Transportation Engineering

Transportation Systems Engineering
1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow
Chapter 1
Fundamental Parameters of Traffic
Flow
1.1
Overview
Traffic engineering pertains to the analysis of the behavior of traffic and to design the facilities
for a smooth, safe and economical operation of traffic. Traffic flow, like the flow of water,
has several parameters associated with it. The traffic stream parameters provide information
regarding the nature of traffic flow, which helps the analyst in detecting any variation in flow
characteristics. Understanding traffic behavior requires a thorough knowledge of traffic stream
parameters and their mutual relationships. In this chapter the basic concepts of traffic flow is
presented.
1.2
Traffic stream parameters
The traffic stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behavior. The driver or human
behavior being non-uniform, traffic stream is also non-uniform in nature. It is influenced not
only by the individual characteristics of both vehicle and human but also by the way a group
of such units interacts with each other. Thus a flow of traffic through a street of defined
characteristics will vary both by location and time corresponding to the changes in the human
behavior.
The traffic engineer, but for the purpose of planning and design, assumes that these changes
are within certain ranges which can be predicted. For example, if the maximum permissible
speed of a highway is 60 kmph, the whole traffic stream can be assumed to move on an average
speed of 40 kmph rather than 100 or 20 kmph.
Thus the traffic stream itself is having some parameters on which the characteristics can
be predicted. The parameters can be mainly classified as : measurements of quantity, which
Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
1.1
February 19, 2014
includes density and flow of traffic and measurements of quality which includes speed. The
traffic stream parameters can be macroscopic which characterizes the traffic as a whole or
microscopic which studies the behavior of individual vehicle in the stream with respect to each
other.
As far as the macroscopic characteristics are concerned, they can be grouped as measurement
of quantity or quality as described above, i.e. flow, density, and speed. While the microscopic
characteristics include the measures of separation, i.e. the headway or separation between
vehicles which can be either time or space headway. The fundamental stream characteristics
are speed, flow, and density and are discussed below.
1.3
Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and passengers will be
concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design aspects of the traffic. It is
defined as the rate of motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v
is given by,
d
(1.1)
v=
t
where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance traveled in m in time t seconds. Speed
of different vehicles will vary with respect to time and space. To represent these variation,
several types of speed can be defined. Important among them are spot speed, running speed,
journey speed, time mean speed and space mean speed. These are discussed below.
1.3.1
Spot Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. Spot speed can be
used to design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc.
Location and size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require
the spot speed data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern fields
of traffic engineer, which uses spot speed data as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured
using an enoscope, pressure contact tubes or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or
by time-lapse photographic methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from video
images by recording the distance travelling by all vehicles between a particular pair of frames.
1.2
February 19, 2014
1.3.2
Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is
moving and is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was
in motion. i.e. this speed doesnt consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a
stop, or has to wait till it has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more than
or equal to the journey speed, as delays are not considered in calculating the running speed
1.3.3
Journey speed
Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the
journey including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates
that the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The
spot speed here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. A
uniformity between journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.
1.3.4
Time mean speed and space mean speed
Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specified time period. Space mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the
vehicles occupying a given section of a highway over some specified time period. Both mean
speeds will always be different from each other except in the unlikely event that all vehicles
are traveling at the same speed. Time mean speed is a point measurement while space mean
speed is a measure relating to length of highway or lane, i.e. the mean speed of vehicles over
a period of time at a point in space is time mean speed and the mean speed over a space at a
given instant is the space mean speed.
1.4
Flow
There are practically two ways of counting the number of vehicles on a road. One is flow or
volume, which is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given
lane or direction of a highway during a specific time interval. The measurement is carried out
by counting the number of vehicles, nt , passing a particular point in one lane in a defined period
t. Then the flow q expressed in vehicles/hour is given by
q=
nt
t
1.3
(1.2)
February 19, 2014
Flow is expressed in planning and design field taking a day as the measurement of time.
1.4.1
Variations of Volume
The variation of volume with time, i.e. month to month, day to day, hour to hour and within a
hour is also as important as volume calculation. Volume variations can also be observed from
season to season. Volume will be above average in a pleasant motoring month of summer, but
will be more pronounced in rural than in urban area. But this is the most consistent of all the
variations and affects the traffic stream characteristics the least.
Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays will also face difference in pattern. But comparing day
with day, patterns for routes of a similar nature often show a marked similarity, which is useful
in enabling predictions to be made.
The most significant variation is from hour to hour. The peak hour observed during mornings and evenings of weekdays, which is usually 8 to 10 per cent of total daily flow or 2 to 3
times the average hourly volume. These trips are mainly the work trips, which are relatively
stable with time and more or less constant from day to day.
1.4.2
Types of volume measurements
Since there is considerable variation in the volume of traffic, several types of measurements of
volume are commonly adopted which will average these variations into a single volume count
to be used in many design purposes.
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume at a
given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total number of vehicles passing the site
in a year divided by 365.
2. Average Annual Weekday Traffic(AAWT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume
occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by dividing the total weekday
traffic volume for the year by 260.
3. Average Daily Traffic(ADT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location
for some period of time less than a year. It may be measured for six months, a season, a
month, a week, or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period
over which it was measured.
4. Average Weekday Traffic(AWT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on
weekdays for some period of time less than one year, such as for a month or a season.
1.4
February 19, 2014
Figure 1:1: Illustration of density

The relationship between AAWT and AWT is analogous to that between AADT and ADT.
Volume in general is measured using different ways like manual counting, detector/sensor counting, moving-car observer method, etc. Mainly the volume study establishes the importance of
a particular route with respect to the other routes, the distribution of traffic on road, and the
fluctuations in flow. All which eventually determines the design of a highway and the related
facilities. Thus, volume is treated as the most important of all the parameters of traffic stream.
1.5
Density
Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane and
is generally expressed as vehicles per km. One can photograph a length of road x, count the
number of vehicles, nx , in one lane of the road at that point of time and derive the density k
as,
nx
(1.3)
k=
x
This is illustrated in figure 1:1. From the figure, the density is the number of vehicles between
the point A and B divided by the distance between A and B. Density is also equally important
as flow but from a different angle as it is the measure most directly related to traffic demand.
Again it measures the proximity of vehicles in the stream which in turn affects the freedom to
maneuver and comfortable driving.
1.6
Derived characteristics
From the fundamental traffic flow characteristics like flow, density, and speed, a few other
parameters of traffic flow can be derived. Significant among them are the time headway,
1.5
February 19, 2014
distance headway and travel time. They are discussed one by one below.
1.6.1
Time headway
The microscopic character related to volume is the time headway or simply headway. Time
headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles when they cross
a given point. Practically, it involves the measurement of time between the passage of one rear
bumper and the next past a given point. If all headways h in time period, t, over which flow
has been measured are added then,
nt
X
hi = t
(1.4)
1
But the flow is defined as the number of vehicles nt measured in time interval t, that is,
q=
nt
1
nt
= Pnt =
t
hav
1 hi
(1.5)
where, hav is the average headway. Thus average headway is the inverse of flow. Time headway
is often referred to as simply the headway.
1.6.2
Distance headway
Another related parameter is the distance headway. It is defined as the distance between
corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time. It involves the measurement
from a photograph, the distance from rear bumper of lead vehicle to rear bumper of following
vehicle at a point of time. If all the space headways in distance x over which the density has
been measured are added,
nx
X
si = x
(1.6)
1
But the density (k) is the number of vehicles nx at a distance of x, that is

k=
1
nx
nx
= P nx =
x
sav
1 si
(1.7)
Where, sav is average distance headway. The average distance headway is the inverse of density
and is sometimes called as spacing.
1.6.3
Travel time
Travel time is defined as the time taken to complete a journey. As the speed increases, travel
time required to reach the destination also decreases and vice-versa. Thus travel time is inversely
1.6
February 19, 2014
distance
distance
time
(a)
(b)
distance
time
time
(c)
Figure 1:2: Time space diagram for a single vehicle

proportional to the speed. However, in practice, the speed of a vehicle fluctuates over time and
the travel time represents an average measure.
1.7
Time-space diagram
Time space diagram is a convenient tool in understanding the movement of vehicles. It shows
the trajectory of vehicles in the form of a two dimensional plot. Time space diagram can be
plotted for a single vehicle as well as multiple vehicles. They are discussed below.
1.7.1
Single vehicle
Taking one vehicle at a time, analysis can be carried out on the position of the vehicle with
respect to time. This analysis will generate a graph which gives the relation of its position on
a road stretch relative to time. This plot thus will be between distance x and time t and x
will be a functions the position of the vehicle for every t along the road stretch. This graphical
representation of x(t) in a (t, x) plane is a curve which is called as a trajectory. The trajectory
provide an intuitive, clear, and complete summary of vehicular motion in one dimension.
In figure 1:2(a), the the distance x goes on increasing with respect to the origin as time
progresses. The vehicle is moving at a smooth condition along the road way. In figure 1:2(b),
the vehicle at first moves with a smooth pace after reaching a position reverses its direction of
movement. In figure 1:2(c), the vehicle in between becomes stationary and maintains the same
position.
1.7
February 19, 2014
From the figure, steeply increasing section of x(t) denote a rapidly advancing vehicle and
horizontal portions of x(t) denote a stopped vehicle while shallow sections show a slow-moving
vehicle. A straight line denotes constant speed motion and curving sections denote accelerated
motion; and if the curve is concave downwards it denotes acceleration. But a curve which is
convex upwards denotes deceleration.
1.7.2
Multiple Vehicles
Time-space diagram can also be used to determine the fundamental parameters of traffic flow
like speed, density and volume. It can also be used to find the derived characteristics like space
headway and time headway. Figure 1:3 shows the time-space diagram for a set of vehicles
traveling at constant speed. Density, by definition is the number of vehicles per unit length.
From the figure, an observer looking into the stream can count 4 vehicles passing the stretch
of road between x1 and x2 at time t. Hence, the density is given as
k=
4 vehicles
x2 x1
(1.8)
We can also find volume from this time-space diagram. As per the definition, volume is the
number of vehicles counted for a particular interval of time. From the figure 1:3 we can see
that 6 vehicles are present between the time t1 and t2 . Therefore, the volume q is given as
q=
3 vehicles
t2 t1
(1.9)
Again the averages taken at a specific location (i.e., time ranging over an interval) are called
time means and those taken at an instant over a space interval are termed as space means.
Another related definition which can be given based on the time-space diagram is the headway. Space headway is defined as the distance between corresponding points of two successive
vehicles at any given time. Thus, the vertical gap between any two consecutive lines represents
space headway. The reciprocal of density otherwise gives the space headway between vehicles
at that time.
Similarly, time headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles
when they cross a given point. Thus, the horizontal gap between the vehicles represented by the
lines gives the time headway. The reciprocal of flow gives the average time headway between
vehicles at that point.
1.8
February 19, 2014
x2
distance
spacing (s)
headway(h)
x1
t1
t
Time
t2
Figure 1:3: Time space diagram for many vehicles
1.8
Summary
Speed, flow and density are the basic parameters of traffic flow. Different measures of speed
are used in traffic flow analysis like spot speed, time mean speed, space mean speed etc. Timespace diagram also can be used for determining these parameters. Speed and flow of the traffic
stream can be computed using moving observer method.
1.9
References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.
2. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 1987.
3. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff New
Jersey 07632, second edition, 1990.
4. William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic Engineering. PrenticeHall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998.
5. C. S Papacostas.
Delhi, 1987.
Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering.
1.9
Prentice-Hall, New
February 19, 2014
2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
Chapter 2
Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
2.1
Overview
Speed is one of the basic parameters of traffic flow and time mean speed and space mean
speed are the two representations of speed. Time mean speed and space mean speed and the
relationship between them will be discussed in detail in this chapter. The relationship between
the fundamental parameters of traffic flow will also be derived. In addition, this relationship
can be represented in graphical form resulting in the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
2.2
Time mean speed (vt)
As noted earlier, time mean speed is the average of all vehicles passing a point over a duration
of time. It is the simple average of spot speed. Time mean speed vt is given by,
1X
vi ,
vt =
n i=1
n
(2.1)
where vi is the spot speed of ith vehicle, and n is the number of observations. In many speed
studies, speeds are represented in the form of frequency table. Then the time mean speed is
given by,
Pn
qi vi
vt = Pi=1
,
(2.2)
n
i=1 qi
where qi is the number of vehicles having speed vi , and n is the number of such speed categories.
2.3
Space mean speed (vs)
The space mean speed also averages the spot speed, but spatial weightage is given instead of
temporal. This is derived as below. Consider unit length of a road, and let vi is the spot speed
2.1
February 19, 2014
of ith vehicle. Let ti is the time the vehicle takes to complete unit distance and is given by
If there are n such vehicles, then the average travel time ts is given by,
ts =
ti
1 1
= .
n
n vi
If tav is the average travel time, then average speed vs =

n
vs = Pn
1
i=1 vi
1
.
ts
1
.
vi
(2.3)
Therefore, from the above equation,
(2.4)
This is simply the harmonic mean of the spot speed. If the spot speeds are expressed as a
frequency table, then,
Pn
qi
vs = Pni=1 qi
(2.5)
i=1 vi
where qi vehicle will have vi speed and ni is the number of such observations.
Numerical Example
If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45, then find the time mean speed and space mean
speed.
i
Solution Time mean speed vt is the average of spot speed. Therefore, vt = v
= 50+40+60+54+45
=
n
5
n
249
= 49.8. Space mean speed is the harmonic mean of spot speed. Therefore, vs = 1 =
5
vi
1
1
1
1
1
+ 40
+ 60
+ 54
+ 45
50
5
0.12
= 48.82.
Numerical Example
The results of a speed study is given in the form of a frequency distribution table. Find the
time mean speed and space mean speed.
speed range frequency
2-5
1
6-9
4
10-13
0
7
14-17
Solution The time mean speed and space mean speed can be found out from the frequency
table given below. First, the average speed is computed, which is the mean of the speed range.
For example, for the first speed range, average speed, vi = 2+5
= 3.5 seconds. The volume of
2
flow qi for that speed range is same as the frequency. The terms vi .qi and vqii are also tabulated,
2.2
February 19, 2014
qi
No. speed range average speed (vi ) volume of flow (qi ) vi qi
vi
1
2-5
3.5
1
3.5 2.29
2
6-9
7.5
4
30.0 0.54
3
10-13
11.5
0
0
0
4
14-17
15.5
7
108.5 0.45
total
12
142 3.28
10 m/s
10 m/s
50
10 m/s
50
20 m/s
10 m/s
50
10 m/s
50
20 m/s
20 m/s
100
100
hs = 50/20 = 5sec
ns = 60/5 = 12
ks = 1000/50 = 20
hf = 100/20 = 5sec
nf = 60/5 = 12
kf = 1000/100 = 10
Figure 2:1: Illustration of relation between time mean speed and space mean speed
and their summations given in the last row. Time mean speed can be computed as, vt =
142
12
= 11.83. Similarly, space mean speed can be computed as, vs = qqii = 3.28
= 3.65.
12
qi vi
qi
vi
2.4
Illustration of mean speeds
In order to understand the concept of time mean speed and space mean speed, following illustration will help. Let there be a road stretch having two sets of vehicle as in figure 2:1.
The first vehicle is traveling at 10m/s with 50 m spacing, and the second set at 20m/s with
100 m spacing. Therefore, the headway of the slow vehicle hs will be 50 m divided by 10 m/s
which is 5 sec. Therefore, the number of slow moving vehicles observed at A in one hour ns
will be 60/5 = 12 vehicles. The density K is the number of vehicles in 1 km, and is the inverse
of spacing. Therefore, Ks = 1000/50 = 20 vehicles/km. Therefore, by definition, time mean
= 15 m/s. Similarly, by definition, space mean speed is
speed vt is given by vt = 1210+1220
24
= 13.3 m/s. This is same as
the mean of vehicle speeds over time. Therefore, vs = 2010+1020
30
the harmonic mean of spot speeds obtained at location A; ie vs = 12 1 24
1 = 13.3 m/s. It
+12 20
10
may be noted that since harmonic mean is always lower than the arithmetic mean, and also as
observed, space mean speed is always lower than the time mean speed. In other words, space
mean speed weights slower vehicles more heavily as they occupy the road stretch for longer
2.3
February 19, 2014
duration of time. For this reason, in many fundamental traffic equations, space mean speed is
preferred over time mean speed.
2.5
Relation between time mean speed and space mean

speed
The relation between time mean speed(vt ) and space mean speed(vs ) is given by the following
relation:
2
vs
vt = vs +
(2.6)
where, 2 is the standard deviation of the spot speed. The derivation of the formula is given in
the next subsection. The standard deviation( 2 ) can be computed in the following equation:
2 =
qi vi2
(vt )2
qi
(2.7)
where,qi is the frequency of the vehicle having vi speed.
2.5.1
Derivation of the relation
The relation between time mean speed and space mean speed can be derived as below. Consider
a stream of vehicles with a set of sub-stream flow q1 , q2 , . . . qi , . . . qn having speed v1 ,v2 , . . . vi ,
. . . vn . The fundamental relation between flow(q), density(k) and mean speed vs is,
q = k vs
(2.8)
Therefore for any sub-stream qi , the following relationship will be valid.

qi = ki vi
(2.9)
The summation of all sub-stream flows will give the total flow q:
qi = q.
(2.10)
Similarly the summation of all sub-stream density will give the total density k.
ki = k.
(2.11)
Let fi denote the proportion of sub-stream density ki to the total density k,

fi =
ki
.
k
2.4
(2.12)
February 19, 2014
Space mean speed averages the speed over space. Therefore, if ki vehicles has vi speed, then
space mean speed is given by,
ki vi
vs =
.
(2.13)
k
Time mean speed averages the speed over time. Therefore,
vt =
qi vi
.
q
(2.14)
vt =
ki vi 2
q
(2.15)
Substituting 2.9, vt can be written as,
Rewriting the above equation and substituting 2.12, and then substituting 2.8, we get,
ki
vt = k vi2
k
kfi vi 2
=
q
fi vi 2
=
vs
By adding and subtracting vs and doing algebraic manipulations, vt can be written as,
fi (vs + (vi vs ))2
vs
2
fi (vs ) + (vi vs )2 + 2.vs .(vi vs )
=
vs
fi vs 2 fi (vi vs )2 2.vs .fi (vi vs )
=
+
+
vs
vs
vs
vt =
(2.16)
(2.17)
(2.18)
The third term of the equation will be zero because fi (vi vs ) will be zero, since vs is the
mean speed of vi . The numerator of the second term gives the standard deviation of vi . fi
by definition is 1.Therefore,
vt = vs fi +
= vs +
2
vs
2
+0
vs
(2.19)
(2.20)
Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of the spot speed divided
by the space mean speed. Time mean speed will be always greater than space mean speed since
standard deviation cannot be negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same, then spot
speed, time mean speed and space mean speed will also be same.
2.5
February 19, 2014
No.
1
2
3
4
5
speed
range
vl < v < vu
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
total
mid interval
u
vi = vl +v
2
flow
qi
5
15
20
25
30
6
16
24
25
17
88
qi vi
vi2
qi vi2
qi /vi
30
25
150
6/5
240 225 3600 16/15
600 625 15000 24/25
875 1225 30625 25/35
765 2025 34425 17/45
2510
83800 4.3187
Numerical Example
For the data given below,compute the time mean speed and space mean speed. Also verify the
relationship between them. Finally compute the density of the stream.
speed range frequency
0-10
5
10-20
15
20
20-30
25
30-40
40-50
30
Solution The solution of this problem consist of computing the time mean speed vt =
qi vi
2
i
,space mean speed vs = q
qi ,verifying their relation by the equation vt = vs + v ,and
qi
s
vi
using this to compute the density. To verify their relation, the standard deviation also need to
2
be computed 2 = qv
vt2 . For convenience,the calculation can be done in a tabular form as
q
shown in table 2.5.1.
The time mean speed(vt ) is computed as:
qi vi
qi
2510
=
= 28.52
88
vt =
2.6
February 19, 2014
The space mean speed can be computed as:
vs =
=
qi
qi
vi
88
= 20.38
4.3187
The standard deviation can be computed as:

qv 2
vt2
q
83800
28.522 = 138.727
=
88
2 =
The time mean speed can also vt can also be computed as:
vt = vs +
138.727
2
= 20.38 +
= 27.184
vs
20.38
The density can be found as:

k =
2.6
q
88
=
= 4.3 vehicle/km
v
20.38
Fundamental relations of traffic flow
The relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow, namely speed, volume, and
density is called the fundamental relations of traffic flow. This can be derived by a simple
concept. Let there be a road with length v km, and assume all the vehicles are moving with v
km/hr.(Fig 2:2). Let the number of vehicles counted by an observer at A for one hour be n1 .
By definition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour is flow(q). Therefore,
n1 = q.
(2.21)
Similarly, by definition, density is the number of vehicles in unit distance. Therefore number
of vehicles n2 in a road stretch of distance v1 will be density distance.Therefore,
n2 = k v.
2.7
(2.22)
February 19, 2014

v km
A
B
8
Figure 2:2: Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow

Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of vehicles counted in 1 hour and the number
of vehicles in the stretch of distance v will also be same.(ie n1 = n2 ). Therefore,
q = k v.
(2.23)
This is the fundamental equation of traffic flow. Please note that, v in the above equation refers
to the space mean speed will also be same.
2.7
Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be represented
with the help of some curves. They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
They will be explained in detail one by one below.
2.7.1
Flow-density curve
The flow and density varies with time and location. The relation between the density and the
corresponding flow on a given stretch of road is referred to as one of the fundamental diagram
of traffic flow. Some characteristics of an ideal flow-density relationship is listed below:
1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero,since there is no vehicles on the road.
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow increases.
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles cant move.
This is referred to as the jam density or the maximum density. At jam density, flow will
be zero because the vehicles are not moving.
4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is maximum. The relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve as shown in figure 2:3
2.8
February 19, 2014
qmax
flow(q)
A
D
k0
k1
kmax
k2
kjam
density (k)
Figure 2:3: Flow density curve

The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero flow. The point B refers to the
maximum flow and the corresponding density is kmax . The point C refers to the maximum
density kjam and the corresponding flow is zero. OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O,
and the slope of the line OA gives the mean free flow speed, ie the speed with which a vehicle
can travel when there is no flow. It can also be noted that points D and E correspond to same
flow but has two different densities. Further, the slope of the line OD gives the mean speed at
density k1 and slope of the line OE will give mean speed at density k2 . Clearly the speed at
density k1 will be higher since there are less number of vehicles on the road.
2.7.2
Speed-density diagram
Similar to the flow-density relationship, speed will be maximum, referred to as the free flow
speed, and when the density is maximum, the speed will be zero. The most simple assumption
is that this variation of speed with density is linear as shown by the solid line in figure 2:4.
Corresponding to the zero density, vehicles will be flowing with their desire speed, or free flow
speed. When the density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes zero. It is also
possible to have non-linear relationships as shown by the dotted lines. These will be discussed
later.
2.7.3
Speed flow relation
The relationship between the speed and flow can be postulated as follows. The flow is zero
either because there is no vehicles or there are too many vehicles so that they cannot move.
At maximum flow, the speed will be in between zero and free flow speed. This relationship is
shown in figure 2:5. The maximum flow qmax occurs at speed u. It is possible to have two
2.9
February 19, 2014
speed u
uf
density (k)
k0
kjam
Figure 2:4: Speed-density diagram
uf
speed u
u2
u1
u0
Qmax
flow q
Figure 2:5: Speed-flow diagram
2.10
February 19, 2014
speed u
speed u
density k
qmax
flow q
flow q
density k
Figure 2:6: Fundamental diagram of traffic flow

different speeds for a given flow.
2.7.4
Combined diagrams
The diagrams shown in the relationship between speed-flow, speed-density, and flow-density
are called the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. These are as shown in figure 2:6. One
could observe the inter-relationship of these diagrams.
2.8
Summary
Time mean speed and space mean speed are two important measures of speed. It is possible to
have a relation between them and was derived in this chapter. Also, time mean speed will be
always greater than or equal to space mean speed. The fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
are vital tools which enables analysis of fundamental relationships. There are three diagrams speed-density, speed-flow and flow-density. They can be together combined in a single diagram
as discussed in the last section of the chapter.
2.9
References

New Delhi, 1987.
2.11
February 19, 2014
3. Traffic Stream Models
Chapter 3
Traffic Stream Models
3.1
Overview
To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters, a great deal of research
has been done over the past several decades. The results of these researches yielded many
mathematical models. Some important models among them will be discussed in this chapter.
3.2
Greenshields macroscopic stream model
Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one parameter of traffic flow changes
with respect to another. Most important among them is the relation between speed and density.
The first and most simple relation between them is proposed by Greenshield. Greenshield
assumed a linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in figure 3:1 to derive the model. The
equation for this relationship is shown below.

vf
.k
(3.1)
v = vf
kj
where v is the mean speed at density k, vf is the free speed and kj is the jam density. This
equation ( 3.1) is often referred to as the Greenshields model. It indicates that when density
becomes zero, speed approaches free flow speed (ie. v vf when k 0). Once the relation
between speed and flow is established, the relation with flow can be derived. This relation
between flow and density is parabolic in shape and is shown in figure 3:3. Also, we know that
q = k.v
Now substituting equation 3.1 in equation 3.2, we get

vf 2
q = vf .k
k
kj
3.1
(3.2)
(3.3)
February 19, 2014
speed u
uf
k0
kjam
density (k)
Figure 3:1: Relation between speed and density
speed, u
uf
u0
q
flow, q
qmax
Figure 3:2: Relation between speed and flow
3.2
February 19, 2014
qmax
flow(q)
A
D
k0
k1
kmax
k2
kjam
density (k)
Figure 3:3: Relation between flow and density 1

Similarly we can find the relation between speed and flow. For this, put k = vq in equation 3.1
and solving, we get

kj 2
v
(3.4)
q = kj .v
vf
This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in figure 3:2. Once the relationship between
the fundamental variables of traffic flow is established, the boundary conditions can be derived.
The boundary conditions that are of interest are jam density, free-flow speed, and maximum
flow. To find density at maximum flow, differentiate equation 3.3 with respect to k and equate
it to zero. ie.,
dq
= 0
dk
vf
vf .2k = 0
kj
kj
k =
2
Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as k0 ,
kj
(3.5)
2
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density. Once we get k0 , we
can derive for maximum flow, qmax . Substituting equation 3.5 in equation 3.3
2
kj vf kj
qmax = vf . .
2
kj 2
kj
kj
= vf . vf .
2
4
vf .kj
=
4
k0 =
3.3
February 19, 2014
Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of free flow and jam density. Finally to get
the speed at maximum flow, v0 , substitute equation 3.5 in equation 3.1 and solving we get,
v0 = vf
vf kj
.
kj 2
vf
2
Therefore, speed at maximum flow is half of the free speed.
v0 =
3.3
(3.6)
Calibration of Greenshields model
In order to use this model for any traffic stream, one should get the boundary values, especially
free flow speed (vf ) and jam density (kj ). This has to be obtained by field survey and this is
called calibration process. Although it is difficult to determine exact free flow speed and jam
density directly from the field, approximate values can be obtained from a number of speed and
density observations and then fitting a linear equation between them. Let the linear equation
be y = a + bx such that y is density k and x denotes the speed v. Using linear regression
method, coefficients a and b can be solved as,
P
P
P
n ni=1 xi yi ni=1 xi . ni=1 yi
P
P
(3.7)
b =
n. ni=1 xi 2 ( ni=1 xi )2
a = y b
x
(3.8)
Alternate method of solving for b is,
Pn
)(yi y)
i=1 (xi x
b =
Pn
)2
i=1 (xi x
(3.9)
where xi and yi are the samples, n is the number of samples, and x and y are the mean of xi
and yi respectively.
Numerical example
For the following data on speed and density, determine the parameters of the Greenshields
model. Also find the maximum flow and density corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.
v
k
171 5
129 15
20 40
70 25
3.4
February 19, 2014

x(k)
171
129
20
70
390
y(v)
5
15
40
25
85
(xi x)
73.5
31.5
-77.5
-27.5

(yi y)
-16.3
-6.3
18.7
3.7
(xi x)(yi y)
-1198.1
-198.5
-1449.3
-101.8
-2947.7
(xi x2 )
5402.3
992.3
6006.3
756.3
13157.2
Solution Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using equation 3.8 and equation 3.9.
= 390
= 97.5, y = y
= 85
= 21.3. From
The solution is tabulated as shown below. x = x
n
4
n
4
= -0.2 a = y b
x = 21.3 + 0.297.5 = 40.8 So the linear regression
equation 3.9, b = 2947.7
13157.2
equation will be,
v = 40.8 0.2k
(3.10)
v
= 204 veh/km. The basic parameters of

Here vf = 40.8 and kfj = 0.2. This implies, kj = 40.8
0.2
Greenshields model are free flow speed and jam density and they are obtained as 40.8 kmph
and 204 veh/km respectively. To find maximum flow, use equation 3.6, i.e., qmax = 40.8204
=
4
2080.8 veh/hr Density corresponding to the speed 30 km/hr can be found out by substituting
= 54 veh/km.
v = 30 in equation 3.10. i.e, 30 = 40.8 - 0.2 k Therefore, k = 40.830
0.2
3.4
Other macroscopic stream models
In Greenshields model, linear relationship between speed and density was assumed. But in
field we can hardly find such a relationship between speed and density. Therefore, the validity
of Greenshields model was questioned and many other models came up. Prominent among
them are Greenbergs logarithmic model, Underwoods exponential model, Pipes generalized
model, and multi-regime models. These are briefly discussed below.
3.4.1
Greenbergs logarithmic model
Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and density. He proposed,

v = v0 ln
kj
k
(3.11)
This model has gained very good popularity because this model can be derived analytically.
(This derivation is beyond the scope of this notes). However, main drawbacks of this model is
that as density tends to zero, speed tends to infinity. This shows the inability of the model to
predict the speeds at lower densities.
3.5
February 19, 2014
speed, v
density, k
speed, v
Figure 3:4: Greenbergs logarithmic model
density, k
Figure 3:5: Underwoods exponential model
3.4.2
Underwoods exponential model
Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenbergs model, Underwood put forward an exponential
model as shown below.
k
v = vf .e k0
(3.12)
where vf The model can be graphically expressed as in figure 3:5. is the free flow speed and ko
is the optimum density, i.e. the density corresponding to the maximum flow. In this model,
speed becomes zero only when density reaches infinity which is the drawback of this model.
Hence this cannot be used for predicting speeds at high densities.
3.6
February 19, 2014
qA, vA, kA
qB , vB , kB
Figure 3:6: Shock wave: Stream characteristics
3.4.3
Pipes generalized model
Further developments were made with the introduction of a new parameter (n) to provide for a
more generalized modeling approach. Pipes proposed a model shown by the following equation.

n
k
v = vf 1
(3.13)
kj
When n is set to one, Pipes model resembles Greenshields model. Thus by varying the values
of n, a family of models can be developed.
3.4.4
Multi-regime models
All the above models are based on the assumption that the same speed-density relation is
valid for the entire range of densities seen in traffic streams. Therefore, these models are
called single-regime models. However, human behaviour will be different at different densities.
This is corroborated with field observations which shows different relations at different range
of densities. Therefore, the speed-density relation will also be different in different zones of
densities. Based on this concept, many models were proposed generally called multi-regime
models. The most simple one is called a two-regime model, where separate equations are used
to represent the speed-density relation at congested and uncongested traffic.
3.5
Shock waves
The flow of traffic along a stream can be considered similar to a fluid flow. Consider a stream of
traffic flowing with steady state conditions, i.e., all the vehicles in the stream are moving with
a constant speed, density and flow. Let this be denoted as state A (refer figure 3:6. Suddenly
due to some obstructions in the stream (like an accident or traffic block) the steady state
characteristics changes and they acquire another state of flow, say state B. The speed, density
and flow of state A is denoted as vA , kA , and qA , and state B as vB , kB , and qB respectively.
The flow-density curve is shown in figure 3:7. The speed of the vehicles at state A is given
by the line joining the origin and point A in the graph. The time-space diagram of the traffic
3.7
February 19, 2014
vA
flow
qA
A
B
qB
kA
density
kB
vB
kj
distance
Figure 3:7: Shock wave: Flow-density curve
time
Figure 3:8: Shock wave : time-distance diagram
3.8
February 19, 2014
stream is also plotted in figure 3:8. All the lines are having the same slope which implies that
they are moving with constant speed. The sudden change in the characteristics of the stream
leads to the formation of a shock wave. There will be a cascading effect of the vehicles in the
upstream direction. Thus shock wave is basically the movement of the point that demarcates
the two stream conditions. This is clearly marked in the figure 3:7. Thus the shock waves
produced at state B are propagated in the backward direction. The speed of the vehicles at
state B is the line joining the origin and point B of the flow-density curve. Slope of the line AB
gives the speed of the shock wave (refer figure 3:7). If speed of the shock-wave is represented
as AB , then
qA qB
AB =
(3.14)
kA kB
The above result can be analytically solved by equating the expressions for the number vehicles
leaving the upstream and joining the downstream of the shock wave boundary (this assumption
is true since the vehicles cannot be created or destroyed. Let NA be the number of vehicles
leaving the section A. Then, NA = qB t. The relative speed of these vehicles with respect to
the shock wave will be vA AB . Hence,
NA = kA (vA AB ) t
(3.15)
Similarly, the vehicles entering the state B is given as

NB = kA (vB AB ) t
(3.16)
Equating equations 3.15 and 3.16, and solving for AB as follows will yield to:
NA = NB
kA (vA AB ) t = kB (vB AB ) t
kA vA t kA AB t = kB vB t kB AB t
kA AB t kB AB t = kA vA kB vB
AB (kA kB ) = qA qB
This will yield the following expression for the shock-wave speed.
AB =
qA qB
kA kB
(3.17)
In this case, the shock wave move against the direction of traffic and is therefore called a
backward moving shock wave. There are other possibilities of shock waves such as forward
moving shock waves and stationary shock waves. The forward moving shock waves are formed
when a stream with higher density and higher flow meets a stream with relatively lesser density
3.9
February 19, 2014
and flow. For example, when the width of the road increases suddenly, there are chances for a
forward moving shock wave. Stationary shock waves will occur when two streams having the
same flow value but different densities meet.
3.6
Macroscopic flow models
If one looks into traffic flow from a very long distance, the flow of fairly heavy traffic appears
like a stream of a fluid. Therefore, a macroscopic theory of traffic can be developed with the
help of hydrodynamic theory of fluids by considering traffic as an effectively one-dimensional
compressible fluid. The behaviour of individual vehicle is ignored and one is concerned only
with the behaviour of sizable aggregate of vehicles. The earliest traffic flow models began by
writing the balance equation to address vehicle number conservation on a road. In fact, all
traffic flow models and theories must satisfy the law of conservation of the number of vehicles
on the road. Assuming that the vehicles are flowing from left to right, the continuity equation
can be written as
k(x, t) q(x, t)
+
=0
(3.18)
t
x
where x denotes the spatial coordinate in the direction of traffic flow, t is the time, k is the
density and q denotes the flow. However, one cannot get two unknowns, namely k(x, t) by
and q(x, t) by solving one equation. One possible solution is to write two equations from two
regimes of the flow, say before and after a bottleneck. In this system the flow rate before and
after will be same, or
k1 v1 = k2 v2
(3.19)
From this the shock wave velocity can be derived as
v(to )p =
q2 q1
k2 k1
(3.20)
This is normally referred to as Stocks shock wave formula. An alternate possibility which
Lighthill and Whitham adopted in their landmark study is to assume that the flow rate q is
determined primarily by the local density k, so that flow q can be treated as a function of only
density k. Therefore the number of unknown variables will be reduced to one. Essentially this
assumption states that k(x,t) and q (x,t) are not independent of each other. Therefore the
continuity equation takes the form
k(x, t) q(k(x, t))
+
=0
t
x
(3.21)
However, the functional relationship between flow q and density k cannot be calculated from
fluid-dynamical theory. This has to be either taken as a phenomenological relation derived from
3.10
February 19, 2014
the empirical observation or from microscopic theories. Therefore, the flow rate q is a function
of the vehicular density k; q = q(k). Thus, the balance equation takes the form
k(x, t) q(k(x, t))
+
=0
t
x
(3.22)
Now there is only one independent variable in the balance equation, the vehicle density k. If
initial and boundary conditions are known, this can be solved. Solution to LWR models are
kinematic waves moving with velocity
dq(k)
(3.23)
dk
This velocity vk is positive when the flow rate increases with density, and it is negative when
the flow rate decreases with density. In some cases, this function may shift from one regime to
the other, and then a shock is said to be formed. This shock wave propagate at the velocity
vs =
q(k2 ) q(k1 )
k2 k1
(3.24)
where q(k2 ) and q(k1 ) are the flow rates corresponding to the upstream density k2 and downstream density k1 of the shock wave. Unlike Stocks shock wave formula there is only one
variable here.
3.7
Summary
Traffic stream models attempt to establish a better relationship between the traffic parameters.
These models were based on many assumptions, for instance, Greenshields model assumed a
linear speed-density relationship. Other models were also discussed in this chapter. The models
are used for explaining several phenomena in connection with traffic flow like shock wave. The
topics of further interest are multi-regime model (formulation of both two and three regime
models) and three dimensional representation of these models.
3.8
References
1. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff New
Jersey 07632, second edition, 1990.
3.11
February 19, 2014
4. Moving Observer Method
Chapter 4
Moving Observer Method
4.1
Overview
For a complete description of traffic stream modeling, one would require flow, speed, and density.
Obtaining these parameters simultaneously is a difficult task if we use separate techniques.
Since we have a fundamental equation of traffic flow, which gives the flow as the product of
density and space mean speed, if we knew any two parameters, the third can be computed.
Moving car or moving observer method of traffic stream measurement has been developed to
provide simultaneous measurement of traffic stream variables. It has the advantage of obtaining
the complete state with just three observers, and a vehicle. Determination of any of the two
parameters of the traffic flow will provide the third one by the equation q = u.k. Thus,
moving observer method is the most commonly used method to get the relationship between
the fundamental stream characteristics. In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream
unlike all other previous methods.
4.2
Theory
Consider a stream of vehicles moving in the north bound direction. Two different cases of
motion can be considered. The first case considers the traffic stream to be moving and the
observer to be stationary. If no is the number of vehicles overtaking the observer during a
period, t, then flow q is nt0 , or
n0 = q t
(4.1)
The second case assumes that the stream is stationary and the observer moves with speed vo .
If np is the number of vehicles overtaken by observer over a length l, then by definition, density
k is nlp , or
np = k l
(4.2)
4.1
February 19, 2014
Figure 4:1: Illustration of moving observer method

or
np = k.vo .t
(4.3)
where v0 is the speed of the observer and t is the time taken for the observer to cover the road
stretch. Now consider the case when the observer is moving within the stream. In that case
mo vehicles will overtake the observer and mp vehicles will be overtaken by the observer in the
test vehicle. Let the difference m is given by m0 - mp , then from equation 4.1 and equation
4.3,
m = m0 mp = q t k vo t
(4.4)
This equation is the basic equation of moving observer method, which relates q, k to the counts
m, t and vo that can be obtained from the test. However, we have two unknowns, q and k, but
only one equation. For generating another equation, the test vehicle is run twice once with the
traffic stream and another one against traffic stream, i.e.
mw = q tw k vw tw
(4.5)
= q tw k l
ma = q ta + k va ta
(4.6)
= q ta + k l
where, a, w denotes against and with traffic flow. It may be noted that the sign of equation 4.6
is negative, because test vehicle moving in the opposite direction can be considered as a case
when the test vehicle is moving in the stream with negative velocity. Further, in this case, all
the vehicles will be overtaking, since it is moving with negative speed. In other words, when the
test vehicle moves in the opposite direction, the observer simply counts the number of vehicles
in the opposite direction. Adding equation 4.5 and 4.6, we will get the first parameter of the
4.2
February 19, 2014
stream, namely the flow(q) as:
mw + ma
tw + ta
Now calculating space mean speed from equation 4.5,
q=
(4.7)
mw
= q kvw
tw
q
= q vw
v
q l
= q
v tw

1
l
= q 1
v tw

tavg
= q 1
tw
If vs is the mean stream speed, then average travel time is given by tavg =
l
.
vs
Therefore,
tavg
mw
= tw (1
) = tw tavg
q
tw
mw
l
tavg = tw
= ,
q
v
Rewriting the above equation, we get the second parameter of the traffic flow, namely the mean
speed vs and can be written as,
l
(4.8)
vs =
tw mqw
Thus two parameters of the stream can be determined. Knowing the two parameters the third
parameter of traffic flow density (k) can be found out as
k=
q
vs
(4.9)
For increase accuracy and reliability, the test is performed a number of times and the average
results are to be taken.
4.3
February 19, 2014
4.3
Proof
4.4
Assumptions
Numerical Example
The length of a road stretch used for conducting the moving observer test is 0.5 km and the speed
with which the test vehicle moved is 20 km/hr. Given that the number of vehicles encountered
in the stream while the test vehicle was moving against the traffic stream is 107, number of
vehicles that had overtaken the test vehicle is 10, and the number of vehicles overtaken by the
test vehicle is 74, find the flow, density and average speed of the stream.
Solution Time taken by the test vehicle to reach the other end of the stream while it is
= 0.025 hr
moving along with the traffic is tw = 0.5
20
Time taken by the observer to reach the other end of the stream while it is moving against the
traffic is ta = tw = 0.025 hr
= 860 veh/hr
Flow is given by equation, q = 107+(1074)
0.025+0.025
0.5
Stream speed vs can be found out from equationvs = 0.025
10.74 = 5 km/hr
860
Density can be found out from equation as k =
860
5
= 172veh/km
Numerical Example
The data from four moving observer test methods are shown in the table. Column 1 gives
the sample number, column 2 gives the number of vehicles moving against the stream, column
3 gives the number of vehicles that had overtaken the test vehicle, and last column gives the
number of vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle. Find the three fundamental stream parameters
for each set of data. Also plot the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
Sample no.
1
2
3
4
1
107
113
30
79
2 3
10 74
25 41
15 5
18 9
Solution From the calculated values of flow, density and speed, the three fundamental diagrams can be plotted as shown in figure 4:2.
4.4
February 19, 2014
ma
mo
mp
mw = (mo mp )
ta
tw
1
2
3
4
107
113
30
79
10
25
15
18
74
41
5
9
-64
-16
10
9
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
q=
ma +mw
ta +tw
860
1940
800
1760
u=
l
tw mqw
5.03
15.04
40
25.14
k=
171
129
20
70
800
40
speed u
speed u
Sample no.
25.14
15.04
5.03
1940
860
flow q
flow q
density k
1760
20 70 129171
density k
Figure 4:2: Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
4.5
February 19, 2014
q
v
4.5
Summary
Traffic engineering studies differ from other studies in the fact that they require extensive data
from the field which cannot be exactly created in any laboratory. Speed data are collected
from measurements at a point or over a short section or over an area. Traffic flow data are
collected at a point. Moving observer method is one in which both speed and traffic flow data
are obtained by a single experiment.
4.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
4.6
February 19, 2014
27. Principles of Traffic Control
Chapter 27
Principles of Traffic Control
27.1
Overview
Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads. This area is designated for the vehicles
to turn to different directions to reach their desired destinations. Its main function is to
guide vehicles to their respective directions. Traffic intersections are complex locations on any
highway. This is because vehicles moving in different direction wan to occupy same space at the
same time. In addition, the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing. Drivers have to make
split second decision at an intersection by considering his route, intersection geometry, speed
and direction of other vehicles etc. A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents. It also
causes delay and it depends on type, geometry, and type of control. Overall traffic flow depends
on the performance of the intersections. It also affects the capacity of the road. Therefore,
both from the accident perspective and the capacity perspective, the study of intersections very
important for the traffic engineers especially in the case of urban scenario.
27.2
Conflicts at an intersection
Conflicts at an intersection are different for different types of intersection. Consider a typical
four-legged intersection as shown in figure. The number of conflicts for competing through
movements are 4, while competing right turn and through movements are 8. The conflicts
between right turn traffics are 4, and between left turn and merging traffic is 4. The conflicts
created by pedestrians will be 8 taking into account all the four approaches. Diverging traffic
also produces about 4 conflicts. Therefore, a typical four legged intersection has about 32
different types of conflicts. This is shown in figure 27:1.
The essence of the intersection control is to resolve these conflicts at the intersection for
the safe and efficient movement of both vehicular traffic and pedestrians. Two methods of
intersection controls are there: time sharing and space sharing. The type of intersection control
27.1
February 19, 2014

Conflicts in a traffic signal
4 Through traffic
4 Right turn
8 Right turnThrough
4 Merging
4 Diverging
P 8 Pedestrian
Total = 32 Conflicts
P
Figure 27:1: Conflicts at an intersection

that has to be adopted depends on the traffic volume, road geometry, cost involved, importance
of the road etc.
27.3
Levels of intersection control
The control of an intersection can be exercised at different levels. They can be either passive
control, semi control, or active control. In passive control, there is no explicit control on the
driver . In semi control, some amount of control on the driver is there from the traffic agency.
Active control means the movement of the traffic is fully controlled by the traffic agency and
the drivers cannot simply maneuver the intersection according to his choice.
27.3.1
Passive control
When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required. Here the road users are
required to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road markings
etc. are used to complement the intersection control. Some of the intersection control that are
classified under passive control are as follows:
1. No control If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic
rules of the road like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through
movements will have priority than turning movements. The driver is expected to obey
these basic rules of the road.
2. Traffic signs: With the help of warning signs, guide signs etc. it is able to provide
some level of control at an intersection. Give way control, two-way stop control, and
27.2
February 19, 2014
all-way stop control are some examples. The GIVE WAY control requires the driver in
the minor road to slow down to a minimum speed and allow the vehicle on the major
road to proceed. Two way stop control requires the vehicle drivers on the minor streets
should see that the conflicts are avoided. Finally an all-way stop control is usually used
when it is difficult to differentiate between the major and minor roads in an intersection.
In such a case, STOP sign is placed on all the approaches to the intersection and the
driver on all the approaches are required to stop the vehicle. The vehicle at the right
side will get priority over the left approach. The traffic control at at-grade intersection
may be uncontrolled in cases of low traffic. Here the road users are required to obey the
basic rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to
complement the intersection control.
3. Traffic signs plus marking: In addition to the traffic signs, road markings also complement the traffic control at intersections. Some of the examples include stop line marking,
yield lines, arrow marking etc.
27.3.2
Semi control
In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conflicts. Channelization
and traffic rotaries are two examples of this.
1. Channelization: The traffic is separated to flow through definite paths by raising a
portion of the road in the middle usually called as islands distinguished by road markings.
The conflicts in traffic movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case. In
channelized intersections, as the name suggests, the traffic is directed to flow through
different channels and this physical separation is made possible with the help of some
barriers in the road like traffic islands, road markings etc.
2. Traffic rotaries: It is a form of intersection control in which the traffic is made to flow
along one direction around a traffic island. The essential principle of this control is to
convert all the severe conflicts like through and right turn conflicts into milder conflicts
like merging, weaving and diverging. It is a form of at-grade intersection laid out for the
movement of traffic such that no through conflicts are there. Free-left turn is permitted
where as through traffic and right-turn traffic is forced to move around the central island
in a clock-wise direction in an orderly manner. Merging, weaving and diverging operations
reduces the conflicting movements at the rotary.
27.3
February 19, 2014
27.3.3
Active control
Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by the
traffic control agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish. Traffic signals and grade
separated intersections come under this classification.
1. Traffic signals: Control using traffic signal is based on time sharing approach. At a
given time, with the help of appropriate signals, certain traffic movements are restricted
where as certain other movements are permitted to pass through the intersection. Two or
more phases may be provided depending upon the traffic conditions of the intersection.
When the vehicles traversing the intersection is very large, then the control is done with
the help of signals. The phases provided for the signal may be two or more. If more than
two phases are provided, then it is called multi-phase signal.
The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are fixed time signals and vehicle
actuated signals. In fixed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of each signal
is fixed. Each cycle of the signal will be exactly like another. But they cannot cater
to the needs of the fluctuating traffic. On the other hand, vehicle actuated signals can
respond to dynamic traffic situations. Vehicle detectors will be placed on the streets
approaching the intersection and the detector will sense the presence of the vehicle and
pass the information to a controller. The controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts
the phase lengths according to the prevailing traffic conditions.
2. Grade separated intersections: The intersections are of two types. They are at-grade
intersections and grade-separated intersections. In at-grade intersections, all roadways
join or cross at the same vertical level. Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to
cross at different vertical levels. Sometimes the topography itself may be helpful in constructing such intersections. Otherwise, the initial construction cost required will be very
high. Therefore, they are usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways,
freeways etc. These type of intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can
flow with high speed and accident potential is also reduced due to vertical separation of
traffic.
27.4
Channelized intersection
Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking etc. and
this method of control is called Channelization. Channelized intersection provides more safety
and efficiency. It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts
27.4
February 19, 2014

111
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1111111111
0000000000
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0000000000
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0000000000
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11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
Figure 27:2: Channelization of traffic through a three-legged intersection

111
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0000000000
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111111
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111111
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111111
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111111
1111111111
0000000000
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0000000000
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111
Figure 27:3: Channelization of traffic through a four-legged intersection

available in the carriageway. If no channelizing is provided the driver will have less tendency to
reduce the speed while entering the intersection from the carriageway. The presence of traffic
islands, markings etc. forces the driver to reduce the speed and becomes more cautious while
maneuvering the intersection. A channelizing island also serves as a refuge for pedestrians and
makes pedestrian crossing safer. Channelization of traffic through a three-legged intersection
(refer figure 27:2) and a four-legged intersection (refer figure 27:3) is shown in the figure.
27.5
Summary
Traffic intersections are problem spots on any highway, which contribute to a large share of
accidents. For safe operation, these locations should be kept under some level of control depending upon the traffic quantity and behavior. Based on this, intersections and interchanges
are constructed, the different types of which were discussed in the chapter.
27.5
February 19, 2014
27.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
27.6
February 19, 2014
28. Traffic Signs
Chapter 28
Traffic Signs
28.1
Overview
Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and road
users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
Here traffic control devices comes to the help of the traffic engineer. The major types of
traffic control devices used are- traffic signs, road markings , traffic signals and parking control.
This chapter discusses traffic control signs. Different types of traffic signs are regulatory signs,
warning signs and informatory signs.
28.2
Requirements
The requirements of traffic control devices are listed below:

1. The control device should fulfill a need : Each device must have a specific purpose
for the safe and efficient operation of traffic flow. The superfluous devices should not be
used.
2. It should command attention from the road users: This affects the design of signs.
For commanding attention, proper visibility should be there. Also the sign should be
distinctive and clear. The sign should be placed in such a way that the driver requires no
extra effort to see the sign.
3. It should convey a clear, simple meaning: Clarity and simplicity of message is
essential for the driver to properly understand the meaning in short time. The use of
color, shape and legend as codes becomes important in this regard. The legend should be
kept short and simple so that even a less educated driver could understand the message
in less time.
28.1
February 19, 2014
28. Traffic Signs
4. Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the drivers are
conditioned to expect that all devices carry meaningful and important messages. Overuse,
misuse and confusing messages of devices tends the drivers to ignore them.
5. The control device should provide adequate time for proper response from the
road users: This is again related to the design aspect of traffic control devices. The sign
boards should be placed at a distance such that the driver could see it and gets sufficient
time to respond to the situation. For example, the STOP sign which is always placed
at the stop line of the intersection should be visible for at least one safe stopping sight
distance away from the stop line.
28.3
Communication tools
A number of mechanisms are used by the traffic engineer to communicate with the road user.
These mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly eyesight. Messages are
conveyed through the following elements.
1. Color: It is the first and most easily noticed characteristics of a device. Usage of different
colors for different signs are important. The most commonly used colors are red, green,
yellow, black, blue, and brown . These are used to code certain devices and to reinforce
specific messages. Consistent use of colors helps the drivers to identify the presence of
sign board ahead.
2. Shape : It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the device.
The categories of shapes normally used are circular, triangular, rectangular, and diamond
shape. Two exceptional shapes used in traffic signs are octagonal shape for STOP sign
and use of inverted triangle for GIVE WAY (YIELD) sign. Diamond shape signs are not
generally used in India.
3. Legend : This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends. This is an
important aspect in the case of traffic signs. For the easy understanding by the driver,
the legend should be short, simple and specific so that it does not divert the attention of
the driver. Symbols are normally used as legends so that even a person unable to read
the language will be able to understand that. There is no need of it in the case of traffic
signals and road markings.
4. Pattern: It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing traffic
signs. Generally solid, double solid and dotted lines are used. Each pattern conveys different type of meaning. The frequent and consistent use of pattern to convey information
28.2
February 19, 2014
28. Traffic Signs
is recommended so that the drivers get accustomed to the different types of markings and
can instantly recognize them.
28.4
Types of traffic signs
There are several hundreds of traffic signs available covering wide variety of traffic situations.
They can be classified into three main categories.
1. Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of
other road users.
2. Warning signs:These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the
drivers to obey these signs.
3. Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities
available ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specific destinations
In addition special type of traffic sign namely work zone signs are also available. These type
of signs are used to give warning to the road users when some construction work is going on
the road. They are placed only for short duration and will be removed soon after the work is
over and when the road is brought back to its normal condition. The first three signs will be
discussed in detail below.
28.4.1
Regulatory signs
These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must obey
these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action
against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These
signs have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red
borders. The regulatory signs can be further classified into :
1. Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to
the selected approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign
For example, when one minor road and major road meets at an intersection, preference
should be given to the vehicles passing through the major road. Hence the give way sign
board will be placed on the minor road to inform the driver on the minor road that he
should give way for the vehicles on the major road. In case two major roads are meeting,
then the traffic engineer decides based on the traffic on which approach the sign board
28.3
February 19, 2014
28. Traffic Signs
has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that comes in right of
way series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
2. Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on
the road. They include typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc.
Speed limit signs are placed to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for
many reasons. Separate truck speed limits are applied on high speed roadways where
heavy commercial vehicles must be limited to slower speeds than passenger cars for safety
reasons. Minimum speed limits are applied on high speed roads like expressways, freeways
etc. where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow vehicles may present hazard
to themselves and other vehicles also.
3. Movement series: They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle maneuvers.
These include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc. Turn signs
include turn prohibitions and lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows
to specify the movements which all vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to
safely accommodate turns in unsignalized intersections.
4. Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions
or restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to
be parked, duration for parking etc.
5. Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant
for the safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian
crossing sites etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are: a KEEP
OF MEDIAN sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying
hazardous cargo or substances, signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.
Some examples of the regulatory signs are shown in figure 28:1. They include a stop sign, give
way sign, signs for no entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign,
speed limit sign etc.
28.4.2
Warning signs
Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety
of drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for
28.4
February 19, 2014
28. Traffic Signs
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
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0000000000
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0000000000
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0000000000
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GIVE
WAY
STOP
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
50
Figure 28:1: Examples of regulatory signs ( stop sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign
indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign)
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
Figure 28:2: Examples of cautionary signs ( right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road,
sign indicating railway track ahead)
this type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape
used is upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders. Some of the examples for this
type of signs are given in fig 28:2 and includes right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow
road, sign indicating railway track ahead etc.
28.4.3
Informative signs
Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place.
The guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile posts,
service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers are used
to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They are
written black letters on yellow background. Destination signs are used to indicate the direction
to the critical destination points, and to mark important intersections. Distance in kilometers
28.5
February 19, 2014

0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
11111111
00000000
0000000000
1111111111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
1111111111
0000000000
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
1111111111
0000000000
00000000
11111111
0000000000
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00000000
11111111
0000000000
1111111111
00000000
11111111
0000000000
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0000000000
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1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
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0000000000
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0000000000
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000000000
111111111
111111111
000000000
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000000000
111111111
0000000
1111111
000000000
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0000000
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0000000
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1111111
0000000
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000
111
0000000
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000
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000
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000
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000
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000
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111111111
28. Traffic Signs

000000000
111111111
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NH
8
TOLL BOOTH
AHEAD
Figure 28:3: Examples of informative signs (route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service
center information etc)
are sometimes marked to the right side of the destination. They are, in general, rectangular
with the long dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white letters with
green background.
Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such
as food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.
Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters with brown
background. In the figure 28:3 we can see some examples for informative signs which include
route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service center information etc..
28.5
Summary
Traffic signs are means for exercising control on or passing information to the road users. They
may be regulatory, warning, or informative. Among the design aspects of the signs, the size,
shape, color and location matters. Some of the signs along with examples were discussed in this
chapter. A few web sites discussing on traffic signs are given below: www.aptransport.org/html/signs.htm,
www.indiacar.com/infobank/Traffic-signs.htm.
28.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
28.6
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
Chapter 29
Road Markings
29.1
Overview
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and
signify the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe
movement of traffic. Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious
flow of traffic. Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse markings,
object markings and special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the
road etc. will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
29.2
Classification
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set
into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. The road markings
are classified as longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings, word messages,
marking for parking, marking at hazardous locations etc.
29.3
Longitudinal markings
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface, for the
purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway. Some of the guiding
principles in longitudinal markings are also discussed below.
Longitudinal markings are provided for separating traffic flow in the same direction and the
predominant color used is white. Yellow color is used to separate the traffic flow in opposite
direction and also to separate the pavement edges. The lines can be either broken, solid or
29.1
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
150
3m
4.5 m
Figure 29:1: Center line marking for a two lane road

double solid. Broken lines are permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion, if
traffic situation permits. Solid lines are restrictive in character and does not allow crossing
except for entry or exit from a side road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction.
Double solid lines indicate severity in restrictions and should not be crossed except in case
of emergency. There can also be a combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a
solid line may be crossed with discretion, if the broken line of the combination is nearer to the
direction of travel. Vehicles from the opposite directions are not permitted to cross the line.
Different types of longitudinal markings are center line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, warning
lines, border or edge lines, bus lane markings, cycle lane markings.
29.3.1
Center line
Center line separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their movements. Usually
no center line is provided for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having more
than four lanes. The center line may be marked with either single broken line, single solid line,
double broken line, or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic requirements. On
urban roads with less than four lanes, the center line may be single broken line segments of 3 m
long and 150 mm wide. The broken lines are placed with 4.5 m gaps (figure 29:1). On curves
and near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 meters. On undivided urban roads with at
least two traffic lanes in each direction, the center line marking may be a single solid line of
150 mm wide as in figure 29:2, or double solid line of 100 mm wide separated by a space of
100 mm as shown in figure 29:3. The center barrier line marking for four lane road is shown
in figure 29:4.
29.3.2
Traffic lane lines
The subdivision of wide carriageway into separate lanes on either side of the carriage way helps
the driver to go straight and also curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At intersections,
these traffic lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements. Thus traffic
lane markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition ensuring more safety. The
29.2
February 19, 2014
1.5m
29. Road Markings
3m
3m
4.5 m
Figure 29:2: Center line and lane marking for a four lane road
1.5m
3m
100
100
Figure 29:3: Double solid line for a two lane road
100 mm
150 mm
1.5m
3m
Figure 29:4: Center barrier line marking for four lane road
29.3
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
100
3.0 m
150
1.5m
Figure 29:5: Lane marking for a four lane road with solid barrier line
100
1.5m
3.0 m
150
3.0 m
4.5 m
Figure 29:6: Traffic lane marking for a four lane road with broken center line
traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm width. Some examples are shown
in figure 29:5 and figure 29:6.
29.3.3
No passing zones
No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and on two lane and
three lane highways where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited because of low sight distance.
It may be marked by a solid yellow line along the center or a double yellow line. In the case of
a double yellow line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may be a
either a broken line or a solid line . These solid lines are also called barrier lines. When a solid
line is to the right of the broken line, the passing restriction shall apply only to the opposing
traffic. Some typical examples are shown in figure 29:7 and figure 29:8. In the latter case, the
no passing zone is staggered for each direction.
29.3.4
Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on horizontal and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for
no overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven
line segments should be provided. A typical example is shown in figure 29:9
29.4
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
yellow single/double line
Figure 29:7: Barrier line marking for a four lane road

e
in
rl
e
rri
Ba
3m 6m
Figure 29:8: No passing zone marking at horizontal curves
Figure 29:9: Warning line marking for a two lane road

29.5
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
300
200
STOP
150
Figure 29:10: Stop line marking near an intersection
29.3.5
Edge lines
Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate the limits up to which
the driver can safely venture. They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the
pavement. They are painted in yellow or white.
All the lines should be preferably light reflective, so that they will be visible during night
also. Improved night visibility may also be obtained by the use of minute glass beads embedded
in the pavement marking materials to produce a retroreflective surface.
29.4
Transverse markings
Transverse markings are marked across the direction of traffic. They are marked at intersections
etc. The site conditions play a very important role. The type of road marking for a particular
intersection depends on several variables such as speed characteristics of traffic, availability of
space etc. Stop line markings, markings for pedestrian crossing, direction arrows, etc. are some
of the markings on approaches to intersections.
29.4.1
Stop line
Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not proceed when required to
stop by control devices like signals or by traffic police. They should be placed either parallel to
the intersecting roadway or at right angles to the direction of approaching vehicles. An example
for a stop line marking is shown in figure 29:10.
29.6
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
Figure 29:11: Pedestrian marking near an intersection
29.4.2
Pedestrian crossings
Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conflict between vehicular and pedestrian
traffic is severe. The site should be selected that there is less inconvenience to the pedestrians
and also the vehicles are not interrupted too much. At intersections, the pedestrian crossings
should be preceded by a stop line at a distance of 2 to 3m for unsignalized intersections and at a
distance of one meter for signalized intersections. Most commonly used pattern for pedestrian
crossing is Zebra crossing consisting of equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide. A typical
example of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown in figure 29:11.
29.4.3
Directional arrows
In addition to the warning lines on approaching lanes, directional arrows should be used to guide
the drivers in advance over the correct lane to be taken while approaching busy intersections.
Because of the low angle at which the markings are viewed by the drivers, the arrows should
be elongated in the direction of traffic for adequate visibility. The dimensions of these arrows
are also very important. A typical example of a directional arrow is shown in figure 29:12.
29.5
Object marking
Physical obstructions in a carriageway like traffic island or obstructions near carriageway like
signal posts, pier etc. cause serious hazard to the flow of traffic and should be adequately
marked. They may be marked on the objects adjacent to the carriageway.
29.7
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings

1.2 m
1.2 m
0.55 m
3.5m
0.5m
3.5m
1.25m
0.4m
0.2m
0.4m
0.3m
0.3m
Figure 29:12: Directional arrow marking
29.5.1
Objects within the carriageway
The obstructions within the carriageway such as traffic islands, raised medians, etc. may be
marked by not less than five alternate black and yellow stripes. The stripes should slope forward
at an angle of 45 with respect to the direction of traffic. These stripes shall be uniform and
should not be less than 100 m wide so as to provide sufficient visibility.
29.5.2
Objects adjacent to carriageway
Sometimes objects adjacent to the carriageway may pose some obstructions to the flow of traffic.
Objects such as subway piers and abutments, culvert head walls etc. are some examples for
such obstructions. They should be marked with alternate black and white stripes at a forward
angle of 45 with respect to the direction of traffic. Poles close to the carriageway should be
painted in alternate black and white up to a height of 1.25 m above the road level. Other
objects such as guard stones, drums, guard rails etc. where chances of vehicles hitting them are
only when vehicle runs off the carriageway should be painted in solid white. Kerbs of all islands
located in the line of traffic flow shall be painted with either alternating black and white stripes
of 500 mm wide or chequered black and white stripes of same width. The object marking for
central pier and side walls of an underpass is illustrated in figure 29:13.
29.6
Word messages
Information to guide, regulate, or warn the road user may also be conveyed by inscription
of word message on road surface. Characters for word messages are usually capital letters.
29.8
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
Figure 29:13: Marking for objects adjacent to the road way

The legends should be as brief as possible and shall not consist of more than three words for
any message. Word messages require more and important time to read and comprehend than
other road markings. Therefore, only few and important ones are usually adopted. Some of
the examples of word messages are STOP, SLOW, SCHOOL, RIGHT TUN ONLY etc. The
character of a road message is also elongated so that driver looking at the road surface at a low
angle can also read them easily. The dimensioning of a typical alphabet is shown in figure 29:14.
29.6.1
Parking
The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more efficient use of the
parking spaces and tends to prevent encroachment on places like bus stops, fire hydrant zones
etc. where parking is undesirable. Such parking space limitations should be indicated with
markings that are solid white lines 100 mm wide. Words TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS etc. may
also be written if the parking area is specific for any particular type of vehicle. To indicate
parking restriction, kerb or carriage way marking of continuous yellow line 100 mm wide covering
the top of kerb or carriageway close to it may be used.
29.6.2
Hazardous location
Wherever there is a change in the width of the road, or any hazardous location in the road,
the driver should be warned about this situation with the help of suitable road markings.
29.9
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
1250
260
313
78
Figure 29:14: Typical dimension of the character T used in road marking
Figure 29:15: Approach marking for obstructions on the road way

Road markings showing the width transition in the carriageway should be of 100 mm width.
Converging lines shall be 150 mm wide and shall have a taper length of not less than twenty
times the off-set distance. Typical carriageway markings showing transition from wider to
narrower sections and vice-versa is shown in figure 29:15. In the figure, the driver is warned
about the position of the pier through proper road markings.
29.7
Summary
Road markings are aids to control traffic by exercising psychological control over the road
users. They are made use of in delineating the carriage way as well as marking obstructions, to
ensure safe driving. They also assist safe pedestrian crossing. Longitudinal markings which are
provided along the length of the road and its various classifications were discussed. Transverse
markings are provided along the width of the road. Road markings also contain word messages,
29.10
February 19, 2014
29. Road Markings
but since it is time consuming to understand compared to other markings there are only very few
of them. Markings are also used to warn the driver about the hazardous locations ahead. Thus
road markings ensure smooth flow of traffic providing safety also to the road users. The following
web link give further insight in to the road markings: mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/pdfs/200311/pdfindex.htm.
29.8
References

New Delhi, 1987.
29.11
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Chapter 31
Channelization
31.1
Introduction
One of the most effective and efficient methods of controlling the traffic on a highway is the
adoption of high intersection geometric design standards. Channelization is an integral part
of at grade intersections and is used to separate turning movements from through movements
where this is considered advisable and hence helps reduce the intensity and frequency of loss
of life and property due to accidents to a large extent. Proper Channelization increases capacity, improves safety, provides maximum convenience, and instils driver confidence. Improper
Channelization has the opposite effect and may be worse than none at all. Over Channelization
should be avoided because it could create confusion and worsen operations.
31.2
Definitions and Important Terms
1. Channelization - It is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into

definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement marking to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.
2. Conflict - It is defined as the demand for the same highway space by two or more users
of the highway. Conflicts are classified into mainly three types:
(a) Crossing conflicts
(b) Diverging conflicts
(c) Merging conflicts
3. Angle of Intersection - The angle of intersection is that formed by the centerlines
of the intersecting streets. Where the angle of intersection departs significantly (more
than approximately 20o ) from right angles, the intersection is referred to as a skewed
31.1
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Min
or
L eg
Angle of Intersection
Major Leg
Figure 31:1: Angle of Intersection

intersection. Fig. 31:1 shows the angle made between the center lines of the major and
minor legs.
4. Refuge Areas - The area which is used to give refuge to the pedestrians crossing a
street (the open area between two medians) is known as a refuge area.
31.3
Objectives
The use of Channelization is often creative and innovative, providing for vehicle path separation
and distinct and thus in general making traffic flow safer, smoother, simpler and efficient. The
main objectives of Channelization can be summarized as follows:
1. Separation of maneuver areas: The drivers should be presented with only one decision
at a time to reduce confusion and the influence of operations caused due to the overlapping
of maneuver areas.
2. Reduce excessively large paved areas: The spread of the paved area can be considerably reduced by the construction of raised islands and medians where these are considered
safe and necessary.
3. Control of maneuver angle:The intensity of accidents can be reduced to a large extent
by providing small angles for merging, diverging and weaving (at low relative speeds) and
approximately right angles for crossing (at high relative speeds). The maneuver angle
can be easily controlled by constructing islands of appropriate shapes and sizes.
4. Favor predominant turning movements: Channelization is also directed for giving
preference to turning movements at an intersection where the proportion of such traffic
is high.
31.2
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
1
4
2
Figure 31:2: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (a)Intersection with no Channelization

5. Control of speed: Channelization is also used for supporting stop or speed regulations
by removing differentials in speed for merging, diverging, weaving and crossing by using
the bending and funneling techniques.
6. Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles: To shadow slow or
stopped vehicles from other traffic flows.
7. Blockage of prohibited movements: Proper Channelization also helps maintain traffic
regulations by making prohibited movements impossible or inconvenient.
8. Provide space for traffic control devices: To provide space for traffic control devices
when the ideal location for the same is within the intersection area.
9. Segregation of non-homogeneous flows: Channelization provides separate channels
for turning and through, fast and slow, and opposite direction traffic.
10. Protection of pedestrians and reduction of crossing distances between refuses:
Non-traversable and wide medians provide a refuge for pedestrians crossing a street.
Consider for example the T-intersection shown in Figs. 31:2, 31:3, and 31:4. In Fig. 31:2,
the intersection has no special Channelization for helping drivers in avoiding conflicts between
movements. In Fig. 31:3, a passing lane for through vehicles in the eastbound direction and a
westbound right-turn lane has been added, which helps in separating the turning traffic from
the through ones. In Fig. 31:4, the use of lanes is further clarified due to the addition of
channelizing islands.
31.3
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
1
4
2
6
3
Figure 31:3: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (b)Intersection with right-turn and

passing lane
00
11
11
00
00
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00
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00
11
00
11
00
11
00
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00
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11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
00000000000000000000
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00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
Figure 31:4: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (c)Fully channelized intersection
31.4
Design Principles
Design of a channelized intersection usually involves the following significant controls: the type
of design vehicle, the cross sections on the crossroads, the projected traffic volumes in relation
to capacity, the number of pedestrians, the speed of vehicles, and the type and location of
traffic control devices. Furthermore, the physical controls such as right-of-way and terrain have
an effect on the extent of Channelization that is economically feasible.
The degree to which each of these principles applies will depend upon the features mentioned
above. While a principle may be modified in its application to a particular site, disregard of
these may result in a hazardous design. The principles may be summarized as follows:
1. Reduction of the Area of Conflict: The impact area is decreased when Channelization
is provided, and hence the probability of conflicts is also reduced. The figure below further
clarifies the statement. Fig. 31:5 shows the conflict area in a Y-intersection without
Channelization and Fig. 31:6 shows the reduced conflict area in the same intersection
after providing medians.
2. Merging traffic streams at small angles: Merging at small angles permits the flow
of traffic streams with minimum speed differentials. Hence, the gap acceptance time is
31.4
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:5: Conflict area in all paved intersection
Figure 31:6: Conflict area in a channelized intersection
31.5
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000000
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0000000000000
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0000000000000
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000000000
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0000000000000
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000000000
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0000000000000
1111111111111
000000000
111111111
Figure 31:7: Merging of traffic streams

11111111
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00000000
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00000000
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000000000
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000000000
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000000000
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000000000
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000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
Figure 31:8: Bending path of incoming minor street

also small in such cases. The merging of roadways should be done as shown below in
Fig. 31:7.
3. Reduction of the speed of incoming traffic by bending its path: The speed
of vehicles entering into the intersection can be reduced by bending the path to the
intersection approach. However as far as possible the path of the major traffic stream
should not be bent. The above technique is shown below in Fig. 31:8.
4. Reduction of speed of traffic by funneling: The funneling technique can also be
used for reducing the speeds of the incoming vehicles. Due to the decrease in the width
of the lane at the approach, the drivers tend to reduce the speed of their vehicles near
the intersection. Fig. 31:9 shows the funneling technique used for reduction of speed.
5. Protection for turning vehicles/crossing conflicting traffic streams: Provision
of a refuge area between the two opposing streams allows the driver of a crossing vehicle
to select a safe gap in one stream at a time and also provides a safer crossing maneuver.
Fig. 31:10further clarifies the above statement.
6. Discourage prohibited turns by island placement and shape: Undesirable and
prohibited turns can be discouraged by the proper selection of shape and location of the
31.6
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
6m
111111111
000000000
4m
000000000
111111111
000000000
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000000000
111111111
000000000
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000000000
111111111
3.5m
3.5m
6m
4m
Figure 31:9: Reduction of speed by funneling
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
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000000000000000000
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000000000000000000
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111111111111111111
000000000000000000
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000000000000000000
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000000000000000000
111111111111111111
Figure 31:10: Refuge area for protecting crossing or turning traffic
31.7
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
ONE WAY
11111
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11111
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11111
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11111
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11111
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11111
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11111
Figure 31:11: Properly placed islands discourage prohibited movements

111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
1111
0000
0000
1111
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
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0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
Figure 31:12: Location of signal posts on medians at intersections

islands. Fig. 31:11 shows how prohibited turns can be discouraged by proper shaping and
placement of islands.
7. Providing locations of traffic control devices: Channelization may provide locations
for the installation of essential traffic control devices, such as stop and directional signs,
signals etc. Fig. 31:12 shows how channelizing devices can also be used for locating traffic
control devices.
31.5
Channelizing devices
A channelizing device can be defined as any structure which helps in providing Channelization.
These can be wide raised medians, non-traversable road islands, traversable raised curbs or
even flush channelizing devices. A brief description of the various devices which are used for
the purpose of Channelization are given in the following sections.
1. Wide Raised Medians
In this form of channelizing device, a raised wide separator is constructed between the
31.8
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:13: Wide raised median

two opposing lanes and the space on the separator (median) is used either for planting
some trees and/or for providing space for traffic signs etc. Fig. 31:13 shows a typical wide
raised median on a freeway. A median varying between 1.2 m and 30 m in width may
be employed. The higher values of width are adopted on freeways, where sufficient space
is available for the construction of these. In addition, a well-landscaped wide median
will also provide aesthetic benefits to the surrounding neighborhood. A wide median, if
attractively landscaped, is often the most aesthetically pleasing separation method.
2. Non- traversable Raised Islands
In this type of device, a narrower and a higher median than the traversable island is
constructed between the opposing lanes. This class of device has the advantage of a
narrower median, but its use should be restricted to approach roadways with vehicle
speeds of 60 kmph or below. These are generally 15 to 20 cm high and about 60 cm
in width. Due to the height, most of the vehicles are not able to cross the median,
and hence the name. Fig. 31:14 shows a non-traversable raised island constructed on a
roadway. These devices are substantial enough that each installation should be carefully
designed, as an inappropriately placed median can constitute a hazard if struck by an
errant vehicle and hence the severity and crash risk is highly increased on the roadways
having non-traversable raised islands.
3. Traversable Raised Curb Systems
In this device, a narrow and mountable type of raised curb is constructed to separate the
traffic moving in the opposing lanes. This class of channelizing device is the narrowest,
and therefore the easiest to fit in a wide range of roadway cross-section widths. The curb
31.9
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:14: Non-traversable Raised Island (source: [13])
Figure 31:15: Traversable Raised Curb System (without vertical panels)

is up to 10 cm in height and up to about 30 cm in width. Curbs are formed with a
rounded shape that will create minimal vehicle deflection upon impact. Generally, it is
used with reboundable, reflectorized vertical panels to provide a visual deterrent to the
drivers to cross over to opposite traffic lane. The main advantage of this type of device
is that it can be installed on existing roadway centerlines, without the need for widening
the roadway approaches to the crossing. Figs. 31:15 and 31:16 shows traversable raised
curbs with and without vertical panels.
4. Flush Channelization
In this type of Channelization, a variety of treatments, including raising them above
the pavement just slightly (2 to 5 cm); the application of pavement markings and other
types of contrasting surfaces etc are possible. These may also be unpaved where they are
31.10
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:16: Traversable Raised Curb System (with vertical panels)
0
Flash Median
11
Travel lane
5
Bike lane
8.5
Parking
Figure 31:17: Flush island providing Channelization objectives

formed by the pavement edges of existing roadways. In areas where snow plowing may be
necessary, flush islands are the preferred design. Fig. 31:17 below shows how flush islands
can also be used for achieving channelizing objectives. The area seen flushed with the
road surface in Fig. 31:17 is the flush island.
31.6
Traffic Islands
A principle concern in Channelization is the design of the islands. An island is a defined area
between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movements. Within an intersection area, a median
or an outer separation is considered to be an island. It may range from an area delineated by
barrier curbs to a pavement area marked by paint.
31.11
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
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000
000
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000
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Figure 31:18: Channelizing Islands
00
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Figure 31:19: Divisional Islands
31.6.1
Classification of Islands
Traffic islands usually serve more than one function, but may be generally classified in three
separate types:
1. Channelizing Islands - These are designed to control and direct traffic movement,
usually turning. Channelizing islands are are shown in Fig. 31:18.
2. Divisional Islands - These are designed to divide opposing or same direction traffic
streams, usually through movements. Fig. 31:19 shows the placing of divisional islands
in a roadway.
3. Refuge islands - Pedestrian islands are provided to serve as safety zones for the aid
and protection of persons on foot. If a divisional island is located in an urban area where
pedestrians are present, portions of each island can be considered a refuge island. Refuge
islands are shown below I Fig. 31:20. The design aspects of the traffic islands are dealt
in detail in the following sections.
31.12
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:20: Refuge Islands
31.6.2
Design Considerations for Traffic Islands
The necessity for an island should be determined only by careful study, since it is placed in
an area that would otherwise be available for vehicular traffic. The island design should be
carefully planned so that the shape of the island will conform to natural vehicular paths and so
that a raised island will not constitute a hazard in the roadway. A judiciously placed island at
an intersection on a wide street may eliminate the need for traffic signal control by channelizing
traffic into orderly movements. The total design of traffic islands can be studied in three steps:
1. Selection of appropriate island type (barrier, mountable, painted or flush):
The site and traffic conditions in each intersection are different and hence the island type
suitable for each requires separate attention. The traffic island selected may vary from
barrier type islands to flush islands marked on the roadway surface.
2. Determination of shape and size of islands: The shape of the island and its size
in an intersection depends on the geometry and space availability at the same. A proper
shape and size of the island (in case of raised islands) must be selected so that it is able
to both channelized the traffic and not pose any type of hazard.
3. Location relative to adjacent traffic lanes: The islands must be offset from the
roadway by some distance to remove the risk of a vehicle dashing against the same. The
width of offset is maximum at the entry of the island and decreases gradually as one
moves towards the end of it.
31.13
February 19, 2014
31.6.3
31. Channelization
Guidelines for selection of island type
As mentioned earlier, each intersection has a unique geometry and flow values, and hence needs
special attention as far as the use of Channelization devices are concerned. The main factors
affecting the selection of the island type are:
1. Traffic characteristics at the intersection
2. Cost considerations, and
3. Maintenance needs
The raised islands and flush Channelization are dealt with in details in the following sections.
Flush Channelization
Flush Channelization is usually appropriate in the following conditions:
1. On high speed rural highways to separate turning lanes.
2. In constrained locations, i.e. the locations where vehicle path definition is desired but
space for raised islands not available.
3. For separating opposing traffic streams of low speed streets.
4. In areas where frequent removal of snowfall is required, i.e. in places of high snow fall.
5. It can also be used as a temporary Channelization either during construction or to test
traffic operations prior to the actual installation of raised islands.
However, the main demerits of this type of Channelization are :
1. It is not effective in prohibiting or preventing traffic movements.
2. It is also not appropriate for islands intended to serve as pedestrian refuge.
Raised Islands
The locations where the construction of raised islands assumes importance are:
1. The primary function of the channelizing device is shielding pedestrians or to provide
refuge to pedestrians crossing a street.
2. Also, the primary/secondary function is locating traffic signals or other fixed objects.
31.14
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:1: Flush Channelization vs

FLUSH CHANNELIZATION
1. For Right turns
2. To provide temporary or trail Channelization
3. To shadow left turns
RAISED CHANNELIZATION
1. Post signs or signals
2. Provide pedestrian refuse
3. Prevent wrong way movements
Raised Channelization
OPERATING CONDITIONS
High Speeds
Rural highway
Minor urban intersections
OPERATING CONDITIONS
Urban streets
Low speeds
High volumes
3. Intention is to prohibit or prevent certain traffic movements.

4. To separate high volume opposing traffic flows.
5. The raised islands are also particularly important at intersections with unusual geometry
i.e. skewed intersections.
A comparison between the usefulness and the operating conditions of the two types of Channelization is presented in Table. 31:1.
31.6.4
Guidelines for design of Traffic Islands
The main design principles followed for the design of the shape and size and shape of the traffic
island are as follows:
1. Shape and size: Islands are generally either narrow and elongated or triangular in
shape, are normally situated in areas of the roadway outside the planned vehicle paths,
and are shaped and dimensioned as component parts of the street or intersection layout.
The actual size differs as governed by site conditions, but the following minimum size
requirements should be met to insure that the island will be large enough to command
attention.
2. Traffic lanes or turning roadways should appear natural and convenient to their intended
users.
3. Number of islands should be held to a practical minimum to avoid confusion.
4. The islands should be large enough to be effective. Small islands do not serve as channelizing devices and pose maintenance problems.
31.15
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:2: Recommended Island Sizes

Location of Intersection
Size(Sq.meters)
Minimum Desired
Urban
4.65
7
Rural and High Speed urban/Suburban
7
9.3
Oe
Of
R3
Direction of
Traffic
Direction of
Traffic
Oa
Od
R1
R2
Ob
Oe
Direction of Traffic
Figure 31:21: Recommended Offset Dimensions for location of Traffic Islands

5. These should not be introduced at locations with restricted sight distance or middle of
sharp horizontal curves due to sight distance considerations.
Table. 31:2 gives the recommended minimum and desired area values of the traffic islands in
typical urban and rural intersections.
31.6.5
Guidelines for providing offset to the traffic islands from the

road edge
The orientation of islands near intersections is dictated by the alignment of the intersecting
roadways and their associated travel paths. Proper island design must minimize the potential
for vehicle impacts and reduce their severity. This is most often accomplished by offsetting the
approach ends of islands from the edge of travel lane them, tapering them inward. Another
technique that is the use of rounded approach noses that may also be sloped downward on
their approach ends. The general design dimensions of corner islands for roadways in shown
in Fig. 31:21. Another design consideration for islands is their surface finishing. Islands may
be paved or landscaped. Though paved islands are easier to maintain, yet they are typically
not as aesthetically pleasing. The use of colors that have contrast with the pavement surface is
31.16
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Single
Radius
Figure 31:22: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway , (a)Simple Radius
desirable because they allow the island to be more clearly seen by drivers. Normally concrete
islands are paired with asphalt roadways and vice versa. Brick paver are also used in areas
where aesthetics are important. Other concerns include the need to provide adequate slope to
the surface of the island to facilitate drainage and to keep the island free of sight obstructions
and collision. Thus, all landscaping features should be kept below the clear vision envelop and
should not incorporate other fixed hazards.
Curve/taper combinations for turning roadways and islands
The combination of a simple radius flanked by tapers can often fit the pavement edge more
closely to the design motor vehicle than a simple radius (with no tapers). Figs. 31:22, 31:23
and 31:24 shows the various types of curves that can be used for a roadway. The closer fit
can be important for large design motor vehicles where effective pavement width is small (due
either to narrow pavement or need to avoid any encroachment), or where turning speeds greater
than the design speed are desired. Table. 31:3 and Table. 31:4 summarizes design elements
for curve/taper combinations that permit various design motor vehicles to turn, without any
encroachment, from a single approach lane into a single departure lane (Note: W should be
31.17
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Offset
Taper
Single
Radius
Taper
Figure 31:23: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway, (b)Radius and Taper
Island
Larger
Radius
Smaller
Radius
Larger
Radius
Figure 31:24: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway, (c)Turning Roadway
31.18
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:3: Curve and Taper Corner Design Elements

Angle of Turn
Design Vehicle
Radius
Offset
Taper Length
(Degrees)
(meters) (OS meters) (T1 meters)
Passenger Car
7.5
0.6
6
75
Single Unit Truck
13.5
0.6
6
Single Trailer Unit
19.5
0.9
13.5
Passenger Car
6
0.75
7.5
90
Single Unit Truck
12
0.6
6
Single Trailer Unit
18
1.2
18
Passenger Car
6
0.6
120
Single Unit Truck
9
0.9
Single Trailer Unit
13.5
1.2
18
determined using the turning path of the design vehicle) The width of the roadway can be
found out from Table. 31:5 given below.
31.7
Guidelines for design of Median islands
The general guidelines to be followed in the design of median islands (separators of opposing
traffic flows) are:
1. The approach noses should be offset 0.6 to 1.8 m from through lanes to minimize accidental
impacts.
2. Shape should be based on design turning paths and island function. (Generally parabolic
or circular arcs are used)
3. The length of median before the intersection is related to approach speed (normally 3 sec
driving time to intersection). It is also affected by available widths, taper designs and
local constraints.
4. The width of the medians should serve its primary intended function.
5. The median should always be provided well past crest vertical curves.
Fig. 31:25 shows the general design elements of medians provided just at the approach to a
intersection. The required median widths for performing their intended functions are provided
31.19
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:4: Design elements for Turning Roadways

Angle of Turn
Design Vehicle
Radius(meter)
Offset
(Degrees)
R1-R2-R1
(OS meter)
Passenger Car (P)
30-22.5-30
0.6
75
Single Unit Truck (SU)
36-13.5-36
0.6
Semi-Trailer Unit (WB-50)
45-15-45
2
Passenger Car (P)
30-6-30
0.8
90
36-12-36
0.6
54-18-54
2
Passenger Car (P)
30-6-30
0.6
120
30-9-30
0.9
54-12-54
2.6
Table 31:5: Width of roadway required for negotiating the turn for different classes of vehicles
(W)
Radius on
inner edge
of
pavement
in meter
15
22.5
30
45
60
90
One-Lane One Way

Operation (No
provision of passing a
stalled vehicle) in meter
P SU
WB-50
3.9 5.4
7.8
3.9 5.1
6.6
3.9 4.8
6.3
3.6 4.8
5.7
3.6 4.8
5.1
3.6 4.5
5.1
One-Lane One Way

Operation (Having
provision of passing a
stalled vehicle) in meter
P SU
WB-50
6 8.7
13.2
5.7 8.1
10.8
5.7 7.5
10.2
5.4 7.2
8.7
5.4 6.9
8.1
5.4 6.6
7.5
31.20
Two way operation

Either One way or Two
way (Same Type of vehicle
in both lanes) in meter
P
SU
WB-50
7.8 10.5
15
7.5 9.9
12.6
7.5 9.3
12
7.2
9
10.5
7.2 8.7
9.9
7.2 8.4
9.3
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
1 21 Sec.
Travel
time
3 Sec. Travel time(min)

RC at barrier nose or beyond
desirable
Mountable type median

0.6m R
W1
W4
000000000000000000
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0.3m R 111111111
W3
000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
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111111111
000000000000000000
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1111111111111111111111
0000000000000
000000000
000000000
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W5
W5
Offset nose
from
(0.6m min)
W2
0.6m Stub
W2
Barrier type
median
W1 = U ndivided approach width

W2 = Divided approach width
W3 = (W1/2) or 4.2m whichever is larger
W4 = (W3 + W2/2 desirable
W3 = W2 + 0.3m
Figure 31:25: Design Criteria for raised median approaches to intersections

Table 31:6: Basic median functions and their required width
Function
Width in meter
Minimum Desirable
Separation of opposing traffic
1.2
3
Provision of pedestrian refuse
1.8
4.2
Provision of storage for left-turn vehicles
4.8
6
Provision for protection of vehicles crossing
7.5
9
through lanes
Provision for U turns, inside to outside lanes
4.8
6
Provision for U-turns, inside to inside lanes
7.8
9
by AASHTO and are shown in Table. 31:6 below. These widths are empirical and can be
applied at an intersection with reasonable efficiency.
31.7.1
Auxiliary Lanes
Auxiliary lanes are used under conditions of relatively high traffic volumes in the intersections.
In these cases, traffic congestion problems can be significantly alleviated with auxiliary lanes
to handle turning movements. The median lane should be 12 feet (3.6m), but not less than 10
feet (3.0m) wide and should be clearly marked for this purpose.
Auxiliary lanes can also be introduced to provide for both left turns and right turns at intersections. The need for such lanes is determined by capacity analysis and the acceptable level of
service designated for the facility. The lanes should be at least 2.7m wide for reconstruction and
resurfacing projects and at least 3.0m, preferably 3.6m for new construction projects. Auxiliary
31.21
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Departure Taper
Approach Taper
Bay
Taper
Storage
Deceleration Length
Length
Figure 31:26: Components of Auxiliary Lane

lane shoulders can be reduced to 0.6 m wide on rural sections and 0 m wide on sections with
curb and gutter. The length of auxiliary lanes consists of five components:
1. Approach Taper
2. Deceleration Length
3. Bay Taper
4. Storage Length, and
5. Departure Taper.
A typical auxiliary lane with the components are shown in Fig. 31:26 below. These are discussed
in detail in the following section.
1. Approach Taper- The length of the approach taper varies with operating speeds. Guidelines for determining lengths are: (i) For speeds 70 kmph and over: L = 0.6W S, and (ii)
For speeds under 70 kmph: L = W S 2 /100 where, L is the length of entering taper in m,
W is the width to be tapered in m, and S is the operating Speed in kmph.
2. Deceleration Length- The deceleration length is that required for a comfortable stop
of a vehicle from a speed that is typical of the average running speed on the facility.
The Bay Taper can be considered part of the deceleration length. AASHTO has again
given a table for calculating the decelerating length value from the design speed value
(Table. 31:7).
3. Bay Taper - This is a straight line taper with ratios varying from 5:1 to 10:1. Higher
speed facilities should generally have longer tapers. Empirically, the minimum and maximum values of bay taper are taken as 18m and 36m respectively.
31.22
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:7: Deceleration length vs Design Speed

Design Speed Deceleration Length
(kmph)
(m)
40
35
55
45
65
55
70
65
80
95
Table 31:8: Criteria for

Effective Median Width
Less than 3m
3m - 20m
Over 20m
selection of median end shape

Median End Shape
Semi-circular
Bullet Nose
Treated as a separate intersection
4. Storage Length - The storage length should be sufficiently long to store the number of
vehicles likely to accumulate during the average daily peak period.
(a) At unsignalized intersections, length to be based on the number of vehicles likely to
arrive in an average 2-minute period within the peak hour.
(b) At signalized intersections, the required length depends on the signal cycle length,
the signal phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals and departures of left turning
vehicles.
5. Departure Taper - The departure taper is normally taken equal in length to that of
the approach taper and should begin opposite the beginning of the Bay Taper.
31.7.2
Shape of Median Ends
Generally, two types of end shapes are used in practice:-semicircular shapes and bullet nose.
The shape adopted normally depends on the effective median width at the end of the median.
The dimensions of the various parameters for semi-circular and bullet nose ends area as: Semicircular- L = 2 ControlR, R1 = M/2. Bullet-nose- L = ControlR, R1 = M/2, R2 = M/5
The criteria for the selection of median end is as given below in Table. 31:8. The two shapes
31.23
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
nt
ro
R1
Co
(Normal)
M
Lane
Lane
Figure 31:27: Shapes of Median ends, (a)Semi-circular
Lane
R2
R1
R2
R1
R1
R1
Co
R
ntr
ol
Lane
Figure 31:28: Shapes of Median ends, (b)Bullet-nose
31.24
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
intersection
L
Bay Taper
Shoulder Median M
Left turn Lane

5.1
5.1
Parabolic
Parabolic
Flare
Flare
5.1
5.1
Left turn Lane R=Var
Shoulder
Bay Taper
Figure 31:29: Intersection Median Opening

are illustrated in Figs. 31:27 and 31:28. The designer should evaluate each intersection to
determine the best median opening shape that will accommodate the design vehicle.
31.7.3
Design of Median Openings
Median openings, sometimes called crossovers, provide for vehicular crossings of the median at
designated locations. The design of a median opening should be based on traffic volumes and
types of turning vehicles. Cross and turning traffic must operate in conjunction with the through
traffic on the divided highway. This requirement makes it necessary to know the volume and
composition of all movements occurring simultaneously during the design hours. The design
of a median opening becomes a matter of considering what traffic is to be accommodated,
choosing the design vehicle to use for layout controls for each cross and turning movement,
investigating whether larger vehicles can turn without undue encroachment on adjacent lanes
and, finally, checking the intersection for capacity. If the capacity is exceeded by the traffic
load, the design must be expanded, possibly by widening or otherwise adjusting widths for
certain movements. Traffic control devices such as yield signs, stop signs or traffic signals
may be required to regulate the various movements effectively and to improve the efficiency of
operations. Median openings at close intervals on other types of highways create interference
with fast through traffic. Median openings should be spaced at intervals no closer than 500
m. However, if a median opening falls within 100 m of an access opening, it should be placed
opposite the access opening. Also, the length of median opening varies with width of median
and angle of intersecting roads. Fig. 31:29 shows the intersection median opening. The median
openings for the different classes of design vehicle are as given in the Table. 31:9.
31.25
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:9: Median Openings

Width of
Median(m)
1.2
1.8
2.4
3
3.6
4.2
4.8
6
31.8
Passenger Car
Semi - circular Bullet nose
22.8
22.8
22.2
18
21.6
15.9
21
14.1
20.4
12.9
19.2
12
18
12
16.8
12
Single Unit Truck

28.8
28.8
28.2
22.8
27.6
20.4
27
18.6
26.4
17.4
25.8
15.9
25.2
15
24
13.2
Single Trailer Unit

43.8
36.6
43.2
34.5
42.6
33
42
31.5
41.4
30
40.8
28.8
40.2
27.6
39
25.5
Developing a Channelization Plan
1. Channelization is more of an art rather than science. Every intersection requires a special study because of variations in physical dimensions, turning movements, traffic and
pedestrian volumes, type of traffic control etc.
2. In the next step several island configurations are considered and compared. Then a choice
is made between curbed, raised islands and flush Channelization or pavement markings.
3. Next it must be checked that the design is compatible to handle turning movements of
large vehicles. Also, it should be such that the vehicles are guided in normal wheel paths,
so that the island does not create an obstruction in the roadway.
4. Signing and marking are redesigned to guide drivers and avoid confusion.
5. The final plan includes details of civil and electrical engineering features (like drainage
facilities, curbs, lighting, signals etc.) required for the project completion.
31.9
Typical Channelization Examples
Some typical Channelization ways used in practice are as given below. Figs. 31:30 to 31:41
indicate both normal Channelization and high type Channelization techniques for various intersections and situations.
31.26
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
f
111111111
000000000
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Figure 31:30: Channelization for Y Intersections, (a)For low Flows
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0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
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11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
Figure 31:31: Channelization for Y Intersections, (b)For High Flows
b
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NOT RECOMMENDED WITHOUT
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SIGNAL CONTROL
000000000
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Figure 31:32: Channelization for T Intersections, (a)For low Flows

31.27
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
1
0
0
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000000000000
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000000000
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000000000000
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000000000
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000000000000
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000000000
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000000000000
111111111111
000000000
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000000000000
111111111111
000000000
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000000000000
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111111111111
000000000000
000000000000
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000000000000
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000000000000000
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
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000000000000000
111111111111111
Figure 31:33: Channelization for T Intersections, (b)For High Flows
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000
11111
00000000000000000
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00000
11111
00000000000000000
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00000
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00000000000000000
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00000
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00000000000000000
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00000
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00000000000000000
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00000
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00000000000000
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00000000000000000
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c
00000
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00000000000000000
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00000
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00000
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00000
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Figure 31:34: Channelization for T or Y Intersections (Channelized-High Type)
1111
0000
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31.28
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
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Figure 31:38: Channelization for 4-Leg Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

31.29
February 19, 2014
111111
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31. Channelization
00000000000000000
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0
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0
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1
Figure 31:39: Channelization for 4-Leg Intersections (Channelized-High Type)
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Figure 31:40: Channelization for Multi - leg Intersections
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Figure 31:41: Channelization for Multi - leg Intersections
31.30
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:10: Dimensions of some common Design vehicles

Design Vehicle Type
Symbol
Overall Dimension
Height (m) Width (m) Length (m)
Passenger Car
P
1.3
2.1
5.8
Single Unit Truck
SU
4.1
2.6
9.1
Single Unit Bus
BUS
4.1
2.6
12.1
Intermediate Semi-Trailer WB-15
4.1
2.6
16.7
L
B
Single Rear
Wheel for
P Vehicle
F_A
wb_2
Double Rear Axle
Single Rear Axle
wb_1
WB
WB
R_1
Figure 31:42: Design vehicle Dimensions and Turning Properties
31.10
Turning Vehicle Templates
In the design of intersections the turning paths of vehicles assumes utmost importance. The
turning paths of design vehicles are given in transparent templates such as the one shown in
Fig. 31:17 and Fig. 31:18. These templates are placed over the intersection plan to trace the
path of the turning vehicle. Once this is done, proper islands and other traffic control devices
can be designed. As per AASHTO, the turning templates are drawn at an approximate scale of
1=50. The radius of the template is measured to the outside front wheel path at the beginning
of the curve. The design vehicle for the purpose can be taken out of a list of 16 different types
of vehicles suggested by AASHTO. The dimensions of some of the design vehicles are given in
Table. 31:10 below. The templates are applied to the layout of intersections and other facilities
in accommodating vehicle maneuvers, including driveways, car parking, truck loading and bus
terminals. Here we shall take the cases of a passenger car (P) and a single unit truck (BUS) as
the design vehicles. The various design elements and their dimensions are shown in Fig. 31:42
and Table. 31:11 respectively. The templates were developed to include a variety of angles,
with specific configurations for every 30 degrees of turn (30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180). By
special manipulation of the template, any degree of turning can be produced within an overall
range of 20 to 200 degrees. The four variables-vehicle type, turning radius, angle of turn and
scale-provide full flexibility in the use of turning vehicle templates for layout and design. To
permit greater latitude in maneuvering of buses, single unit trucks and passenger cars, special
bar tenders are included, consisting of turning radii in the range of 13 to 50 meters for the
31.31
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:11: Design vehicle Dimensions and Turning Properties for 90o turns
Vehicle
WB
Minimum Turn
Designation
L(m) (m) A(m) B(m) W(m) U(m) U** (m) FA RT
(m)
(m) (m)
BUS
12.1 7.5
2
2.5
2.6
2.6
4.98
1.25 13
Passenger Car (P) 5.8
3.4
0.9
15
2.1
1.8
2.61
0.6 7.5
Table 31:12: List of Templates

Vehicle Type Scales Turning Radius-m Average Size-cm
1:250
R= 13 & 18
20 25
BUS
1:500
R= 13 & 18
18 18
1:250
R=13 to 50
20 25
Bar Template
1:250
R=7.5
18 18
Passenger car 1:250
R=7.5 to 30
18 18
Bar template
first two and 5.5 to 30 meters for the last type of vehicles which are outside the scope of this
discussion. The list of templates for bus and passenger cars is shown in the Table. 31:12. The
templates for the Passenger Car (P) and Bus are as shown in Fig. 31:43, 31:44 below.
31.32
February 19, 2014
1.8
Passenger Car("P")
31. Channelization
30 o

o
60
90o
120 o
150
180o
Figure 31:43: Design Template for Passenger Car (P)

Numerical example 1
Provide Channelization for an intersection having EW as the major road. The major and minor
roads intersect at right angles. The design vehicle is WB-50 (R=25m) and design speed is 45
kmph. The intersection is unsignalized. EW road has 2 lanes in each direction and NS has
1 lane for each direction. Take lane width =3.6 m. Provide bullet nose median ends. Also
provide channelizing island for free right for WS bound traffic.
Solution : The approach taper for auxiliary lane is equal to 3.6 45 45/100 = 73 m. The
deceleration Taper is taken as 40 m. Considering a 1:10 taper, the Bay Taper is found out
to be 18 m. Let the storage length = 30 m (say). Now from Table. 31:9, it is found that for
bullet nose median end, Median Opening = 30 m. The dimensions of all the components of
the auxiliary lane are shown in Fig. 31:45. The width required for the WB- 50 semi-trailer
unit is found to be about 6.5 m. Additional 0.5 m is provided on the outer side and 0.3 m is
provided on the inner side away from the edge of the island. For the turning roadway for the
W-S direction, the single offset method is used. At 0.3 + 0.5 + 6.5 = 7.3 m from the island
edge, a circle of radius 25 m is laid out. Then two tapers of slope 1:15 is laid out on either side
of the arc to join with the straight edge on either side. Thus the Channelization is provided for
the W-S approach. Similar method can be used for designing the Channelization schemes of
the other directions as well. The Channelization for the W-S approach is shown in Fig. 31:46.
31.33
February 19, 2014
Bus
30 o
31. Channelization
60
90o
120 o
150
180o
Figure 31:44: Design Template for Bus

30 m
73 m
73 m
18 m
30 m
40 m
Figure 31:45: Dimensions of components of the auxiliary lane for the intersection
73 m
1:15
R=25m
1:15
Figure 31:46: Channelization for the W-S direction with traffic island
31.34
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
WYE INTERSECTION
Figure 31:47: Wye Intersection

Numerical example 2
Following the principles of Channelization suggest suitable island schemes for the following
intersections (considering both high relative speed and low relative speed) (Figs. 31:47, 31:48)
Solution
1. Y Intersection (Figs. 31:49, 31:50 and 31:51)
2. Skewed intersection (Figs. 31:52, 31:53 and 31:54)
31.11
Summary
This chapter presents one of the simple and cost effective way of intersection control, namely
the Channelization. This is normally adopted for low and medium volume roads. The chapter
contains the design principles, traffic islands, and median.
31.12
References
1. Transportation research board channelization-the design of highway intersections at grade,

1962.
2. Mass highway, 2006- intersections, 2006.
31.35
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
SKEWED CROSS ROAD
Figure 31:48: Skewed Cross Road
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Figure 31:49: (a) Y - Intersection
31.36
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
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Figure 31:50: (b) Y - Intersection
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Figure 31:51: (c) Y - Intersection
31.37
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
JO
MA
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OW
FL
Figure 31:52: (a) Skewed Intersection
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Figure 31:53: (b) Skewed Intersection
31.38
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
FL
O
W
JO
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Figure 31:54: (c) Skewed Intersection

3. 2011.
4. Channelization, 2011.
5. Highway design manual, 2000- pedestrian facility design, 2011.
6. Road design manual, 2011.
7. Roosevelt street - neighborhood traffic management plan, 2011.
8. Streetsblog, 2011.
9. Us department of transportation federal highway administration- guidance on the use of
traffic channelizing devices at highway-rail grade crossings, 2011.
10. Us department of transportation federal highway administration- innovative intersection
safety improvement strategies and management practices:a domestic scan, 2011.
11. Us department of transportation federal highway administration-safety benefits of raised
medians and pedestrian refuge areas, 2011.
12. S K Khanna C E G Justo. Highway Engineering. Nem Chand and Bros, Roorkee, 2001.
13. T R Neuman. Intersection channelization design guide. Transportation Research Board.
TRB NCHRP R 279, Washington, D.C., 1985.
31.39
February 19, 2014
31. Channelization
14. R J Paquette, N Ashford, and P H Wright. Transportation Engineering : Planning and

Design. John Wiley, New York, 1972.
15. R P Roess, S E Prassas, and W R McShane. Traffic Engineering. Pearson Education
International, 2005.
16. S Wolfgang, Homburger, and James H Kell. Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering 12th
Edition. San Francisco, 1997.
31.40
February 19, 2014
33. Grade Separated Intersection
Chapter 33
Grade Separated Intersection
33.1
Overview
An intersection is the area shared by the joining or crossing of two or more roads. Since the
main function of an intersection is to enable the road user to make a route choice, it is a point
of decision. Hence the problems that are encountered by the motorist while passing through an
intersection must be recognized and the design should be in such a way that the driving task
is as simple as possible.
Intersection is also a point of large number of major conflicts, besides a point of decision.
These conflicts may be due to the crossing maneuvers of vehicles moving in different directions.
Good intersection design results from a minimization of the magnitude and characteristics of
the conflicts and a simplification of driver route selection process.
33.2
Classification of Intersection
Intersections are classified depending upon the treatment of crossing conflicts as follows (i) At
Grade Intersection and (ii) Grade Separated Intersection.
33.2.1
Grade Separated Intersection
It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at intersections by vertical separation of roadways

in space. Grade separated intersection are otherwise known as Interchanges. Grade separated
intersections cause less hazard and delay than grade intersections. Route transfer at grade
separations is accommodated by interchange facilities consisting of ramps. Interchange ramps
are classified as Direct, Semi-Direct and Indirect. Interchanges are described by the patterns
of the various turning roadways or ramps. The interchange configurations are designed in such
a way to accommodate economically the traffic requirements of flow, operation on the crossing
33.1
February 19, 2014
facilities, physical requirements of the topography, adjoining land use, type of controls, rightof-way and direction of movements.
The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections is to eliminate all grade crossing
conflicts and to accommodate other intersecting maneuvers by merging, diverging and weaving
at low relative speed. The relative speed of the conflicting vehicle streams is an important
factor affecting the significance of a conflict. The benefit of providing for low relative speed is
twofold. First, events unfold more slowly allowing more judgement time and second, in case of
an impact the total relative energy to be absorbed are less and hence, the damage is less. In
addition, when relative speed is low, the average motorist will accept a smaller time gap space
between successive vehicles to complete his move. This condition increases roadway capacity.
33.2.2
Classification of Grade Separated Intersection
One of the distinctions made in type of interchange is between the directional and the non
directional interchange. Directional interchanges are those having ramps that tend to follow
the natural direction of movement. Non directional interchanges require a change in the natural
path of traffic flow. A comprehensive classification plan for grade separated intersection design
which includes all possible geometric patterns has not yet been developed. The design and
operational characteristics of each of the major interchange types are mentioned as follows and
are discussed in the following sections.
1. Underpass
2. Overpass
3. Trumpet Interchange
4. Diamond Interchange
5. Cloverleaf Interchange
6. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
7. Directional Interchange
8. Bridged Rotary
33.2
February 19, 2014
Underpass
An underpass or a tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for ingress and egress, commonly at each end. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road
traffic, for rail traffic. If an underpass is constructed for pedestrians and/or cyclists beneath
a road or railway, allowing them to reach the other side in safety, then such a construction
is termed as a Subway. These are constructed when it is necessary for pedestrians to cross a
railroad or a limited-access highway. Subways may also be constructed for the benefit of wildlife
Overpass
An overpass also known as a flyover, is a bridge, road, railway or similar structure that crosses
over another road or railway. A pedestrian overpass allows pedestrians safe crossing over busy
roads without impacting traffic. And Railway overpasses are used to replace at-grade crossing
as a safer alternative. Overpasses allows for unobstructed rail traffic flow from mixing with
vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Stack interchanges are made up of many overpasses.
Trumpet Interchange
Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway terminates at another highway. These
involve at least one loop ramp connecting traffic either entering or leaving the terminating
expressway with the far lanes of the continuous highway. These interchanges are useful for
highways as well as toll roads, as they concentrate all entering and exiting traffic into a single
stretch of roadway, where toll booths can be installed. Trumpets are suitable at the locations
where the side road exists on only one side of the freeway, and traffic is relatively low. Each
entrance and exit consists of acceleration or deceleration lanes at each end. It requires only one
bridge and is the most traditional way of grade separating a three way junction. The principal
advantages are low construction cost and are useful for highways as well as toll roads. But
33.3
February 19, 2014
the limitations in employing trumpet interchanges are it leaves a redundant patch of the land
within the loop, Disorienting to navigate for those driving in the direction that uses the loop.
Moreover scaling down the interchange often results in a more dangerous suffers congestion
from articulated lorries that have tipped over.
Diamond Interchange
The diamond Interchange is the simplest form of grade separated intersection between two roadways. The conflicts between through and crossing traffic are eliminated by a bridge structure.
This particular intersection has four one way ramps which are essentially parallel to the major
artery. The left turn crossing movement conflicts are considerably reduced by eliminating the
conflict with the traffic in opposite direction. All the remaining left turn conflicts, merging
and diverging maneuver conflicts take place at the terminal point of each ramp. Limitation in
application of this design depends on the operations of these terminals. So, it is suitable for
locations where the volume of left turn traffic is relatively low.
The diamond interchange requires a minimum amount of land and is economical to construct. Also,a diamond interchange generally requires less out-of-the-way travel and vehicle
operating costs are less than those on most other types of interchanges. The single point of exit
from the major roadway eases the problem of signing. This type of interchange requires the
33.4
February 19, 2014
least of right-of-way. With these advantages, the diamonds appear to be the ideal solution to
an intersection problem. But there might be chances of occurrence of conflicts at the locations
where ramps meet the grade separated cross street are to be considered foe high ramp volumes.
Improper design of signal timings at cross streets may result in the inadequacy of capacity for
certain flows.
Cloverleaf Interchange
The full clover interchange eliminates all crossing movement conflicts by the use of weaving
sections. This weaving section is a critical element of cloverleaf design. It replaces a crossing
conflict with a merging, followed some distance farther by a diverging conflict. There are two
points of entry and exit on each through roadway. The first exit is provided before the cross
road structure allows right turn movements. The second exit, immediately after the cross road
structure, allows for left turn movements. A weaving section is created between the exit and
entry points near the structure. Sufficient length and capacity is to be provided to allow for a
smooth merging and diverging operation.
Cloverleaf design requires only one bridge. In this respect, it is the cheapest form providing
for elimination of all crossing maneuvers at grade. Although full cloverleaf interchanges eliminate the undesirable crossing movements of diamond interchanges, they have the disadvantages
of greater travel distances, higher operating costs, difficult merging sections, circuity of travel,
large areas for loops, sight distances to exits at the other side of the bridge, confusion caused by
turning right to go left and large rights-of-way occasioned by the radius requirements necessary
for satisfactory speeds on the ramps.
A variation of the cloverleaf configuration is the cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads.
With the collector-distributor roadway, main roadway operations are much the same as in
diamond interchange. For each direction of travel, there is a single point for exits and a single
point for entrances. Speed change, detailed exit directional signing and the storage and weaving
33.5
February 19, 2014
problems associated with a cloverleaf are transferred to the collector-distributor road, which
can be designed to accommodate greater relative speed differences or encourage smaller ones.
Although this configuration improves the operational characteristics of a cloverleaf interchange,
the disadvantages of greater travel distances and the requirement of extra right-of-way are still
present. The use of a cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads is appropriate at junctions
between a freeway and an expressway where a diamond interchange would not adequately
serve traffic demand.
Collector Distributor Roads
Major Highway
Cross Street
Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

This is another variation of the cloverleaf configuration. Partial clover leaf or parclo is a
modification that combines some elements of a diamond interchange with one or more loops of a
cloverleaf to eliminate only the more critical turning conflicts. This is the most popular freeway
-to- arterial interchange. Parclo is usually employed when crossing roads on the secondary road
will not produce objectionable amounts of hazard and delay. It provides more acceleration and
deceleration space on the freeway.
33.6
February 19, 2014
Directional Interchange
A Directional interchange provides direct paths for left turns. These interchanges contain ramps
for one or more direct or semi direct left turning movements. Interchanges of two freeways or
interchanges with one or more very heavy turning movements usually warrant direct ramps,
which have higher speeds of operation and higher capacities, compared to loop ramps. Some
designers do not favor entrance of merging traffic in the left lane, which is a characteristic of
most direct-connection bridges. The principal limitations of this type of interchange is higher
cost of construction and requirement relatively large amount of land when compared to the
diamond interchanges and in some cases than cloverleaf interchange. Various combinations of
directional, semi directional and loop ramps may be appropriate for certain conditions. They
are the basic patterns that use the least space, have the fewest or least complex structures,
minimize internal weaving and appropriate for the common terrain and traffic conditions.
33.2.3
Design Components
Acceleration Lane
An acceleration lane is defined as extra pavement, of constant or variable width, placed parallel
or nearly so, to a merging maneuver area to encourage merging at low relative speed. The
major difference in opinion concerning acceleration design stems from lack of information on
driver performance. Field observations have indicated that drivers desire to follow the direct
path even though extra width or tapered section is provided. The length of acceleration lanes
are determined by two factors: (1) Time required for drivers to accelerate to the speed of the
preferential flow from the speed of entry into the acceleration lane and (2) Maneuvering time
required as a supplement to the sight distance which is provided in advance of the acceleration lane. Taper distances are based upon a lateral transition time of about 1/3 sec/ft of
displacement.
33.7
February 19, 2014
PREFERENTIAL FLOW
TAPER
FULL WIDTH LANE
MINOR FLOW
ENTRANCE CURVE
L
END OF SPEED
RESTRICTING CURVE
FORM A DESIGN
PREFERENTIAL FLOW
MINOR FLOW
ENTRANCE CURVE
POINT WHERE MERGING

VEHICLES ENCROACHES
UPON THROUGH TRAFFIC LANE
L
BEGINNING OF TAPER,
END OF SPEED
RESTRICTING CURVE
INLET NOSE
FORM B DESIGN
Figure 33:1: Different forms of Acceleration lanes
ENTRANCE
ACCELERATION LANE
Wearing length
Shoulder
Convergence
450.00
300.00
157.11
Figure 33:2: details of length of acceleration lane

Deceleration Lanes
Deceleration lanes are defined as extra pavement of constant or variable width, placed parallel
or nearly so, to a diverging maneuver area to encourage diverging at low relative speed. The
lengths of deceleration lanes are based on the difference in the speed of traffic of the combined
flow (in advance of the collision area) and the speed at which drivers negotiate the critical
diverging channel curve, as well as the deceleration practices of drivers. These deceleration
lane lengths are based on the assumed performance of passenger vehicles only. Extra allowance
must be made for grades and for trucks with different deceleration characteristics. In the figure
33.8
February 19, 2014
below, Form A design is more economical when large speed differentials are to be overcome.
Form B could be advantageous by contrasting pavement colors and Form C design is more
convenient for drivers when small speed differentials are to be eliminated.
BEGINNING
OF TAPER
TAPER
FULL WIDTH LANE
FORM A
L = FULL WIDTH LANE
BEGINNING OF SPEED
RESTRICTING EXIT
CURVE
BEGINNING OF SPEED
RESTRICTING EXIT
CURVE
FORM B
BEGINNING
OF TAPER
BEGINNING OF SPEED
RESTRICTING EXIT
CURVE
SE
L
POINT WHERE VEHICLE IN DIVERGING
FLOW HAS "CLEARED" THE THROUGH
FORM C
TRAFFIC LANE
EXIT NO
Figure 33:3: Different forms of Deceleration lanes
weaving length
Shoulder
Shoulder
270
141.38
Figure 33:4: details of length of deceleration lane
33.3
Grade separated intersections
As we discussed earlier, grade-separated intersections are provided to separate the traffic in

the vertical grade. But the traffic need not be those pertaining to road only. When a railway
33.9
February 19, 2014
Figure 33:5: Trumpet interchange

line crosses a road, then also grade separators are used. Different types of grade-separators are
flyovers and interchange. Flyovers itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass. When
two roads cross at a point, if the road having major traffic is elevated to a higher grade for
further movement of traffic, then such structures are called overpass. Otherwise, if the major
road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means of an under bridge or tunnel, it is
called under-pass.
Interchange is a system where traffic between two or more roadways flows at different levels
in the grade separated junctions. Common types of interchange include trumpet interchange,
diamond interchange , and cloverleaf interchange.
1. Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange.
If one of the legs of the interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross
it, then the interchange is called trumpet interchange. A typical layout of trumpet interchange is shown in figure 33:5.
2. Diamond interchange: Diamond interchange is a popular form of four-leg interchange
found in the urban locations where major and minor roads crosses. The important feature
of this interchange is that it can be designed even if the major road is relatively narrow.
A typical layout of diamond interchange is shown in figure 33:6.
3. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways
of high volume and speed intersect each other with considerable turning movements. The
main advantage of cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of traffic.
In addition, high speed at intersections can be achieved. However, the disadvantage is
33.10
February 19, 2014
Figure 33:6: Diamond interchange

that large area of land is required. Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly
in rural areas. A typical layout of this type of interchange is shown in figure 33:7.
33.4
Summary
Traffic intersections are problem spots on any highway, which contribute to a large share of
accidents. For safe operation, these locations should be kept under some level of control depending upon the traffic quantity and behavior. Based on this, intersections and interchanges
are constructed, the different types of which were discussed in the chapter.
33.5
References
1. A policy on geometric design of rural highways, 2019.

2. Everett C Carter and Wolfgang S Homburger. Introduction to Transportation Engineering. Reston Publishers, Virginia, 2019.
New Delhi, 1987.
33.11
February 19, 2014
11
1 00
0
00
1 11
0
00
11
00
11
0
1
1
0
1
0
11
00
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
0
1
0
01
1
0
01
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1 0
0
10
1 0
0
1
11
00
11
00
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
00
11
11
00
11
00
0
1
0
1
01
1
00
1
0
1
1
0
01
1
00
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
11
00
00
11
11
00
00
11
00 1
11
1
0 0
1
0 0
1
Figure 33:7: Cloverleaf interchange

4. Theodore M Matson, Wilbure S smith, and Fredric W Hurd. Traffic engineering, 1955.
33.12
February 19, 2014
34. Design Priciples of Traffic Signal
Chapter 34
Design Priciples of Traffic Signal
34.1
Overview
Traffic signals are one of the most effective and flexible active control of traffic and is widely
used in several cities world wide. The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in different
directions is addressed by time sharing principle. The advantages of traffic signal includes an
orderly movement of traffic, an increased capacity of the intersection and requires only simple
geometric design. However, the disadvantages of the signalized intersection are large stopped
delays, and complexity in the design and implementation. Although the overall delay may be
lesser than a rotary for a high volume, a user may experience relatively high stopped delay.
This chapter discuss various design principles of traffic signal such as phase design, cycle length
design, and green splitting. The concept of saturation flow, capacity, and lost times are also
presented. First, some definitions and notations are given followed by various steps in design
starting from phase design.
34.2
Definitions and notations
A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are
discussed below:
Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one
full cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green for
one approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow
time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
34.1
February 19, 2014
Clearance interval is also called all red and is provided after each yellow interval indicating
a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off the vehicles in
the intersection.
Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
and is denoted by Gi . This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned
on.
Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Ri . This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow
it. Thus, during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase.
It allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another
set of movements start.
Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized
for any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to
green, the driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time
to perceive the signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost before
vehicle actually moves and gains speed.
34.3
Phase design
The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include: (1) phase design, (2) determination of amber time and clearance time, (3) determination of cycle length, (4) apportioning
of green time, (5) pedestrian crossing requirements, and (6) performance evaluation of the design obtained in the previous steps. The objective of phase design is to separate the conflicting
movements in an intersection into various phases, so that movements in a phase should have
no conflicts. If all the movements are to be separated with no conflicts, then a large number
of phases are required. In such a situation, the objective is to design phases with minimum
conflicts or with less severe conflicts.
There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided by the
geometry of the intersection, the flow pattern especially the turning movements, and the relative
magnitudes of flow. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted. However, phase
design is very important because it affects the further design steps. Further, it is easier to
change the cycle time and green time when flow pattern changes, where as a drastic change in
34.2
February 19, 2014

1
5
8
7
6
Figure 34:1: Four legged intersection

8
2
6
3
4
Phase 1 ( P1)
Phase 1 ( P2)
Figure 34:2: Movements in two phase signal system

the flow pattern may cause considerable confusion to the drivers. To illustrate various phase
plan options, consider a four legged intersection with through traffic and right turns. Left turn
is ignored. See Figure 34:1. The first issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is
possible to have two, three, four or even more number of phases.
34.3.1
Two phase signals
Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is significant compared to the turning
movements. For example in Figure 34:2, non-conflicting through traffic 3 and 4 are grouped
in a single phase and non-conflicting through traffic 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase.
However, in the first phase flow 7 and 8 offer some conflicts and are called permitted right turns.
Needless to say that such phasing is possible only if the turning movements are relatively low.
On the other hand, if the turning movements are significant, then a four phase system is usually
34.3
February 19, 2014

8
P2
P1
7
5
P3
P4
1
Figure 34:3: Movements in four phase signal system: option 1

adopted.
34.3.2
Four phase signals
There are at least three possible phasing options. For example, figure 34:3 shows the most simple
and trivial phase plan. where, flow from each approach is put into a single phase avoiding all
conflicts. This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning movements
are comparable with through movements and when through traffic and turning traffic need
to share same lane. This phase plan could be very inefficient when turning movements are
relatively low.
Figure 34:4 shows a second possible phase plan option where opposing through traffic are
put into same phase. The non-conflicting right turn flows 7 and 8 are grouped into a third
phase. Similarly flows 5 and 6 are grouped into fourth phase. This type of phasing is very
efficient when the intersection geometry permits to have at least one lane for each movement,
and the through traffic volume is significantly high. Figure 34:5 shows yet another phase plan.
However, this is rarely used in practice.
There are five phase signals, six phase signals etc. They are normally provided if the
intersection control is adaptive, that is, the signal phases and timing adapt to the real time
traffic conditions.
34.4
February 19, 2014
3
4
P2
P1
1
8
P4
P3
7
P1
P2
2 8
P4
P3
7 1
34.5
February 19, 2014
Headway
Figure 34:6: Group of vehicles at a signalized intersection waiting for green signal
e1
h1
e2
e3
h
Vehicles in queue
Figure 34:7: Headways departing signal
34.4
Cycle time
Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations. i.e. one
complete rotation through all signal indications. It is denoted by C. The way in which the
vehicles depart from an intersection when the green signal is initiated will be discussed now.
Figure 34:6 illustrates a group of N vehicles at a signalized intersection, waiting for the green
signal. As the signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway,
crossing the curb line is noted. The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of
the green signal and the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time
interval between the first and the second vehicle crossing the curb line. Successive headways
are then plotted as in figure 34:7. The first headway will be relatively longer since it includes
the reaction time of the driver and the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway
will be comparatively lower because the second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with
that of the first drivers. After few vehicles, the headway will become constant. This constant
headway which characterizes all headways beginning with the fourth or fifth vehicle, is defined
34.6
February 19, 2014
as the saturation headway, and is denoted as h. This is the headway that can be achieved by a
stable moving platoon of vehicles passing through a green indication. If every vehicles require
h seconds of green time, and if the signal were always green, then s vehicles per hour would
pass the intersection. Therefore,
3600
s=
(34.1)
h
where s is the saturation flow rate in vehicles per hour of green time per lane, h is the saturation
headway in seconds. As noted earlier, the headway will be more than h particularly for the
first few vehicles. The difference between the actual headway and h for the ith vehicle and is
denoted as ei shown in figure 34:7. These differences for the first few vehicles can be added to
get start up lost time, l1 which is given by,
l1 =
n
X
ei
(34.2)
i=1
The green time required to clear N vehicles can be found out as,
T = l1 + h.N
(34.3)
where T is the time required to clear N vehicles through signal, l1 is the start-up lost time, and
h is the saturation headway in seconds.
34.4.1
Effective green time
Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It is
the sum of actual green time (Gi ) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. This lost
time is the sum of start-up lost time (l1 ) and clearance lost time (l2 ) denoted as tL . Thus
effective green time can be written as,
gi = Gi + Yi tL
34.4.2
(34.4)
Lane capacity
The ratio of effective green time to the cycle length ( gCi )is defined as green ratio. We know
that saturation flow rate is the number of vehicles that can be moved in one lane in one hour
assuming the signal to be green always. Then the capacity of a lane can be computed as,
ci = si
gi
C
(34.5)
where ci is the capacity of lane in vehicle per hour, si is the saturation flow rate in vehicle per
hour per lane, C is the cycle time in seconds.
34.7
February 19, 2014
Numerical example
Let the cycle time of an intersection is 60 seconds, the green time for a phase is 27 seconds,
and the corresponding yellow time is 4 seconds. If the saturation headway is 2.4 seconds per
vehicle, the start-up lost time is 2 seconds per phase, and the clearance lost time is 1 second
per phase, find the capacity of the movement per lane?
Solution Total lost time, tL = 2+1 = 3 seconds. From equation 34.4 effective green time, gi
= 3600
= 1500 veh
= 27+4-3 = 28 seconds. From equation 34.1 saturation flow rate, si = 3600
h
2.4
=
per hr. Capacity of the given phase can be found out from equation 34.5 as Ci = 1500 28
60
700 veh per hr per lane.
34.4.3
Critical lane
During any green signal phase, several lanes on one or more approaches are permitted to move.
One of these will have the most intense traffic. Thus it requires more time than any other lane
moving at the same time. If sufficient time is allocated for this lane, then all other lanes will
also be well accommodated. There will be one and only one critical lane in each signal phase.
The volume of this critical lane is called critical lane volume.
34.5
Determination of cycle length
The cycle length or cycle time is the time taken for complete indication of signals in a cycle.
Fixing the cycle length is one of the crucial steps involved in signal design.
If tLi is the start-up lost time for a phase i, then the total start-up lost time per cycle,
P
L= N
i=1 tLi , where N is the number of phases. If start-up lost time is same for all phases,
then the total start-up lost time is L = NtL . If C is the cycle length in seconds, then the
. The total lost time per hour is the number of cycles per hour
number of cycles per hour = 3600
C
L. Substituting as L = NtL , total lost time per hour
times the lost time per cycle and is = 3600
C
3600 N tl
can be written as =
. The total effective green time Tg available for the movement in
C
a hour will be one hour minus the total lost time in an hour. Therefore,
3600 N tL
Tg = 3600
C

N tL
= 3600 1
C
34.8
February 19, 2014
Let the total number of critical lane volume that can be accommodated per hour is given by Vc ,
then Vc = Thg . Substituting for Tg from equation 34.9 and si from equation 34.1 in the expression
for the the maximum sum of critical lane volumes that can be accommodated within the hour
and by rewriting, the expression for C can be obtained as follows:
Tg
,
h

3600
N tL
=
1
,
h
C

N tL
= si 1
,
C
N tL
.
C =
1 Vsc
Vc =
The above equation is based on the assumption that there will be uniform flow of traffic in an
hour. To account for the variation of volume in an hour, a factor called peak hour factor, (PHF)
which is the ratio of hourly volume to the maximum flow rate, is introduced. Another ratio
called v/c ratio indicating the quality of service is also included in the equation. Incorporating
these two factors in the equation for cycle length, the final expression will be,
C=
N tL
1
Vc
si P HF vc
(34.6)
Highway capacity manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle length which
is a slight modification of the above equation. Accordingly, cycle time C is given by,
C=
N L XC
P Vci
XC
si
(34.7)

V
where N is the number of phases, L is the lost time per phase, scii is the ratio of critical
volume to saturation flow for phase i, XC is the quality factor called critical vc ratio where v is
the volume and c is the capacity.
Numerical example
The traffic flow in an intersection is shown in the figure 34:8. Given start-up lost time is 3
seconds, saturation head way is 2.3 seconds, compute the cycle length for that intersection.
Assume a two-phase signal.
34.9
February 19, 2014
1150
1300
1800
900
Figure 34:8: Traffic flow in the intersection
900
1800
1300
1150
Figure 34:9: One way of providing phases
Solution
1. If we assign two phases as shown below figure 34:9, then the critical volume for the first
phase which is the maximum of the flows in that phase = 1150 vph. Similarly critical
volume for the second phase = 1800 vph. Therefore, total critical volume for the two
signal phases = 1150+1800 = 2950 vph.
2. Saturation flow rate for the intersection can be found out from the equation as si = 3600
2.3
= 1565.2 vph. This means, that the intersection can handle only 1565.2 vph. However,
the critical volume is 2950 vph . Hence the critical lane volume should be reduced and
one simple option is to split the major traffic into two lanes. So the resulting phase plan
is as shown in figure 34:10.
3. Here we are dividing the lanes in East-West direction into two, the critical volume in the
first phase is 1150 vph and in the second phase it is 900 vph. The total critical volume
for the signal phases is 2050 vph which is again greater than the saturation flow rate and
hence we have to again reduce the critical lane volumes.
34.10
February 19, 2014
1300/2
1300/2
1800/2
1800/2
1150
Figure 34:10: second way of providing phases
1800/3
1800/3
1800/3
1150/2 1150/2
Figure 34:11: Third way of providing phases
4. Assigning three lanes in East-West direction, as shown in figure 34:11, the critical volume
in the first phase is 575 vph and that of the second phase is 600 vph, so that the total
critical lane volume = 575+600 = 1175 vph which is lesser than 1565.2 vph.
5. Now the cycle time for the signal phases can be computed from equation 34.6 as:
C=
34.6
23
1175 = 24 seconds.
1 1565.2
Green splitting
Green splitting or apportioning of green time is the proportioning of effective green time in
each of the signal phase. The green splitting is given by,
"
#
Vc i
gi = PN
tg
(34.8)
i=1 Vci
where Vci is the critical lane volume and tg is the total effective green time available in a cycle.
This will be cycle time minus the total lost time for all the phases. Therefore,
tg = C N tL
(34.9)
where C is the cycle time in seconds, n is the number of phases, and tL is the lost time per
phase. If lost time is different for different phases, then effective green time can be computed
34.11
February 19, 2014
500
1000
900
600
Figure 34:12: Phase diagram for an intersection
as follows:
tg = C
N
X
(34.10)
tLi
i=1
where tLi is the lost time for phase i, N is the number of phases and C is the cycle time in
seconds. Actual green time can be now found out as,
Gi = gi yi + tLi
(34.11)
where Gi is the actual green time, gi is the effective green time available, yi is the amber time,
and Li is the lost time for phase i.
Numerical example
The phase diagram with flow values of an intersection with two phases is shown in figure 34:12.
The lost time and yellow time for the first phase is 2.5 and 3 seconds respectively. For the
second phase the lost time and yellow time are 3.5 and 4 seconds respectively. If the cycle time
is 120 seconds, find the green time allocated for the two phases.
Solution
1. Critical lane volume for the first phase, VC1 = 1000 vph.
2. Critical lane volume for the second phase, VC2 = 600 vph.
3. Total critical lane volumes, VC = VC1 + VC2 = 1000+600 = 1600 vph.
4. Effective green time can be found out from equation 34.9 as Tg =120-(2.5-3.5)= 114 seconds.
5. Green time for the first phase, g1 can be found out from equation 34.8 as g1 =
= 71.25 seconds.
34.12
1000
1600
114
February 19, 2014
120
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000000000000000000
111111111111111111
00000
11111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000
1111
42
74
Figure 34:13: Timing diagram

6. Green time for the second phase, g2 can be found out from equation 34.8 as g2 =
114= 42.75 seconds.
600
1600
7. Actual green time can be found out from equation 34.11. Thus actual green time for the
first phase, G1 = 71.25-3+2.5 = 71 seconds (rounded).
8. Actual green time for the second phase, G2 = 42.75-4+3.5 = 42 seconds (rounded).
9. The phase diagram is as shown in figure 34:13.
34.7
Summary
Traffic signal is an aid to control traffic at intersections where other control measures fail. The
signals operate by providing right of way to a certain set of movements in a cyclic order. The
design procedure discussed in this chapter include phase design, interval design, determination
of cycle time, computation of saturation flow, and green splitting.
34.8
References
34.13
February 19, 2014
36. Special Requirement in Traffic Signal
Chapter 36
Special Requirement in Traffic Signal
36.1
Overview
Traffic signals are designed to ensure safe and orderly flow of traffic, Protect pedestrians and
vehicles at busy intersections and reduce the severity and frequency of accidents between vehicles entering intersections. Previous chapters discussed some important design principles such
as: (i) Phase Design (ii) Cycle Time Determination (iii) Green Splitting (iv) Performance Evaluation This chapter we will discuss some special requirements in the signal design such as: (i)
Pedestrian crossing requirement (ii) Interval design, (iii) Effect of tuning vehicles, and (iv) Lane
utilization.
36.2
Pedestrian crossing
Pedestrian crossing requirements can be taken care by two ways; by suitable phase design
or by providing an exclusive pedestrian phase. It is possible in some cases to allocate time
for the pedestrians without providing an exclusive phase for them. For example, consider an
intersection in which the traffic moves from north to south and also from east to west. If we
are providing a phase which allows the traffic to flow only in north-south direction, then the
pedestrians can cross in east-west direction and vice-versa. However in some cases, it may
be necessary to provide an exclusive pedestrian phase. In such cases, the procedure involves
computation of time duration of allocation of pedestrian phase. Green time for pedestrian
crossing Gp can be found out by,
dx
Gp = ts +
uP
where Gp is the minimum safe time required for the pedestrians to cross, often referred to as
the pedestrian green time, ts is the start-up lost time, dx is the crossing distance in meters, and
up is the walking speed of pedestrians which is about 15th percentile speed. The start-up lost
time ts can be assumed as 4.7 seconds and the walking speed can be assumed to be 1.2 m/s.
36.1
February 19, 2014

2
3
4
P2
P1
Pedestrian crossing
36.3
Interval design
There are two intervals, namely the change interval and clearance interval, normally provided
in a traffic signal.
36.3.1
Change interval
The change interval or yellow time is provided after green time for movement. The purpose is
to warn a driver approaching the intersection during the end of a green time about the coming
of a red signal. They normally have a value of 3 to 6 seconds. The design consideration is that
a driver approaching the intersection with design speed should be able to stop at the stop line
of the intersection before the start of red time. Institute of transportation engineers (ITE) has
recommended a methodology for computing the appropriate length of change interval which is
as follows:
v
(36.1)
Y =t+
2(gn + a))
where t is the reaction time (about 1.0 sec), v is the velocity of the approaching vehicles, g is
the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2), n is the grade of the approach in decimals and a is
the deceleration of Change interval can also be approximately computed as y = SSD/v, where
SSD is the stopping sight distance and v is the speed of the vehicle. The clearance interval is
provided after yellow interval and as mentioned earlier, it is used to clear off the vehicles in the
intersection. Clearance interval is optional in a signal design. It depends on the geometry of
the intersection. If the intersection is small, then there is no need of clearance interval whereas
for very large intersections, it may be provided.
36.2
February 19, 2014
36.3.2
Clearance interval
The clearance interval or all-red will facilitate a vehicle just crossed the stop line at the turn
of red to clear the intersection without being collided by a vehicle from the next phase. ITE
recommends the following policy for the design of all read time, given as
w+L
if no pedestrians
v

w+L P
(36.2)
RAR ==
,v
if pedestrian crossing
max
v
P +L
if protected
v
where w is the width of the intersection from stop line to the farthest conflicting traffic, L is
the length of the vehicle (about 6 m), v is the speed of the vehicle, and P is the width of the
intersection from STOP line to the farthest conflicting pedestrian cross-walk.
36.4
Effect of turning vehicles
36.4.1
Right turning vehicles
Right-turn signal phases facilitate right-turning traffic and may improve the safety of the intersection for right-turning vehicles. However, this is done at the expense of the amount of
green time available for through traffic and will usually reduce the capacity of the intersection.
Right-turn arrows also result in longer cycle lengths, which in turn have a detrimental effect by
increasing stops and delays. While phases for protected right-turning vehicles are popular and
commonly requested, other methods of handling right-turn conflicts also need to be considered.
Potential solutions may include prohibiting right-turns and geometric improvements. The three
criteria for right -turn phase is presented below:
1. Traffic Volumes
2. Delay: Separate right -turn phasing may be considered if the average delay for all rightturning vehicles on the approach is at least 35 seconds during that same peak hour.
3. Collision Experience: Separate right -turn phasing may be considered if the critical number of reportable right -turn collisions has occurred. These are: (i) For one approach to
the intersection, the critical number is five l right -turn collisions in one year, or seven in
two years. (ii) For both approaches to an intersection, the critical number is seven right
-turn collisions in one year, or eleven in two years.
So the right turning vehicles affected saturation flow based on adjusted saturation headway.
Finally actual values of right turning are calculated from right turn adjustment factor. The
36.3
February 19, 2014
adjustments factor is calculated by following equations. Adjusted saturation headway,

hadj = hideal (PRT eRT + (1 PRT ) 1)
Adjusted saturation flow,
Sadj =
3600
hadj
Multiplicative right turn adjustment factor,

fRT =
1
1 + PRT (eRT 1)
Sadj = Sideal fRT

Numerical example
If there is 15 percent right turning movement, eRT (through-car equivalent for permitted left
turns) is 3, saturation headway is 2 sec; Find the value of Adjusted Saturation flow.
Solution: Given hideal = 2 sec, PRT = 15%(0.15), Sideal = 1800, eRT = 3
Case 1: Find adjusted saturation headway as:
hadj = hideal (PRT eRT + (1 PRT ) 1)
= 2 (0.15 3 + (1 0.15) 1)
= 2.6sec/veh
= 3600
= 1385. The adjusted saturation flow
Now, find adjusted saturation flow as: Sadj = 3600
hadj
2.6
is 1385 vph.
Case 2 Find the adjustment factor to calculate adjusted saturation flow based on ideal
saturation flow (1800)
1
1 + PRT (eRT 1)
1
= 0.77
=
1 + 0.15(3 1)
= Sideal fRT = 1800 0.77 = 1386
fRT =
sadj
The adjusted saturation flow is 1386 vph. The result is same from both cases.
36.4
February 19, 2014
36.4.2
Left turning vehicles
Lft turn adjustment factor for saturation flow rate is as follows: For exclusive lane fLT is 0.85
and for shared lane fLT = 1.0 0.15 PLT , where pLT is the proportions of left turns in lane
group. Normally in left turn, separate signal phase are not provided at intersection as per
Indian standard.
36.4.3
Effect of Lane Distribution
Congestion and Delay at intersection particularly formed by to too many vehicles are moving
same lane. So reduce that problem, we need to provide lane distribution. The lane distribution
at intersection normally followed two categories.
First one is the total volume of given approach are distributed by providing separate lane
for left, right and through movement. For that individual movement, we need to fix some
percentage of total flow at that particular approach. This type clearly defined in Figure 5 and
following example.
In second type, the given approach total volumes are separated by individual lane for left,
right and straight. And straight moving vehicles also distributed into left and right turn lanes
for unavoidable condition. If through movement vehicles are high, we need to follow second
type distribution. Second type is explained in Figure 6 and example. Normally high straight
cases we followed second method. In that second type divided into two distribution methods.
First one is, through movement distributed into left, right and straight lanes. Second is, extra
separate lane provide for through movement. So each cases some lane distribution factors are
followed. That importance points are shown in following examples.
Numerical example
Find Critical Volume (Vi) for a Given 4 arm Intersection. Traffic flow Proportion of Left
and Right turn are 10% and 20% respectively (For all approach). Left and Right turn Lane
utilization factors are 0.2 and 0.3 respectively. Use following Phase Plan:
Solution: From West to East,
Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10%
Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20%
Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70%
36.5
February 19, 2014

1453
2300
1985
1245
P1
P3
P2
P4
Left turning Vehicles = 2300 0.1 = 230 veh/hr

Right turning Vehicles = 2300 0.2 = 460 veh/hr
Through Movement Vehicles = 2300 0.7 = 1610 veh/hr
Lane Distribution
Left turn utilization factor = 0.2
Right turn utilization factor = 0.3
Through traffic in Left turn Lane = (2300 0.7) 0.2 = 322 veh/hr
Through traffic in Right turn Lane = (2300 0.7) 0.3 = 483 veh/hr
Through traffic in Median Lane = (2300 0.7) 0.5 = 805 veh/hr
From East to west,
36.6
February 19, 2014

Through Movement Vehicles = 1985 0.7 = 1390 veh/hr
Lane Distribution
Left turn utilization factor = 0.2
Right turn utilization factor = 0.3
Through traffic in Left turn Lane = (1985 0.7) 0.2 = 278 veh/hr
Through traffic in Right turn Lane = (1985 0.7) 0.3 = 417 veh/hr
Through traffic in Median Lane = (1985 0.7) 0.5 = 695 veh/hr
From North to south,
Through Movement Vehicles =1453 0.7 = 1017 veh/hr
From south to North,
Left turning Vehicles =1245 0.1 = 124 veh/hr
Right turning Vehicles =1245 0.2 = 250 veh/hr
Through Movement Vehicles =1245 0.7 = 871 veh/hr
Vi = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 804 + 695 + 871 + 1071 = 3442 veh/hr
36.7
February 19, 2014
196
140
1111
0000
400
215
367
170
187
433
1111
0000
220
120 417 233
Figure 36:1: Traffic flow for a typical four-legged intersection

P2
417
P1
P4
P3
187
400
233
433
196
367
215
Figure 36:2: Phase plan

Numerical example
The traffic flow for a four-legged intersection is as shown in figure 36:1. Given that the lost
time per phase is 2.4 seconds, saturation headway is 2.2 seconds, amber time is 3 seconds per
phase, find the cycle length, green time and performance measure(delay per cycle). Assume
critical v/c ratio as 0.9.
Solution
1. The phase plan is as shown in figure 36:2. Sum of critical lane volumes is the sum of
maximum lane volumes in each phase, VCi = 433+417+233+215 = 1298 vph.
2. Saturation flow rate, Si from equation= 3600
= 1637 vph.
2.2
0.793.
Vc
Si
433
1637
417
233
+ 1637
+ 1637
+ 1298
=
1637
= 80.68 seconds 80
3. Cycle length can be found out from the equation C= 42.40.9
1298
0.9 1637
seconds.
36.8
February 19, 2014

Phase 1
23
78.5
Phase 2
26
23
52.5
Phase 3
52
13
36.5
Phase 4
68
12 3
21.5
Pedestrian phase
83
17.5
104.5
Figure 36:3: Timing diagram

4. The effective green time can be found out as Gi = VVCi
(C L) = 80-(42.4)= 70.4
C
seconds, where L is the lost time for that phase = 4 2.4.
483
] = 22.88 seconds.
5. Green splitting for the phase 1 can be found out ?? as g1 = 70.4 [ 1298
417
6. Similarly green splitting for the phase 2,g2 = 70.4 [ 1298
] = 22.02 seconds.
233
] = 12.04 seconds.
215
] = 11.66 seconds.
9. The actual green time for phase 1 from equationG1 = 22.88-3+2.4 23 seconds.
10. Similarly actual green time for phase 2, G2 = 22.02-3+2.4 23 seconds.
13. Pedestrian time can be found out from as Gp = 4 + 63.5
= 21.5 seconds. The phase
1.2
diagram is shown in figure 36:3. The actual cycle time will be the sum of actual green
time plus amber time plus actual red time for any phase. Therefore, for phase 1, actual
cycle time = 23+3+78.5 = 104.5 seconds.
14. Delay at the intersection in the east-west direction can be found out from equationas
dEW =
104.5
[1
2
232.4+3
]2
104.5
= 42.57sec/cycle.
433
1 1637
36.9
February 19, 2014
15. Delay at the intersection in the west-east direction can be found out from equation,as
dW E =
232.4+3
]2
104.5
= 41.44sec/cycle.
400
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.3)
16. Delay at the intersection in the north-south direction can be found out from equation,
dN S =
232.4+3
]2
104.5
= 40.36sec/cycle.
367
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.4)
17. Delay at the intersection in the south-north direction can be found out from equation,
dSN =
104.5
[1
2
232.4+3
]2
104.5
= 42.018sec/cycle.
417
1 1637
(36.5)
18. Delay at the intersection in the south-east direction can be found out from equation,
dSE =
132.4+3
]2
104.5
= 46.096sec/cycle.
233
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.6)
19. Delay at the intersection in the north-west direction can be found out from equation,
dN W =
132.4+3
]2
104.5
= 44.912sec/cycle.
196
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.7)
20. Delay at the intersection in the west-south direction can be found out from equation,
dW S =
104.5
[1
2
122.4+3
]2
104.5
= 46.52sec/cycle.
215
1 1637
(36.8)
21. Delay at the intersection in the east-north direction can be found out from equation,
dEN =
36.5
104.5
[1
2
122.4+3
]2
104.5
= 45.62sec/cycle.
187
1 1637
(36.9)
Summary
Green splitting is done by proportioning the green time among various phases according to the
critical volume of the phase. Pedestrian phases are provided by considering the walking speed
and start-up lost time. Like other facilities, signals are also assessed for performance, delay
being th e important parameter used.
36.10
February 19, 2014
36.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
36.11
February 19, 2014
37. Capacity and LOS Analysis of a Signalized I/S
Chapter 37
Capacity and LOS Analysis of a
Signalized I/S
37.1
Overview
The Highway Capacity Manual defines the capacity as the maximum howdy rate at which
persons or vehicle can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or a uniform segment of
a lane or roadway during a given time period, under prevailing roadway, traffic and control
conditions. Level-of-Service is introduced by HCM to denote the level of quality one can derive
from a local under different operation characteristics and traffic volume.
37.2
Methodology
37.2.1
Scope
This chapter contains a methodology for analyzing the capacity and level of service (LOS) of
signalized intersections. The analysis must consider a wide variety of prevailing conditions,
including the amount and distribution of traffic movements, traffic composition, geometric
characteristics, and details of intersection signalization. The methodology focuses on the determination of LOS for known or projected conditions. The capacity analysis methodology for
signalized intersections is based on known or projected signalization plans.
37.2.2
Limitation
The methodology does not take into account the potential impact of downstream congestion
on intersection operation. Nor does the methodology detect and adjust for the impacts of
turn-pocket overflows on through traffic and intersection operation.
37.1
February 19, 2014
37.2.3
Objective
This method uses wide range of operational configuration along with various phase plans, lane
utilization, and left-turn treatment alternatives.
Geometric condition
Traffic condition
Signalization condition
The primary output of the method is level of service (LOS). This methodology covers a wide
range of operational configurations, including combinations of phase plans, lane utilization, and
left-turn treatment alternatives. The below figure shows the signalized intersection methodology.
Input parameters
Geometric
Traffic
Signal
Saturation flow rate

Basic equation
Adjustment factor
Lane grouping and demand Flow rate

Lane grouping
PHF
RTOR
Capacity and v/c

Capacity
v/c
Performance measures
Delay
Progression adjustment
LOS
back of queue
Figure 37:1: signalized intersection methodology
37.3
Input parameters
To conduct operational analysis of signalized intersection, no. of input parameters are required.
The data needed are detailed and varied and fall into three main categories: geometric, traffic,
and signalization.
37.3.1
Geometric condition
Intersection geometry is generally presented in diagrammatic form and must include all of the
relevant information, including approach grades, the number and width of lanes, and parking
conditions.
37.2
February 19, 2014
Table 37:1: Input data needs for each analysis of lane group
Condition Parameter
Geometric Area type
Number of lanes, N
Average lane width, W (m)
Grade, G (%)
Existence of exclusive LT or RT lanes
Length of storage bay, LT or RT lane, L s (m)
Parking
Traffic
Demand volume by movement, V (veh/h)
Base saturation flow rate, s o (pc/h/ln)
Peak-hour factor, PHF
Percent heavy vehicles, HV (%)
Approach pedestrian flow rate, vped (p/h)
Local buses stopping at intersection, NB (buses/h)
Parking activity, Nm (maneuvers/h)
Arrival type, AT
Proportion of vehicles arriving on green, P
Approach speed, S A (km/h)
Control
Cycle length, C (s)
Green time, G (s)
Yellow-plus-all-red change-and-clearance interval
(inter green), Y (s)
Actuated or pre-timed operation
Pedestrian push-button
Minimum pedestrian green, Gp (s)
Phase plan
Analysis period, T (h)
37.3
February 19, 2014

AT
1
2
3
4
5
6
37.3.2
Description
Dense platoon- 80% arrived at start of red
Moderately dense- 40-80% arrived during red
Less than 40% (highly dispersed platoon)
Moderately dense, 40-80% arrived during green
Dense to moderately dense- 80% arrive at start of green
Very dense platoons progressing over a no. of closed space I/S
Traffic condition
Traffic volumes (for oversaturated conditions, demand must be used) for the intersection must
be specified for each movement on each approach. In situations where the v/c is greater than
about 0.9, control delay is significantly affected by the length of the analysis period.
If v/c exceeds 1.0 during the analysis period, the length of the analysis period should be
extended to cover the period of oversaturation in the same fashion, as long as the average
flow during that period is relatively constant.
An important traffic characteristic that must be quantified to complete an operational
analysis of a signalized intersection is the quality of the progression. The parameter that
describes this characteristic is the arrival type, AT, for each lane group. The arrival type
should be determined as accurately as possible because it will have a significant impact
on delay estimates and LOS determination. It can be computed as
Rp = P/(gi /C)
(37.1)
where, Rp = platoon ratio, P = proportion of all vehicles in movement arriving during

green phase, C = cycle length (s) and gi = effective green time for movement or lane
group (s).
37.3.3
Signalization condition :
Complete information regarding signalization is needed to perform an analysis. This information includes a phase diagram illustrating the phase plan, cycle length, green times, and
change-and-clearance intervals. If pedestrian timing requirements exist, the minimum green
time for the phase is indicated and provided for in the signal timing. The minimum green time
37.4
February 19, 2014
for a phase is estimated as,

GP = 3.2 + L/Sp + 0.81(Nped/WE ) f or WE > 3.0m
(37.2)
GP = 3.2 + L/Sp + 0.27Nped f or WE 3.0m
(37.3)
where, Gp = minimum green time (s), L = crosswalk length (m), Sp = average speed of
pedestrians (m/s), WE = effective crosswalk width (m), 3.2 = pedestrian start-up time (s), and
Nped = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval (p).
37.4
Determining flow rate
The methodology for signalized intersections is disaggregate; that is, it is designed to consider
individual intersection approaches and individual lane groups within approaches. Segmenting
the intersection into lane groups is a relatively simple process that considers both the geometry
of the intersection and the distribution of traffic movements. Demand volumes are best provided
as average flow rates (in vehicles per hour) for the analysis period. However, demand volumes
may also be stated for more than one analysis period, such as an hourly volume. In such cases,
peaking factors must be provided that convert these to demand flow rates for each particular
analysis period. In that case,
VP = V /P HF
(37.4)
37.5
Determining saturation flow rate
A saturation flow rate for each lane group is computed according to above equation. The
saturation flow rate is the flow in vehicles per hour that can be accommodated by the lane
group assuming that the green phase were displayed 100 percent of the time (i.e., g/C = 1.0).
S = SO Nfw fHV fg fp fbb fa fLU fLT fRT fLpb fRpb
(37.5)
where, S = saturation flow rate for subject lane group, expressed as a total for all lanes in lane
group (veh/h); SO = base saturation flow rate per lane (pc/h/ln); N = number of lanes in lane
group; fw = adjustment factor for lane width; fHV = adjustment factor for heavy vehicles in
traffic stream; fg = adjustment factor for approach grade; fp = adjustment factor for existence
of a parking lane and parking activity adjacent to lane group; fbb = adjustment factor for
blocking effect of local buses that stop within intersection area; fa = adjustment factor for area
type; fLU = adjustment factor for lane utilization; fLT = adjustment factor for left turns in lane
group; fRT = adjustment factor for right turns in lane group; fLpb = pedestrian adjustment
37.5
February 19, 2014
factor for left-turn movements; and fRpb = pedestrian-bicycle adjustment factor for right-turn
movements.
37.5.1
Base saturation flow rate :
For the analysis of saturation flow rate, a fixed volume is taken as a base called base saturation
flow rate, usually 1,900 passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln). This value is adjusted for
a variety of conditions. The adjustment factors are given below.
37.5.2
Adjustment for lane width:
The lane width adjustment factor fw accounts for the negative impact of narrow lanes on
saturation flow rate and allows for an increased flow rate on wide lanes. The lane width factor
can be calculated for lane width greater than 4.8m. The use of two narrow lanes will always
result in higher saturation capacity than one single wide lane.
fw = 1 + (w 3.6)/9
(37.6)
where, w = width of lane
37.5.3
Adjustment for Heavy Vehicles and Grade :
passenger cars are affected by approach grades, as are heavy vehicles. The heavy-vehicle factor
accounts for the additional space occupied by these vehicles and for the difference in operating
capabilities of heavy vehicles compared with passenger cars. The passenger-car equivalent (ET)
used for each heavy vehicle is 2.0 passenger-car units and is reflected in the formula. The grade
factor accounts for the effect of grades on the operation of all vehicles.
fHV
= 100/[100 + %HV (ET 1)]
fg = 1 %G/200
(37.7)
(37.8)
where, % HV = % heavy vehicles for lane group volume, ET = 2.0, % G = % grade on a lane
group approach
37.5.4
Adjustment for Parking
Parking maneuver assumed to block traffic for 18 s. Use practical limit of 180 maneuvers/h.
The parking adjustment factor, fp , accounts for the frictional effect of a parking lane on flow
in an adjacent lane group as well as for the occasional blocking of an adjacent lane by vehicles
37.6
February 19, 2014
moving into and out of parking spaces. Each maneuver (either in or out) is assumed to block
traffic in the lane next to the parking maneuver for an average of 18 s.
fP = [N 0.1 (18Nm /3600)]/N
(37.9)
where, Nm = number of parking maneuvers/h, N = no. of lanes
37.5.5
Adjustment for Bus Blockage
The bus blockage adjustment factor, fbb , accounts for the impacts of local transit buses that
stop to discharge or pick up passengers at a near-side or far-side bus stop within 75 m of the
stop line (u/s or d/s). If more than 250 buses per hour exist, a practical limit of 250 should be
used. The adjustment factor can be written as,
fbb = [N (14.4NB /3600)]/N
(37.10)
where, NB = no. of buses stopping per hour
37.5.6
Adjustment for Area Type
The area type adjustment factor, fa, accounts for the relative inefficiency of intersections in
business districts in comparison with those in other locations. Application of this adjustment
factor is typically appropriate in areas that exhibit central business district (CBD) characteristics. It can be represented as, fa = 0.9 in CBD (central business district) and = 1.0 in all
others
37.5.7
Adjustment for Lane Utilization
The lane utilization adjustment factor, fLU, accounts for the unequal distribution of traffic
among the lanes in a lane group with more than one lane. The factor provides an adjustment
to the base saturation flow rate. The adjustment factor is based on the flow in the lane with
the highest volume and is calculated by Equation 10.
fLU = Vg /(Vg1 N)
(37.11)
where, Vg = unadjusted demand flow rate for lane group (veh/ h), Vg1 = unadjusted demand
flow rate on single lane with highest volume in the lane group and N = no. of lanes in the
group.
37.7
February 19, 2014
37.6
Determining capacity and v/c ratio:
Capacity at signalized intersections is based on the concept of saturation flow and defined
saturation flow rate. The flow ratio for a given lane group is defined as the ratio of the actual
or projected demand flow rate for the lane group (vi ) and the saturation flow rate(si ). The
flow ratio is given the symbol (v/s)i for lane group i. Capacity at signalized I/S is based on the
saturation flow and saturation flow rate.
Ci = si (gi/c)
(37.12)
where ci = capacity of lane group i (veh/h), si = saturation flow rate for lane group i (veh/h)
and gi/C = effective green ratio for lane group i.
37.6.1
v/c ratio:
The ratio of flow rate to capacity (v/c), often called the volume to capacity ratio, is given the
symbol X in intersection analysis
vi
vi c
v
(37.13)
Xi = ( ) i =
gi =
c
si ( C )
si g i
where, Xi = (v/c)i = ratio for lane group i, vi = actual or projected demand flow rate for lane
group i (veh/h), si = saturation flow rate for lane group i (veh/h), gi = effective green time for
lane group i (s) and C = cycle length (s)
37.6.2
Critical lane group:
Another concept used for analyzing signalized intersections is the critical v/c ratio, Xc . This
is the v/c ratio for the intersection as a whole, considering only the lane groups that have
the highest flow ratio (v/s) for a given signal phase. For example, with a two-phase signal,
opposing lane groups move during the same green time. Generally, one of these two lane
groups will require more green time than the other (i.e., it will have a higher flow ratio). This
would be the critical lane group for that signal phase. The critical v/c ratio for the intersection
is determined by using Equation,
Xv
C
(
)
(37.14)
Xc =
S C L
where, Xc = critical v/c ratio for intersection; The above eqn. is useful in evaluating the overall
i/s w.r.t the geometric and total cycle length. A critical v/c ratio less than 1.0, however, does
indicate that all movements in the intersection can be accommodated within the defined cycle
length.
37.8
February 19, 2014
Table 37:2: Relation between arrival type (AT) and platoon ratio
AT Ration Default Rp Progression quality
1
0.50
0.333
very poor
2 0.50-0.85
0.667
Unfavorable
3 0.85-1.15
1.000
Random arrivals
4 1.15-1.50
1.333
Favorable
5 1.50-2.00
1.667
Highly favorable
6
2.00
2.000
Exceptional
37.7
Determining delay
The values derived from the delay calculations represent the average control delay experienced
by all vehicles that arrive in the analysis period, including delays incurred beyond the analysis
period when the lane group is oversaturated. The average control delay per vehicle for a given
lane group is given by Equation,
d = d1 (P F ) + d2 + d3
where, d = control delay per vehicle (s/veh); d1 = uniform control delay assuming uniform
arrivals (s/veh); PF = uniform delay progression adjustment factor, d2 = incremental delay to
account for effect of random arrivals and d3 = initial queue delay, which accounts for delay to
all vehicles in analysis period
37.7.1
Progression adjustment factor
Good signal progression will result in a high proportion of vehicles arriving on the uniform
delay Green and vice-versa. Progression primarily affects uniform delay, and for this reason,
the adjustment is applied only to d1. The value of PF may be determined using Equation,
PF =
(1 P )fP A
1 ( Cg )
(37.15)
where, PF = progression adjustment factor, P = proportion of vehicles arriving on green, g/C =

proportion of green time available, fP A = supplemental adjustment factor for platoon arriving
during green. The approximate ranges of RP are related to arrival type as shown below. PF
may be calculated from measured values of P using the given values of fP A or the following
table can be used to determine PF as a function of the arrival type.
37.9
February 19, 2014
Table 37:3: Progression adjustment factor for uniform delay calculation

Green Ratio
Arrival Type (AT)
(g/C)
AT1 AT2 AT3 AT4 AT5 AT6
0.2
1.167 1.007
1
1
0.833 0.75
0.3
1.286 1.063
1
0.986 0.714 0.571
0.4
1.445 1.136
1
0.895 0.555 0.333
0.5
1.667 1.24
1
0.767 0.333
0
0.6
2.001 1.395
1
0.576
0
0
0.7
2.556 1.653
1
0.256
0
0
fP A
1
0.93
1
1.15
1
1
Default, Rp 0.333 0.667
1
1.333 1.667
2
37.7.2
Uniform delay
It is based on assuming uniform arrival, uniform flow rate & no initial queue. The formula for
uniform delay is,
0.5C(1 Cg )2
d1 =
(37.16)
1 [min(1, X) Cg ]
where, d1 = uniform control delay assuming uniform arrivals (s/veh), C = cycle length (s);
cycle length used in pre-timed signal control, g = effective green time for lane group, X = v/c
ratio or degree of saturation for lane group.
37.7.3
Incremental delay
The equation below is used to estimate the incremental delay due to nonuniform arrivals and
temporary cycle failures (random delay. The equation assumes that there is no unmet demand
that causes initial queues at the start of the analysis period (T).
#
"
r
8klX
(37.17)
d2 = 900 T (X 1) + (X 1)2 +
cT
where, d2 = incremental delay queues, T = duration of analysis period (h); k = incremental
delay factor that is dependent on controller settings, I = upstream filtering/metering adjustment
factor; c = lane group capacity (veh/h), X = lane group v/c ratio or degree of saturation, and
K can be found out from the following table.
37.10
February 19, 2014
Table 37:4: k-values to account for controller type

Unit
Degree of Saturation (X)
Extension (s) 0.50 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
2.0
0.04
0.13 0.22 0.32 0.41
0.5
2.5
0.08
0.16 0.25 0.33 0.42
0.5
3
0.11
0.19 0.27 0.34 0.42
0.5
3.5
0.13
0.2 0.28 0.35 0.43
0.5
4
0.15
0.22 0.29 0.36 0.43
0.5
4.5
0.19
0.25 0.31 0.38 0.44
0.5
a
5.0
0.23
0.28 0.34 0.39 0.45
0.5
Pre-timed
0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5
37.7.4
Aggregate delay estimates
The delay obtained has to be aggregated, first for each approach and then for the intersection
The weighted average of control delay is given as:
X
X
dA =
di vi /
vi
where, di = delay per vehicle for each movement (s/veh), dA = delay for Approach A (s/veh),
and vA = adjusted flow for Approach A (veh/h).
d1 =
37.7.5
dA vA /
vA
Determination of LOS
Intersection LOS is directly related to the average control delay per vehicle. Any v/c ratio
greater than 1.0 is an indication of actual or potential breakdown. In such cases, multi-period
analyses are advised. These analyses encompass all periods in which queue carryover due to
oversaturation occurs. A critical v/c ratio greater than 1.0 indicates that the overall signal and
geometric design provides inadequate capacity for the given flows. In some cases, delay will be
high even when v/c ratios are low.
37.7.6
Sensitivity of results to input variables
The predicted delay is highly sensitive to signal control characteristics and the quality of progression. The predicted delay is sensitive to the estimated saturation flow only when demand
37.11
February 19, 2014
Table 37:5: LOS criteria for signalized intersection in term of control delay per vehicle (s/veh)
LOS Delay
A
10
B
10-20
C
20-35
D
35-55
E
55-80
F
>80
approaches or exceeds 90 percent of the capacity for a lane group or an intersection approach.
The following graph shows the sensitivity of the predicted control delay per vehicle to demand
to capacity ratio, g/c, cycle length and length of analysis period. Assumptions are : Cycle
800
700
Delay (s/veh)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Demand/Capacity Ratio
1.2
1.4
Figure 37:2: sensitivity of delay to demand to capacity ratio

length = 100s, g/c = 0.5, T =1h, k = 0.5, l= 1, s = 1800 veh/hr
37.8
Conclusion
HCM model is very useful for the analysis of signalized intersection as it considers all the
adjustment factors which are to be taken into account while designing for a signalized I/S.
Though,the procedure is lengthy but it is simple in approach and easy to follow.
37.12
February 19, 2014
1400
Delay (s/veh)
v/c=1.7
1200
1000
800
600
400
v/c=1.0
200
0
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.55
0.5
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
g/C
Delay
Figure 37:3: sensitivity of delay Vs g/c ratio
Too Short
Optimum
Too Long
Cycle Length
Figure 37:4: sensitivity of delay Vs cycle length
37.9
References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.
New Delhi, 1987.
37.13
February 19, 2014

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