this target. For
example, should all emission reductions be made within the city borders or can reductions
also be imported from outside the city? This discussion should result in an unambiguous
and transparent definition of the local policy target for 2045.
The second question we address is how the housing stock in Tilburg can make the
transition towards zero carbon. How much can or should be achieved by reducing the
energy demand from existing houses, what targets should be set for the energy
performance of new dwellings and what role can renewable energy play in this
development? Together with W/E Consultants, the three housing associations in Tilburg
have drawn up a common road map to set out priorities for their own housing stock. We
shall discuss the research that was conducted in designing this road map.

Defining the zero-carbon policy target

A recent report set out a definition framework for zero-energy and zero-carbon building
projects (Alsema et al, 2009). This framework identifies three aspects of the definition,
namely: 1) the goal, 2) the scope and 3) the means. Our study also includes the project
boundary, which encloses the buildings themselves, and the system boundary, which
encloses not only the project but also all energy conversion processes that are necessary
for operating the buildings (i.e. electric power plants). As is the norm, net zero carbon is
defined as: zero emission when summed over a full year. It is important to note that these
emissions are to be measured on the system boundary and not on the project boundary.
(For a further explanation of these concepts see Alsema et al, 2009.)
Although for the Tilburg case the overall goal was already set by the municipal climate
plan, the specific target for the housing corporations was more detailed, in line with the
210

aforementioned framework. It was decided that the goal for 2045 would be zero carbon for
the operational phase of the buildings only; that is, without considering the carbon emissions
embodied in the building materials. Household energy consumption is to be included in the
carbon accounting with the restriction that the housing associations could not take any final
responsibility for these emissions.
Not surprisingly, the scope was defined as all the housing complexes owned by the
50
associations ).
Some discussion was needed to establish precisely the means that are allowed in
reaching the zero-carbon target (see
Table 1). It was decided that external energy saving - that is, energy saving occurring
outside the project boundary (i.e. heat supply from CHP to a district heating system), can be
included in the zero carbon goal. External renewable generation, such as certified green
electricity that is purchased by the associations or households, can also be accepted in the
zero carbon accounting. Carbon compensation schemes, nuclear power and carbon
capture, on the other hand, were not marked as allowable measures.
Naturally, net zero carbon does not mean that there will also be zero impact. There are
several other negative effects from buildings with regard to the environment and other
matters. However, Life Cycle Assessments have shown that many environmental impacts
are ultimately related to fossil energy mining and combustion (Huijbregts et al, 2006).
Therefore, the quest for zero-carbon emissions will have positive effects on more
environmental issues than merely climate change.
Table 1: Overview of the target definition for Net Zero Carbon for the Tilburg social housing study
Target:
Year:

Net Zero Carbon (during operation phase)

2045

Scope:

Houses of 3 corporations in Tilburg

Means:
Energy saving Project

Yes

Energy saving External

Yes

Renewable generation Project

Yes

Renewable generation External

Yes

CO2-compensation Project

No

CO2-compensation External

No

Nuclear Project

No

Nuclear External

No

CO2-capture and storage Project

No

CO2-capture and storage External

No

50) The office buildings owned by the associations were not included in the road map study.

211

Road map for a zero-carbon building stock

In order to devise a road map for a zero-carbon building stock for the Tilburg housing
associations (Alsema et al, 2010), we developed a new stock model which focuses on CO2
emissions and CO2 reductions. The model starts from the present composition of the
building stock in terms of building age and energy performance. The latter data are based
on the energy performance audits for the EPBD obligation (see Figure 3). Our model then
considers developments in the building stock, taking into account yearly rates of building
sales, demolition and new construction. In line with existing practice, the new construction
rate is taken to be equal to the selling rate. Building improvement is also an important
parameter in the model, especially as regards improvements in the buildings energy
performance. Both an annual improvement rate and an improvement factor, specified as the
achieved reduction in the primary energy demand of the building, may be specified for each
building type (i.e. construction year and label class) and for each 10-year period until 2050.
For new buildings (90 m2 gfa), the energy performance requirements from the Building
Code have been considered, with the foreseen reduction towards a net zero-energy
standard by 2030 and further improvements beyond that time (see Table 2).
The introduction of renewable energy sources for use by the buildings and the building
inhabitants was also described in this model. We distinguish between two types of
renewable options which are treated differently by the model. Firstly, there are a number of
renewable options like solar hot water boilers and heat pumps which cannot be easily
evaluated in terms of generated energy but which are considered in our model as heat
demand reduction measures; their contribution is already incorporated in the demand data
of table 2.
Secondly, there are options like PV, wind turbines, sustainable heat supply (for
instance from biomass) and the purchase of green electricity which we have accounted
separately from the buildings energy demand (even though some installations, like PV, will
probably be placed on those buildings). The latter renewable options are expressed as CO2
emission reductions, which are finally accounted on the level of the building stock where
they should offset the remaining CO2 emissions from the buildings.

Table 2: Requirements for new houses in terms of primary energy consumption (building-related only),
with indicative values for the Energy Performance Coefficient and CO2 emission.

Construction
period
2010-2020
2020-2030
2030-2040
2040-2050

E-consumption
primary
(GJ/house/yr)
18
11
9
9

EPC*

CO2 emission
(kg/house/yr)

0,50
0,30
0,25
0,25

1040
630
510
510

* EPC is the Dutch Energy Performance Coefficient; EPC values are indicative only and excl. PV;
because PV is not accounted here, it seems as if no net zero energy situation is reached for houses
after 2030.

212

CO emi ssi on (t on/ yr )

CO
2emission(ton/yr)
2

30000

Presentlabel

25000

F
20000

E
D

15000

10000

B
A

5000

0
1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Const r uct i on per i od

Constructionperiod

Figure 3: Yearly greenhouse gas emissions from the building stock for the year 2009, broken down by
construction period and by energy label class. Total stock comprises some 28,000 houses.

This model has been used to assess a number of scenarios for emissions development from
existing and new housing stock and for renewable energy generation until 2050. Figure 4
shows the development of emissions from the buildings in what is termed the Reference
Scenario, which is based on an extrapolation of existing policy targets for the Dutch social
housing sector until 2020 (Aedes-covenant). As is evident, the emissions from the existing
housing stock, most especially those built before 1970, will continue to dominate emissions
for several decades. New buildings, on the other hand, make only a relatively small
contribution.
The Reference Scenario also assumes modest growth of renewable sources. Figure 5
shows both the CO2 emissions from buildings and the emission reductions from the
renewable options. As we can observe, the top line of the buildings emissions (in red) and
the second solid line from the top (in green) of the emission reductions do not cross before
2050, implying that no zero-carbon situation is reached within this scenario.
Yearly building-related CO2 em ission
100
90
80
New built

70

2000-2010

60

1990-2000

50

1980-1990

40

1970-1980

30

<1970

20
10
0
2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

Figure 4: Development of the GHG emission ( in kton/yr) from the building stock in the Reference
Scenario, with a breakdown by construction period ("New built" = construction after 2010). Emissions
from domestic energy consumption (i.e. household appliances) are not included here.

213

CO2 emission/reduction
(kton/yr)

CO2-em issions and -reductions for building stock

(Reference Scenario)

100
80
60
40
20
0
2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

existing buildings

existing + new buildings

w ind

w ind+PV

w ind+PV+SH

Wind+PV+SH+GrPw r

Figure 5: Development of CO2 emissions by buildings and emission reductions by renewable energy
generation in the Reference Scenario (SH= Sustainable Heat supply, GrPwr = Green Power supply).

CO2 emission/reduction (kton/yr)

CO2-emissions and -reductions for building stock

(Solar Scenario)

100
80
60
40
20
0
2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

existing buildings

existing + new buildings

w ind

w ind+PV

w ind+PV+SH

Wind+PV+SH+GrPw r

Figure 6: Development of CO2 emissions by buildings and emission reductions in the Solar Scenario
(SH= Sustainable Heat supply, GrPwr = Green Power supply).

214

CO2 emission/reduction (kton/yr)

100

CO2-em issions and -reductions for building stock

(Intensive Improvement Scenario)

80
60
40
20
0
2010

2020

2030

2040

existing buildings

existing + new buildings

w ind

w ind+PV

w ind+PV+SH

Wind+PV+SH+GrPw r

2050

Figure 7: Development of CO2 emissions by buildings and emission in the Intensive Improvement
Scenario (SH= Sustainable Heat supply, GrPwr = Green Power supply).

In the Solar Scenario of Figure 6, however, which assumes strong growth in renewable
installations and green power purchases, a zero-carbon situation is reached around 2040,
showing that the zero-carbon policy target can indeed be achieved. Our financial analyses
reveal a drawback of this approach - namely that it may require three times more investment
in the coming decade than the Reference Scenario.
A third scenario (Figure 7), which assumes a more intensive programme of building
improvement, combines a number of attractive features such as lower investments than the
Solar Scenario, a faster emission reduction from buildings and the prospect of a zero-carbon
situation around 2050. It is important to note here that a faster pathway of emission
reduction has advantages from a climate policy perspective (i.e. lower cumulative emissions
to the atmosphere), which are overlooked when focusing solely on the zero-carbon
achievement for a certain year.
Based on our analyses we have recommended a road map for the Tilburg housing
associations which emphasizes building improvements first and brings in renewable options
somewhat later. The total investment costs in the first ten years for this scenario are
estimated to be less than 130 M, with a gross return on investment of at least 4%. We have
concluded that this last approach has advantages from three perspectives: for the investor,
for the climate policy and for building inhabitants.
215

Conclusions
This paper puts forward a new approach for cities and housing associations that want to
make a transition to being net zero carbon or net zero energy. A number of steps have been
set out to define the target clearly and to devise a road map in order to reach it:

Define the scope, target year and allowed means for your climate policy
ambition

Assess your starting situation in terms of building types, energy

performance data, CO2 emissions and renewable generation

Asses the potential for exploiting renewable energy resources within

your community;

Investigate the prospects for becoming net zero carbon (or energy) by
means of scenario studies for building stock development, building
improvement and renewable energy exploitation;

Based on the scenario results, select the approach that best fits your
ambitions, investment budgets and other building portfolio objectives;

Make this approach into a 5-year action plan which identifies key action
points, budgets and targets;

Evaluate progress after five years and update your action plan for a new
period.
For the Tilburg case we have used this approach to demonstrate that it is realistically
possible to make the transition to zero-carbon housing, and to describe which concrete
steps should be taken in the short term to work towards this goal. The approach and tools
that have been described allow housing associations and other real estate owners to
integrate energy performance and CO2 emissions into their portfolio management strategy
for the housing stock. Thus, climate policy goals can become an integral part of the overall
strategic planning of the organisation. With their proactive approach, the municipality of
Tilburg and the three Tilburg housing associations are leading players in the Netherlands
where climate policy is concerned.

References
Alsema, E.A., Hoiting, H., Roth, E. (2009) Firm Ambitions, Clear Language, A framework for
establishing targets and means for climate, energy and CO2 neutral building projects (in
Dutch). Utrecht: W/E Consultants commissioned by PEGO/SenterNovem.
http://www.senternovem.nl/energieneutraalbouwen/publicaties/stevige_ambities_klare_
taal_definitiestudie_.asp
Alsema, E.A., Goud, J., Donze, G.J., Roth, E. (2010) Road map for a net zero carbon social
housing stock in Tilburg (in Dutch). Utrecht: W/E Consultants commissioned by Tiwos,
TBV, WonenBreburg, and Municipality of Tilburg.
Huijbregts, M.A.J. et al. (2006), Is Cumulative Fossil Energy Demand a Useful Indicator for
the Environmental Performance of Products?, Environmental Science & Technology,
Vol. 40, No. 3, p. 641-648.

216

Afterword
Where do we go from here?
We have delved into many issues in this book and seen examples of successful projects
and strategies, as well as gaps in knowledge and understanding of implementing 0-options
in a complicated world. How do we now proceed to set this transition in motion, to provide
the knowledge and insights, tools and strategies to make this work?
The knowledge printed herein and presented at the conference will be evaluated and
published, at the SB11 Global Conference Sustainable Building in Helsinki 2011 and
elsewhere. We will continue working on this subject, both as RiBuilT and in international
networks like the working groups of the iiSBE, CIB and IEA. A 2012 conference is in the
planning, to focus solely on implementing 0-options in existing building and neighbourhoods.
One conclusion can be drawn already: people, those with a drive, those with leadership
qualities, can make an enormous difference. Mayor Peter Vadasz is one such person who
has shown that it is possible if you just set a target and go for it. We have seen this before,
for instance in Jaime Lerner, the former mayor of Curitiba which is now a recognised
sustainable city. As he has advised repeatedly, we must simply start rather than hang
around waiting for all the answers. Naturally, mistakes will be made, but if all we do is wait
for the answers, nothing will happen. Some of the projects described in this book are proof
of this.
Let it be a lesson for us all: let us get going, learn on the job, and seek help from
experts and anybody else who can give directions. Let us implement and transform our built
environment into a closed loop, before it transforms us. And let us start today.
The editors

217