Irset T3 Fundamental of Electronics

INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF
SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS

SECUNDERABAD - 500 017
T3
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRONICS
Issued in October 2008
T3
Contents
1. Theory of semiconductors: ......................................................... 01
2. Types of Semiconductor Materials: ............................................ 07
3. PN Junction ................................................................................ 13
4. Transistor Operation:.................................................................. 19
5. Transistor Current Configurations:.............................................. 23
6. The Common Emitter: ................................................................ 26
7. The Common Base: ................................................................... 30
8. The Common Collector: ............................................................. 32
9. Comparison of Transistor Configurations: .................................. 34
10. Characteristic Curves: ................................................................ 37
11. Operation Limit of Transistors: ................................................... 41
12. Specifications of Transistors:...................................................... 43
13. Field Effect Transistor: ............................................................... 51
14. The Zener Diode: ....................................................................... 58
15. Silicon Controlled Rectifiers:....................................................... 64
16. Uni Junction Transistors: ............................................................ 68
17. Special Devices: ......................................................................... 71
18. Semiconductor Microwave Devices: ........................................... 76
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
DTP and Drawings
Date of Issue
Edition No
First Reprint
No. of Pages
No.of Sheets
S.S. Muralidharan IMP-1

S.N. Pal, Asst. Professor-Tele
S.K.Biswas, Sr. Prof. Tele (Nov. 2005)
K.Srinivas, JE II(D)
Nov. 2005
01
October 2008
85
45
IRISET
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THEORY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
CHAPTER-1
1.1
Matter is anything that has weight. Atomic theory describes all matter, whether it is
solid, liquid or gas as being composed of atoms. The atom contains a central nucleus
in which exist neutrons and protons. Protons are positively charged particles and
neutrons are neutral particles both being approximately 1840 times as heavy as an
electron. Electrons which are negatively charged particles are arranged in ' orbits
around the nucleus in a manner similar to the arrangement of planets around the sun.
Thus the electrons in atoms are frequently called planetary electrons. Representative
drawing of an atom in shown in figure. 1.1.
1.2.
Atoms of different elements are found to have a different number of protons, neutrons
and electrons. In order to classify or identify the various atoms a number which
indicates the no. of protons in the nucleus of a given atom, has been assigned to the
atoms of each known element. This number is called the atomic number of the
element. The atomic numbers for some of the elements associated with the study of
semiconductors are as shown below:
Element
Symbol
Atomic No.
Germanium
Ge
32
Silicon
Si
14
Antimony
Sb
51
Arsenic
As
33
Indium
In
49
Gallium
Ga
31
Boron
The normal atom has an equal no. of protons and planetary electrons to maintain its net
charge at zero. In the case of Germanium 32 protons and 32 planetary electrons
comprise the atom.
IRISET
1.3
The orbits of planetary electrons are grouped around the nucleus in rings or shells with
specific number of electrons permitted in each ring. A discrete energy may then be
associated with each ring or shell. The rings or shells are numbered starting with the
first ring nearest to the nucleus as No. 1 the second ring from nucleus as No. 2 etc. The
maximum number of electrons permitted in each ring is as follows:
Ring No.1
2 electrons
Ring No.2
8 electrons
Ring No.3
18 electrons
Ring No.4
32 electrons
It may be noted that the permissible no. of 1 electrons for each ring or shell is equal to
2N2 where N is the ring or shell no subject to the following conditions.
a)
No. of electrons should 'not exceed 8 in the outermost shell of any

element and
b)
it should not exceed 18 in the last but one, shell.
The atomic structures of silicon or germanium atoms are illustrated in Fig.1.2. Silicon
having an atomic number of the 14, has 14 planetary electrons whereas Germanium
having an atomic number of 32, has 32 planetary electrons. It may be noted that the
outer rings, the 3rd, ring in silicon and 4th ring in germanium, are incomplete, each of
these rings having only four electrons. The fact that the outer rings are incomplete is
important to the nature of semiconductor devices.
1.4
The atomic weight of an atom designates the mass of the nucleus and is referred to
oxygen having an atomic weight of 16. as a standard. The atomic weight may be other
than an integral multiple or sub-multiple of the atomic weight of oxygen.
2
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IRISET
In addition to protons, the nucleus of an atom may also contain neutrons. A neutron is a
neutral particle, whose mass is slightly greater- than the mass of proton.
The mass of an electron is 9.1083 x 10-31 Kg.
The mass of a proton is 1.6724 x 10-27 Kg.
The mass of a Neutron is 1.6747 x 10 -27 kg.
An example of an element with neutrons present in the nucleus is carbon shown in

Fig.1.3. The net charge of the nucleus is +6, but the additional mass of six neutrons
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makes the atomic weight of carbon very nearly 12.
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1.5
Valence is defined as the chemical combining ability of an element referenced to

hydrogen and is a function of the number of planetary electrons in the outer electronic
orbit of an atom. Valence is the capacity of the atom to combine with other atoms in
order to form a molecule. For example, the element Helium, shown in part A of Fig.1.4
(i) has a valence of zero. This means that the outer orbit is complete i.e. the maximum
no of electrons is present. Thus helium does not chemically combine and said to be
inert. On the other hand, hydrogen, shown in part B of the figure, has a valence of 1
and will go into chemical combination readily. The reason for this is that hydrogen, has
an incomplete outer ring which requires one more electron in order to be complete.
One atom of oxygen (Part C) has a combining power of valence of 2 since there are
two vacancies in the outer orbit of the atom. Where oxygen and hydrogen combine. to
form water, two hydrogen atoms contribute their electrons to the outer ring, of the
oxygen atom in such a way as to complete the outer rings of both atoms as shown in
part A of Fig.1.4(ii). All atoms continually strike to complete their outer ring of electrons
and when this is accomplished a stable state exists. The type of bond produced, when
hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, is called an ionic valence bond or an
IRISET
electro valence bond. The tendency of an atom to complete its outer ring is illustrated
by the atomic form of hydrogen. In this form hydrogen has only one electron in the
outer ring. The atom, is therefore unstable since its outer ring required two electrons to
be complete. As a result one hydrogen atom will combine with another hydrogen atom
to produce the molecular form of hydrogen, consisting of two atoms bonded together
each sharing the others electron to form a stable molecule. This type of bond is called
covalent bond. An example of covalent bond is shown in part 6 of fig.1.4 (ii).
1.6
Referring again to the silicon and Germanium, atoms it appears that in order for the
silicon atom to chemically combine with another atom 14 additional electrons are
required to complete its outer. Ring similarly it appears that 28 additional electrons are
required to complete the outer ring of the Germanium atom. However, for atoms having
3 or more rings, it is found that if the outermost ring contains eight electrons it can be
considered to be complete and the atom can be considered to the stable. Therefore, the
outer ring of silicon or germanium require only four electrons to become stable hence
the valence of silicon or geranium is 4.
1.7
In some elements, the electrons are bound closer to the nucleus than in others and the
effect of external forces such as due to gravity and magnetism on the highly bound
electrons is much smaller than the effect of forces within. the atom where the electrons
are tightly bound, they are difficult to remove. It is the case of difficulty encountered in
dislodging the outer electrons that determine whether the element is a conductor,
insulator or semiconductor.
IRISET
1.8
It is established that a definite amount of energy must be supplied in order to affect an

electron held at an atom. That is in order to move an electron from one energy level to
higher energy level, a given amount of energy is required. If less than the required
amount of energy is supplied to the electron, it will remain at its original level. If more
than the required amount of energy is supplied to the electron, it will leave its orbit and
move to the next higher level. The excess energy will be of no use unless it is sufficient
to cause the electron to move to a higher energy level. These definite amounts of
energy are called "quanta" and they can be supplied to the electrons only in whole
numbers such as .1,2,3,4 etc.
It is possible for electrons to lose energy as well as receive it. When an electron in an
atom loses energy, it moves to, a lower energy level or closer to the nucleus. The
energy that is lost in this process may appear in the form of heat as in a conductor
passing current or visible light as in gaseous tubes. The different elements have
different energy levels; hence the amount of energy released or absorbed by the
electrons of different atoms varies.
1.9
A fact which is brought out by quantum theory explains more precisely the difference
between conductors and insulators. The reasoning that the difference between
conductors and insulators is due to the no. of electrons in the outer ring of an atom still
holds true. However in a solid crystal the energy levels are considered as bands instead
of rings or orbits.
An example of the band structure of an insulating material is shown in part A of Fig.1.5.

Since such a diagram illustrates the electron energy bands of a material it is often
ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTE
ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTE
reported to as energy band diagram or simply energy diagram.
CONDUCTION BAND
FORBIDDEN REGION
OR ENERGY GAP
VALANCE BAND
(A) INSULATORS
CONDUCTION BAND
VALANCE BAND
(B) CONDUCTORS
Fig. 1.5 ENERGY DIAGRAM FOR INSULATORS & CONDUCTORS
IRISET
The lower portion of the diagram, called the valence band, represents the energy levels
closest to the nucleus of the atom. in the normal atom the energy levels in the valance
band contain the correct number of electron necessary to valance the positive charge of
the nucleus. Thus band is called the filled band. The electrons in this band are tightly
bound to the nucleus with the electrons being more lightly bound in each succeeding
energy level, toward the nucleus. It is more difficult to disturb electrons in the energy
levels, closer to tile nucleus since their movement involves greater energies. The top or
outermost band in the diagram is called the conduction band. An electron in an energy
level which lies within this band is relatively free to move about the, crystal and hence
conduct ails electric current.
Between the bands is a range of energy values across which electrons may pass but
the values of which they actually may not have. That is although electrons can jump
across this region from the valence band to the conduction band, they never have
energy values ill this range. Hence this region is appropriately called the forbidden
region or energy gap. Note that the forbidden region of an insulator is relatively wide.
When compared to the valence band and the conduction band. The wider the energy
gap in a material the greater the amount of energy required to cause an electron from
the valence band to jump the gap ad appear in the conduction band where it can be
used as a current carrier. It is apparent that due to the wide energy gap, a large amount
of energy is required to produce a small amount of current through an insulating
material.
Part B of figure shows the band structure of a conducting material. Notice that the
valence band and conduction band touch each other and that there is no forbidden
region. Whenever these two band touch, only an extremely small amount of energy to
move electrons into the conduction band and an electrical current is readily passed by
the material.
1.10
The measure used in the diagram is the electron volt, one electron volt being equal to
the energy acquired by an electron in passing through a difference of potential of 1 volt.
By applying this method of measuring energy to an insulator the width of energy gap is
generally 1 electron volt or more. For conductors, the energy gap is less than 0.05
electron volt from the valence band to the conduction band.
IRISET
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
CHAPTER -2
2.1
The conductivity of a semiconductor is midway between that of a conductor and that

of an insulator. Germanium or silicon which is considered to be semiconductor, in
pure form actually is insulators. However in the manufacture of these elements for
electronic use, impurities are added to them so that they become semiconductors.
2.2
The fact that the movement of electrons through a conducting material produce a
current has been used as the basis for explaining both alternating and direct current.
This is called the electron theory.
Although the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material causes a current to

pass, a current also results in such materials from the movement of positive charges
or holes, through the material. A hole is nothing more than the space left by the
electron. Since this space has an attraction for any negatively charged electron, the
hole is considered to have a positive charge.
2.3
Holes are considered to be capable of motion around in the covalent bonds. Hole
movement is somewhat different from electron movement. Electrons in motion out of
an orbit of an atom are considered to be free. Holes however make only when
electrons leave their positions or orbits.
An analogy to hole motion can be drawn from the arrangements of bearing in a tube
or cylinder as shown in Fig.2.1. By removing No.1 bearing a hole or space is left
which is then filled by the No.2 bearing. The No.3 bearing then moves into the No.2
space. This action continues until all the bearings have moved one space to the left at
which time there is a space, left by the No. 7 bearing, at the right end of the tube.
Therefore whether this process is looked upon as a motion of the bearings to the left
or a motion of the space (absence of a bearing) to the right the end result is the
same. This motion is similar to that of a hole in the covalent bond structure of a
semiconductor material with the hole movement being governed by the shifting of
electrons. In the covalent bonds, the same electrical effect is obtained whether
electrons move in one direction (electron current) or holes move in the opposite
direction (hole current). This is an important concept and is fundamental to the study
of transistors, since both types of current occur in transistors. Usually electrons move
through the conduction band and holes move through the valence band.
IRISET
BEARING IN A TUBE
SPACE LEFT BY No. 1 BEARING
2
1
No. 1 BEARING MOVED
SPACE LEFT BY No. 7 BEARING
FIG. 2.1 ANALOGY TO HOLE MOTION
2.4(a) Germanium has four electrons in its outermost shell, in bonds atoms are shown with
their outer electrons only since these electrons which a maximum of 32 electrons is
permitted. The germanium atoms will share valence electrons in a covalent bond.
This is shown in Fig.2.2. The, germanium are the ones associated with the covalent
The crystalline form of germanium called the crystal lattices structure has the atoms
arranged in this manner. The electrons in such an arrangement are in very stable
condition and thus are less apt to be associated with conductors. Germanium in a
pure form is an insulating material and is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
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FIG. 2.2. COVALENT

LATTICE STRUCTURE OF PURE GERMANIUM
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2.4(b) Silicon is also used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices. Silicon also has
four electrons in its outermost shell. The atomic structure of silicon and germanium
are shown in the sketch. The crystal lattice structure of silicon is that similar to
the Germanium.
2.5
Pure form of germanium is of no use as a semiconductor device. By the addition of

impurities however a desired amount of conductivity can be obtained. In order to do
this, the quality of added impurity must be carefully controlled. The added impurities
will create either an excess or a deficiency of electrons depending on the type of
impurity added.
IRISET
EXCESS ELECTRON DUE

TO IMPURITY ELEMENT
DONAR IMPURITY
GE
GE
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FIG. 2.3. GERMANIUM LATTICE WITH A DONAR IMPURITY ADDED

(N-TYPE GERMANIUM)
2.6
Primary importance in semiconductors are these impurities that align themselves in

the regular germanium lattice structure despite the fact that they have one valance
electron too many or one too few. The first type easily loses its extra electron, and in
so doing it increases the conductivity of the material by contributing a free electron.
This type of impurity has five valence electrons and is called as pentavalent impurity.
Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth and Phosphorous are pentavalent impurities. Since these
impurities give up or donate, one electron to the material, they are referred to as
donor impurities. The second type of impurity tends to make up its deficiency of one
electron by acquiring an. electron from its neighbour. Impurities of this type in the
lattice structure have three valence electrons and are, therefore, called trivalent
impurities. Examples of trivalent impurities are aluminium, gallium, Indium and boron.
Since these impurities accept one electron from the material, these are referred to as
acceptor, impurities. Semiconductors produced by adding either acceptor or donor
impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors.
2.7
When a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added to germanium, it will form

covalent bonds with the germanium atoms. Fig.2.3 illustrates the presence of an
arsenic atom (As) within the germanium lattice structure. Only A of the five electrons
of arsenic in the outer ring is used to form covalent bonds leaving one electron
relatively free in the crystal structure. Since this semiconductor material conducts by
electron movement it is termed a negative carrier type of N- type semiconductor. Pure
Germanium may be turned into an N-type semiconductor by doping it with an element
containing five electrons in. its outer ring. The amount of impurity added is ordinarily
in the neighbourhood of one atom of impurity material per ten million atoms of
germanium.
IRISET
2.8
Application of an electric field to an N-type semiconductor causes a current conducted

by negative (electron) carriers. Fig. 2.4 illustrates one N-type semiconductor with an
electric field applied. Electric field causes the loosely bound electron to be released
from the impurity atom and move toward the positive potential point. The conduction is
similar to that in a copper conductor. But, certain difference exists between a
semiconductor and the familiar copper conductor. For example, the semiconductor
resistance decreases with increasing temperature because more carriers are made
available at higher temperatures, while the resistance of copper increases with
temperature.
DIRECTION OF ELECTRON MOVEMENT
DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC FIELD

+
Fig. 2.4 ELECTRON MOVEMENT IN A N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
2.9
A Trivalent impurity element can be added to pure germanium to dope the material. In
this case the valence electrons of the trivalent element will also enter into covalent
bonds with the germanium atoms. However, tile trivalent impurity will borrow a fourth
electron from a Germanium atom to complete the covalent bond structure. This
removal of an electron from the covalent bonds of the Germanium by the trivalent
impurity creates a hole or space.
2.10
In Fig.2.5, the germanium lattice structure is shown with the addition of an indium
atom (In). The indium atom takes a hole in the structure. Other, elements which
display the same characteristic are gallium and boron. The holes are present only if a
trivalent impurity is used. Since such a semiconductor material conducts by the
movement of holes which are positively charged, it is termed positive carrier type or
P-type semiconductor.
IRISET
10
HOLE CAUSED BY IMPURITY

ELEMENT
ACCEPTOR
IMPURITY
GE
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FIG. 2.5. GERMANIUM

LATTICE WITH AN ACCEPTOR IMPURITY ADDED
(P-TYPE GERMANIUM
2.11
Application of an electric field to a P-type semiconductor causes a current conducted

by positive carriers (holes). In order for the hole to move, an electron from a near by
site must shift to the position where the hole originally existed. Hence, the holes
illustrated in Fig.2.6 move from the positive terminal to negative terminal. Electrons
from the negative terminal cancel holes at the vicinity of the terminal while at the
positive terminal; electrons are being removed from the covalent bends, thus creating
new holes. The new holes then move towards the negative terminal and are
cancelled by more electrons emitted from the negative terminal.
ELECTRON MOVEMENT
+
+
HOLE MOVEMENT
+
Fig. 2.6 HOLE MOVEMENT IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

2.12
It should be realised that in either N-type of P-type germanium both electrons and
holes are present and can act as current carriers. In N-type germanium, electrons
greatly out number the holes and thus are said to be the major current carriers while
the holes are referred to as minor current carriers. On the other hand, P-type
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11
germanium contain a greater number of holes than electrons and thus in this material
holes are the major current carriers while electrons are considered to be minor
current carriers. In an intrinsic semiconductor there is thermal break up of covalent
bond producing an electron hole pair i.e. the no of electrons = no. of holes. When
pentavalent impurity is added the no. of electrons increases without corresponding
increases in holes and when a trivalent impurity is added, the no. of holes increases
without a corresponding increases the no. of electrons. However, the product of
electron and hole concentration remain the same whether impurity is added or not.
Thus, if the hole concentration is TIP and electron is e
Then p X e = n2 where is the no. of electrons = no. of holes in the intrinsic
semiconductors.
2.13
Mobility of the charge carriers is defined as the speed at which they drift in, unit
electric field.
The intrinsic Conductivity 1 is given by the formula
i = e(1+2)
where,
i is conductivity in semiconductor
e is charge of electron (or hole)
is intrinsic concentration of carriers per cc.
i = nxp where n & p are the concentration of electrons and holes
is mobility of free electron, em/sec. per volt/cm.
is mobility of free hole cm/sec per volt/cm.
The mobility of electron and holes in silicon is 1250cm2/V.sec and 480 cm2/V.
whereas in germanium it is 3900 cm2 /V.sec and 1900 cm2/V.sec.
This applies to lightly doped silicon and germanium. These values will decrease for
higher doping levels. The ratio of / p however remains relatively constant. This
ratio is about 2 to 6 in silicon and 2 in germanium.
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12
PN JUNCTION
CHAPTER - 3
PN JUNCTION
3.1
Representative diagrams of both P-type and N-type semiconductor materials are

illustrated in Fig.3.1. A P-type semiconductor is shown in part A with the symbol
representing the accepter atoms of the added impurity and the plus sign without the
circle representing hole carriers. A N-type semiconductor is represented in part B, the
plus sign within the circle + representing the donor atoms and the minus sign without
the circle representing free electrons.
ACCEPTOR
ATOMS
DONOR
ATOMS
HOLES
+
-
+
-
+
-
ELECTRONS
+
-
+
-
+
-
(A) P - TYPE MATERIAL
+
-
(A) N - TYPE MATERIAL
Fig. 3.1 P-TYPE & N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

3.2
If a piece of P-type semiconductor material and a piece of N-type semiconductor

material are joined together, the result is known as PN junction (Fig.3.2). A PN
junction is formed during the process of manufacturing the semiconductor crystal.
Several methods are employed, one of which is to add the desired impurities as the
crystal is being made so that one section of the crystal is N-type and the other P-type.
This impurity in the process of taking electrons from covalent bonds of the N-type
crystal, creates an area of P-type crystal. It should be noted that the addition of
impurity atoms to a semiconductor does not create a change or potential difference in
the semiconductor. Such impurity atom added is electrically neutral. When it enters
into a covalent bond it allows the carrier to be free through the semiconductor under
the influence of an electric field.
-
ACCEPTOR ATOMS
DONAR ATOMS
+
-
+
+
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
FIG. 3.2. THE P-N JUNCTION
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PN JUNCTION
3.3
The addition of arsenic to a germanium crystal supplies electron carriers that are not
bound by the covalent forces. Similarly the addition of Indium supplies hole carriers
that are not bound by the covalent forces. The atomic state remains neutral in charge
as long as the carrier is present. When the electron or hole carriers move off under
the influence of an electric field, the atomic state may temporarily be positive or
negative, respectively but the net charge of the material is still zero.
3.4
In the absence of external forces, there is a process of carrier movement called

diffusion occurring across the PN junction. This is caused by the holes attempting to
move to the N-type material and the electrons attempting to move to the P-type
material. However, only a few electrons and holes actually cross the junction. As soon
as a crossing takes place, a few atomic states near the junction lose their
compensating carrier and become uncompensated and are no long neutral as shown
in Fig.3.3. The donor atomic sites become positive, having lost a neutralising electron,
the acceptor sites becomes negative having gained an electron. The carrier
movement reaches an equilibrium condition at which the net current between P-type
and N-type materials is zero and a potential difference exists between the materials.
UNCOMPENSATED
ACCEPTOR ATOMS
+
+
-
+
+
UNCOMENSATED
DONAR ATOMS
-
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
P
N
DIFFUSSION OF CARRIER ACROSS JUNCTION
FIG.3.3 CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM ACROSS A PN - JUNCTION
3.5
The potential difference existing between the P-type and N-type materials is
called
the "barrier region" or "potential hill" and can be represented by a battery. This does
not mean that a potential may be measured from one end of the material to the other.
The overall piece of material is neutral even though a charge is displaced within the
semiconductor to create the barrier.
3.6
In order to produce a current across a PN junction, the potential hill existing at the
junction must be neutralized. The potential hill can reduce or neutralized by the
addition of a bias battery across the two crystal section. For the reduction of the
potential hill, the polarity of the bias battery must be opposite to the polarity of the
IRISET
14
PN JUNCTION
potential hill battery. In this case the junction is said to be in the forward bias
direction. When the polarity of the bias battery has the same polarity as the potential
hill battery, little or no current will cross the junction. In this case, the junction is said
to be reverse biased. Since the PN junction has the same directional characteristic,
as a vacuum tube diode. It is called a PN junction diode or simply a junction diode.
3.7
Fig.3.4 illustrates die junction diode in the forward bias connection. Where
only
the
electron carriers and hole carriers are shown. The negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the N-section and the positive terminal to the P-section which is just
opposite of the potential hill battery. The N-section electrons are driven toward the
junction by the negative battery terminal while holes in the P-section are forced
towards the junction by the positive terminal. A number of electrons and holes
depending on the battery potential cross the barrier region or junction and combine.
Along with the combination of holes and electrons in the barrier region, there are two
simultaneous actions that take place. Near the positive terminal in the P-section the
covalent bonds of the atoms are broken and electrons are freed. The free electrons
enter the positive terminal. This creates a new hole which is attracted toward the
N-section. At the same time an electron enters the negative terminal of the N-section
and move toward the positive terminal of P-section.
BARRIER LIMITS WITHOUT BIAS BATTERY
P-REGION
N-REGION
BARRIER AREA HOLES & ELECTRONS COMBINE
NEW ELECTRONS ENTERING
NEW HOLES DUE TO
TO REPLACE THOSE REMOVED
ELECTRON REMOVAL
P
N
- POTENTIAL HILL
+
BIAS BATTERY
FIG. 3.4. FORWARD BIAS CONNECTION OF A JUNCTION DIODE
3.8
Although the voltage of the potential hill is in the order of tenths of a volt, the applied
voltage must overcome 1 the, internal resistance of the diode. Since the germanium
used is a semiconductor, its internal resistance is many times that of a conductor.
IRISET
15
PN JUNCTION
Hence the voltage across P-N type circuit sections is large leaving small voltage a to
reduce the potential hill. If the actual size of junction is considered, the external
voltage source need only be of the order of 1 or 2 volts to neutralize the potential hill.
As the battery potential' increases, causes a rise in current, the resistance of the
barrier decreases if the battery potential is allowed to reach a level at which, the
potential hill is completely neutralized, heavy current will pass and junction may be
damaged by the resultant heat. For this, reason the potential of the bias battery
should not be too large.
3.9
Fig.3.5 illustrates the reverse bias connection of an external battery to a junction

diode. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N region and Negative
terminal to the P region. These connections are the same as these of the potential hill
battery. Consequently the bias battery potential now aids the potential hill battery and
very little or no current passes across the junction. In the P region the negative
battery terminals draws the holes away from the barrier area. The electrons in the N
region are similarly affected by the positive battery terminal. The potential hill is
reinforced by the bias battery. This conditionis shown in the upper portion of the
fig.3.5.
JUNCTION
INCREASES
WITH REVERSE
BIAS
BARRIER LIMITS
WITHOUT BIAS
BATTERY
P-REGION
HOLES DRAWN AWAY FROM
BARRIER AREA BY NEGATIVE
OF BATTERY
N-REGION
BARRIER AREA
P
ELECTRONS DRAWN AWAY

FROM BARRIER AREA BY
POSITIVE OF BATTERY
POTENTIAL
HILL BATTERY
-
BIAS BATTERY
FIG. 3.5 REVERSE BIAS CONNECTION OF A JUNCTION DIODE
IRISET
16
PN JUNCTION
3.10
Actually, there is a very small current due to the minority carriers present in each side
of the crystal with their action being similar to the action of the majority carriers during
the forward bias condition. The reverse current remains small with the increase in
battery potential until a certain voltage is reached. At this voltage the covalent bond
structure begins to break down and a sharp rise in reverse current occurs. This action
is called "avalanche breakdown" and is due to the acceleration of the few electrons
and holes that comprise the reverse current to such a point that they have violent
collisions with the germanium crystal atoms. The maximum reverse voltage of the
semiconductor diode corresponds to the peak inverse voltage of the vacuum tube.
When a PN Junction is reverse biased all the applied voltage appears across the
depletion region, since it has no free charge carriers hence 5 an infinite resistance. If
the impurity content is about 1 part in 10 the relatively small dimensions of the
depletion layer result in very high field strength in this region. This causes a rapid
increase of current at low voltages due to the breaking of the covalent bonds and is
known as the Zener effect. Zener breakdown is a field emission phenomenon, the
strong electric field in the junction region pulling carriers from their atoms.
Zener diodes using this mode of operation are usually made of silicon with a zener
breakdown voltage lying between 3V and 6V and a negative temperature coefficient.
Higher voltage stabilising diodes utilise the avalanche effect and have much lower
impurity content. They have a positive temperature co-efficient. It is difficult to
separate the two effects in a practical zener diode.
3.11
The fig.3.6 illustrates the static characteristic of a junction diode. There are different
current scales for forward bias and reverse bias operations. The forward portion of
the curve indicates that the diode conducts easily when the P region is made positive
and the N region negative. The diode conducts poorly in the high resistance direction
i.e. when the P region is made negative and the N region is made positive. Now the
holes and electrons are drawn away from the junction, causing the barrier hill to
increase. This condition is indicated by the reverse current portion of the curve. The
dotted section of the curve indicates the ideal curve which would result if it were not
for avalanche breakdown.
IRISET
17
PN JUNCTION
FORWARD CURRENT
IN mA
REVERSE BIAS IN VOLTS
FORWARD BIAS IN VOLTS
IDEAL
CURVE
REVERSE CURRENT IN
microA
FIG. 3.6. TYPICAL STATIC CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
It is therefore seen that the forward resistance is low, the reverse resistance is very
high.
The current voltage relationship of a diode is given by
l=lR(e QV/KT_ 1)
Where Q is the' charge on an electron (1.602 X 10 - 19 coulomb)
IRISET
V is
the
potential difference in volts.
K is
the
Boltzmann constant (I.38 X10-23 Joules/Kelvin)
T is
the
absolute temperature in degree Kelvin.
IR is
the
reverse saturation current.
18
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
CHAPTER 4
4.1
A junction of two junction diodes with either P-type or section being, common to, both,
the resultant transistor is either an NPN or PNP type Junction transistor. In either
case, 'the middle or section is very narrow compared to other sections. The junction
transistor is produced in several different ways but the end result is the formation of
PN, junctions. The junction may be formed in the process of growing the crystal. The
thickness of the germanium of silicon crystal is important because of the possibility of
its shorting out if it is too thin. On the hand the crystal is too thick; the operation of the
transistor will be poor.
4.2
The description given below for a germanium transistor applies equally to a silicon
transistor. The NPN
consists of a, very thin layer of P-type germanium between two
sections of N-type germanium as shown, in, Fig. 4.1. The potential hills of the two
junctions are positive for the N-section and negative for the P-section. The emitter (or
input NP section) is biased in the forward direction. The collector (or output PN
section) is biased in the reverse direction that is the collector is positive with respect
L
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to base.
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.
4
.
G
I
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4.3
With the aid of negative potential applied to it, the free electrons in the emitter
N-section will be pushed towards the first junction. The potential hill of this junction is
essentially reduced by the polarity of the emitter bias battery. A number of electrons
will pass through the junction and enter the middle or P-section where some of them
combine with holes while other pass through. The electrons that pass through the
P-section do so because of the thickness of the section and the effect of the potential
hill of the second or PN junction. Actually, the potential hill, at the second junction
accelerates the electrons into the collector N-section. In the collector area, the free
electrons are attracted by the applied positive collector base voltage. It is important to
note that the movement of electrons and holes is not in one for one process. A small
IRISET
19
percentage (about to 5%) of the electrons entering the P-section (base region) form
the emitter N-section combine with the P-section holes. However the majority of the
electrons from the emitter do pass through the P region. Thus most of the electron
flow is between emitter and collector. The electrons leaving the emitter are controlled
by the bias potential between the emitter and base. (The similarity to a vacuum tube
triode, where the bias is between the control rid and the cathode controls the electron
flow to the plate which receives most of the, electrons should now be obvious).
4.4
The PNP transistor consists of a very thin layer of N-type germanium between two
sections of P-type germanium as shown in Fig.4.2.In this type, the potential hills of
the two junctions are positive for the PN-section and negative for the NP-section. In
the PNP transistor the connection of emitter bias battery must be positive to the
emitter and negative to the base in order to forward bias the emitter. The collector
bias battery must have its positive terminal connected to the base to reverse bias the
collector. The potential hill of the emitter junction is reduced by the forward bias.
L
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A
B +
FIG.4.2 THE PNP JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

4.5
In the operation of the PNP junction transistor holes are forced from the emitter
P-section into the base N-region by the positive potential of the emitter which is also
creating more holes by electron removal. In the base region a small number of holes
(about 1% to 5%) combine with electron from the base. Because the base region is
very narrow most of the holes move on into the collector P region before they can
combine with base electrons. In the collector P region the holes are attracted to the
collector negative terminal and combine with electrons from the collector. Thus the
major hole current is from emitter to collector, while emitter base current is very small.
It is important to note that the major current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes
while in the NPN transistor electrons are the major current carriers.
4.6
The NPN and PNP transistors are identified on schematics by the symbols shown in
fig.4.6. The three regions comprising the transistor are called the collector, base and
emitter. Emitter-base junction is always forward biased while collector-base junction is
reverse biased. The emitter region is so called because it emits majority carriers into
IRISET
20
the base region. The collector gets its name because it collects the majority carriers
from the base region. The base region is so called, because it is a support or base for
emitter and collector materials.
4.7
The direction of electron flow in the wires connected to the transistor is shown in fig.
For the NPN transistor where, electrons are the majority carriers, the electron flow
shown is continuation of the internal flow. For the PNP, the majority current carriers
are holes and the internal conduction is due to hole current. However, hole
conduction takes place only within the semiconductor crystal itself. This internal hole
conduction leads to electron flow in the external wires connected to the
semiconductor material. The direction of the electron flow is opposite to the internal
hole conduction and it is electron direction that is indicated for the PNP transistor.
4.8
Fig. 4.3 shows the basic current paths for the NPN and PNP transistors. The battery
labelled VBB provides the forward bias for the base-emitter junction. Forward biasing
causes current from one terminal of the battery through the junction and resistor and
back to other battery terminal. This is called base current. The resistor is included in
this path to indicate that some means of controlling this current is necessary. Recall
that most of the majority carriers that are injected, into the base region from the
emitter do not continue in the base emitter path. They are attracted toward the larger
potential applied to the collector region. This potential is supplied by the battery
marked Vcc. This current that is attracted to Vcc battery is called collector current.
Since both the base current and collector current come from the emitter region, a
simple relationship exists between the currents:
Ib
IC
le
In words the emitter current separates in the transistor into the base current and also
the collector current.
Fig. 4.3 Basic Current in a Transistor

4.9
The amount of collector current depends on the amount of base current. More the
base current, the more the majority carriers that are injected into the base region and
IRISET
21
the collector current is, therefore, larger. The base current converts the current
supplied by Vcc into a controlled current, namely the collector current. The amount
of collector current is related to the base current by the following simple but important
relationship:
lc = 1b
The Greek letter (Beta) represents the current gain of the transistor. It is important
to understand the twin loop concept depicted in the preceding illustration. One loop is
the base current path (the input circuit) and the other loop is the collector current path
(the output circuit). As will be seen later, the signal to be amplified is added to the
base bias current and the output signal is derived from the collector current. The idea
of base current regulating or controlling collector current is the basic operation of the
transistor amplifier.
4.10
The most important thermal consideration is the increase in base to collector reverse
current that occurs as temperature increases. The reverse biased base to collector
junction has very small current through it due to minority carriers. The situation is
shown for the NPN transistor in figure. This current is referred to as ICE0 (an
abbreviation for collector cut off current) This is the collector current that would flow if
the base lead were left disconnected. ICE0 has a particular value at room temperature,
but it increases as the temperature increases. This results in a situation where there
is a certain amount of collector current which is not controlled by the base current,
leading to unpredictable results. Precautions have, therefore, to be taken to minimize
ICEO,
IRISET
and
related
effects
due
22
to
change
in
ICEO
with
temperature.
TRANSISTOR CURRENT CONFIGURATIONS
CHAPTER 5
There are three basic configurations for transistor circuits. The three configurations are called
the common emitter, the common base, and the common collector circuit.
The input signal to a transistor is applied between two elements. The output signal is taken
between two elements. ~ Since there are only three elements in a transistor, one of the
elements has to be part of both the input and output circuits. The type of configuration
derives its name from the element that is common to both input and output.
The most widely used transistor circuit is the common emitter. It is called thus because the
emitter is common to both the input and output circuits. This is shown in figure. Figure A
shows the input circuit and figure B shows the output circuit. An important point should be
mentioned concerning the illustration is Fig. 5.1. The emitter is shown as grounded. Ground
is the reference point in the circuit from which voltages are measured.
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A
B
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Fig.5.1 Common Emitter Input and Output Circuit

It will be noticed in Figure that both the input and output signals are measured with reference
to ground. This reference point is called ground because quite often it is connected to the
actual earth or ground. -Because the common element, the emitter in this case, is grounded
this circuit is sometimes referred to as a grounded emitter circuit. Common
emitter
or
grounded emitter refers to the same type of circuit. The drawing shows a common emitter
stage. Figure does not show all the components usually needed for a working circuit, but is
intended to show that emitter is common to both the input and output.
TL
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PG
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Fig.5.2 Common Emitter Stage

IRISET
23
The example shown above is for the NPN type transistor. Every thing would still be valid for
the PNP type, except that the power supply polarity would be reversed.
Figure shows the common base configuration. The input signal is applied to the emitter base
circuit. Thus the base of the transistor is the common element. As was the case for the
common emitter, figure is only intended to show' why this circuit is called the common base
and does not represent a complete working circuit. In PNP transistor except that the polarity
of the power supply would be reversed and naturally, the arrow on the emitter lead would
point in the opposite direction.
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Fig.5.3 Common Base Stage

The third and final type of configuration is called is common collector and is illustrated in
figure A and B. The input signal is applied between the base and collector, and the output
signal is taken between the emitter and collector. Figure A shows the circuit as is normally
drawn, but it does not clearly illustrate why it is called a common collector. The identical
circuit is redrawn in figure B. The transistor has been turned around and this shows clearly
that the collector is common to both the input and output signals.
Fig.5.4 Common Collector Stage
As in the case of the other two configurations, another name for the common collector is the
grounded collector. The most popular name for this circuit is the emitter follower.
IRISET
24
THE COMMON EMMITTER
CHAPTER - 6
THE COMMON EMITTER
6.1
The common emitter circuit is the most popular and versatile of the three types. The
best way to arrive at a clear understanding of the performance of the common emitter
is to start with the basic concepts and add ideas bit by bit until a working circuit is
attained.
6.2
For a transistor to conduct, the base to emitter junction is forward biased and the
base to collector junction is reverse biased. This will cause a base current, which in
turn results in a collector - current
(see. Fig.6.1). They
are
related
by
the
expression lc = Ib, where is the current gain.

Ic
Ic N
Ib
Ib
=
Ic
B Ib
Ie
N
Ie
Fig.6.1 Base Collector Current

6.3
The first step then is to establish a forward biased base to emitter junction and
produce some base current. This is done by connecting the base to a power supply
through a resistor to establish the desired current. This is shown in figure A. To
provide a reverse bias to collector junction and a path for collector current, the
collector is connected to a power supply through a resistor (figure B). The two
currents together are shown in figure C. The same power supply is used for both
currents.
The process of establishing a base current and a collector voltage is
called biasing the transistor. So far only biasing current
has been established and
no mention has been made of the signal to be amplified.
V
0
2
Ib
Ic
Ib
Ic
( )
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B
( )
Fig.6.2 Common Emitter Biasing

IRISET
25
THE COMMON EMMITTER
6.4
The signal to be amplified is superimposed or added to the base bias current. It is

introduced into the circuit by means of a capacitor, as shown in figure. This capacitor
is called a coupling capacitor because it couples or joins the input signal to the circuit.
A capacitor is used because it blocks the base biased direct current from flowing into
the source of the signal and yet, lets the signal flow into the circuit.
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FIG.6.3 INTRODUCTION OF SIGNAL
6.5
The collector current is P times the base current. P can be looked up in the
specifications for the particular type transistor used. Whatever the base current is, P
times that current will flow in the collector circuit (assuming linear operation to be
explained later). A simple numerical example will help to illustrate these ideas.
Assume we are given the following data:

= 50 from transistor specifications.
RL= 5000 ohms, determined by load requirements.
It is desirable that when no signal current is present, the collector is midway between
its minimum and maximum possible operating excursion. In this case, that would be
+10 volts since the power supply voltage is 20 volts. This means that with no signal
current we want a 10 volt drop across the 5000 ohm resistor. The desired collector
current is then:
IC =
10 volts
= .002 ampere = 2 mA
5000 ohms.
IRISET
26
THE COMMON EMMITTER
If we want 2 mA of collector current, then the required 'base current can be

calculated:
lc
Ib
Ib
lc =
2mA =
50
.04mA = 40A.
To achieve this desired base current, a resistor of appropriate value is connected to

the base from the power supply. Assuming that there is a negligible voltage drop from
base to emitter, the value of base resistor in use to achieve the desired 40 A base
current can be calculated:
RB =
or
Ib
RB
20 volts = 50,000 ohms

40 A
This common emitter sage is now biased at 40 A base current, 2mA collector
current, and 10 volts collector voltage.
6.6
An input signal current is now superimposed on the base bias current. Assume it is an
alternating sine wave that first flow 10 A in one direction and then 10 A in the other.
This is shown in Fig.6.4(A). Such a signal might come from an antenna, a
microphone, or another circuit. This current will add to or subtract from the base-bias
current depending on which direction it is flowing at that instant of time. This is shown
in Fig.6.4(B). The total base current is no longer just 40 A but it now vanes between
30 A and 50A. The total collector current will vary accordingly. When the base
current is 30 A. the collector current will be 50 times that or 1.5 mA; and. when the
base current is 50 A the collector current is 2.5 mA. Thus, we have an amplifier. The
base current is varied by 10 A in each direction and the collector current is varied by
500 A. This is shown in figure. The varying collector current through the load resistor
develops the output voltage.
It will be noted at this time that the output current (collector current) is actually
supplied by the power supply, and the transistor regulates or governs this current
under the influence of the base current.
IRISET
27
THE COMMON EMMITTER
S
A
I
B
E
S
A
B
&
L
A
N
G
I
S
A A A
B
0 0 0
5 4 3
A
0
1
Y
L
N
O
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A
N
G
I
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A
0 A
1
-
( )
( )
Fig.6.4 Input Signal Current
6.7
The common emitter circuit just analysed is not a very practical circuit. The biasing
technique described may work well at a room temperatures. Also varies
transistor to another (even
from
one
of the same type) and a more practical biasing
arrangement can be used to compensate for this.

6.8
The common emitter circuit is said to provide a phase reversal because the output
voltage is 180 degrees, out of phase with the input voltage. Referring to ignore it will
be noticed that as lc increases, the voltage drop across RL increases.
Since at any one time, the voltage drop across RL and the transistor (from collector
to emitter) must be equal to 20 volts, the voltage from collector emitter must be
decreasing. Likewise, when the voltage drop across the RL is decreasing due to a
decrease in lc, the
voltage across the transistor is increasing. Thus, the actual
output voltage which is taken from the collector to emitter is 180 degrees out of phase
with the collector current. Since the collector current is in phase
With
the
base
voltage, the output voltage is also 180 degrees out of phase with the input base
voltage. This is what is termed a phase reversal. The various relationships are
illustrated in the curves of figure B. The common emitter circuit is the only one of the
three configurations to give a phase reversal.
IRISET
28
THE COMMON COLLECTOR
CHAPTER - 7
THE COMMON BASE
7.1
In the common or grounded base configuration the input signal is applied between the
emitter and base and the output signal is extracted between the collector and base.
The internal workings of the transistor remain the same as in the common emitter.
7.2
Just as in the common emitter circuit, in the common base circuit the emitter current
divides inside the transistor with a large percentage (about 95%) going to the collector
and a very small amount (about 5%) becoming base current. This is shown in figure.
For the common emitter, the important equation lc=.Ib relates the input current (Ib) to
the output current (lc). An equally important equation arises in the common base
configuration.
Ic = lE
Where , the Greek letter alpha, is referred to as the common base current gain.
Since about 95% of the emitter current develops into collector current, generally a has
values in the .95 region. Since the output current (Ic) is less than the input current
(le), it will not immediately be apparent as to how this circuit is used as an amplifier. It
is true that it cannot be used as a current amplifier, but by selecting the proper values
for the input and load resistor, a voltage gain may be attained.
Fig.7.1 Common Base Current

7.3
Fig.7.2 shows the emitter current, collector current, and the two currents together, just
as in the common emitter circuit. A particular bias condition is achieved by proper
choice of biasing resistors. The current paths are shown in the illustration. The signal
currents will be superimposed on these steady d.c. , currents.
IRISET
29
C
I
C
I
C
I
C
I
C
I
( )
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L
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&
R
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( )
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L
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E
T
T
I
M
E
( )
Fig.7.2 Emitter and Collector Current
7.4
The resistor values have to be calculated to give the desired bias currents. The
procedure would be similar to that used in the common emitter example. However,
for the common base amplifier, the input signal is superimposed or added on to the
emitter current rather than on the base current, as it was in the common emitter
circuit. This is shown in Fig.7.3 where the signal to be amplified is coupled by a
capacitor to the circuit.
FIG.7.3 SIGNAL ADDED TO BIAS CURRENT
7.5
The drawing of the wave forms (see figure) shows the phase relationships among the
voltage and current at the input and the voltage and current at the output. As
the
input signal voltage increases, the emitter current will decrease since the collector
current is related to the emitter current by lc= le, it also will decrease. The voltage
across RL will increase, as lc decreases, so that output signal increases. The reverse
occurs as the input voltage decreases. It will be noted from figures A and D that tile
input voltage and output voltage are in phase, showing that there is no phase reversal
in the common base configuration.
IRISET
30
CHAPTER-8
8.1
The common collector configuration are shown in figure. These are the same as
those shown for the common emitter. However the collector, instead of the emitter, is
common to input and output, and the load resistor is in the emitter circuit. This makes
a difference in the circuit operation of the two configurations. Since the load resistor is
in the emitter lead, both the input and output currents pass through this resistor. This
is the only configuration where this situation occurs.
Fig.8.1 Common Collector Currents
8.2
Figures shows the biasing currents. Just as in the common emitter, base current is
established by connecting the base to a power supply through a resistor. However, in
this case, the base current also goes through the resistor in the emitter lead. Collector
current appears in this resistor and establishes a voltage drop across this resistors in
such a directions as to oppose base current. Thus, the base current upon which the
input signal will be superimposed encounter or "sees a large resistance from the
base, through the transistor and load resistor to ground. The fact that the common
collector has a high input resistance and low output resistance is one of its most
important characteristics.
V
0
2
Ib
Ic
Ib
Ic
( )
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B
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R
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A
B
( )
FIG. 8.2 COMMON COLLECTOR BIASING
IRISET
31
8.3
The signal to be amplified is capacitively coupled to the base and is extracted

between the emitter and collector. This is illustrated in figure. Since the base to
emitter is forward biased, there is very little voltage drop across this junction, and the
output voltage at the emitter is almost the same amplitude as the input base signal.
For this circuit
8.4
Figure shows the phase relationship between input and output signals, it will be noted
that the input voltage and output voltage are in phase.
IRISET
32
COMPARISION OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
CHAPTER -9
COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
9.1
In general, current gain is the ratio of the output signal current to the input signal
current. The output current for the common base is less than the input current (since
loc = I.e.), so this configuration actually givers a current loss. However, voltage
amplification is possible. Voltage amplification occurs when the output voltage is larger
than the input voltage. In the common base configuration the input current is fed
through a small resistor. Thus, the collector current, although smaller than the emitter
current, passes through a larger resistance and thus develops a larger voltage. A
simple example will explain this feature. Assume an input signal current of 10 A
through an emitter resistance of 500 ohms. The emitter voltage can be calculated:
Vet=loc Re
=10 A X 500 ohms 0.005 volts.
Since approximately, 0.98 of the emitter current is in the collector circuit, the collector
signal current will be 9.8 RA, Assuming a collector resistance of 2,50,000 ohms, the
collector voltage will be:
VC = IC RC
= 9.8 A X 2,50,000 ohms = 2.45 volts.
Thus, the voltage gain is 2.45/.005 = 490. Voltage gain has been attained
even-though there is a current loss.
9.2
The common emitter circuit gives both a current gain and a voltage gain. For this
reason, it is by far the most versatile and widely used configuration. Recall the
relationship Ice= .IBM, where is the common emitter current gain and generally has
values between 30 and 300. This current gain comes about by the very nature of the
internal working of the transistor. A voltage gain is realized because the collector
current (output) is, fed through larger resistor than the base current (input). For
example, if 10 A of base signal current goes through a 1000 ohm input resistance,
the input voltage is .01 volt. Assuming a of 50, the collector current is 500 A. A
typical collector resistor might be 10,000 ohms, so the output voltage is 500 A X
10,000 ohms, or 5 volts. The voltage gain is 510.01 = 500.
IRISET
33
9.3
The common collector is different from the common base that it can produce a current
gain, but it has a voltage gain less than one. The current gain for the common
collector is almost the same as that for the common emitter. This is because the input
current to both circuits is base current, while the output current for the common
collector is emitter current and for the common emitter it is collector current. These
two currents are almost equal, making the current gain almost the same. . As
mentioned before the voltage gain is less than one. This is because the output is
taken off at emitter, which is at a slightly lower voltage than the base. Thus the
common collector is used as a current amplifier, only.
9.4
In general, the input resistance of a transistor circuit can be considered to be the

resistance that signal current encounters between the
input
element
and
the
-common element, this resistance is usually rather low since the only resistance
encountered is the base to emitter forward biased junction. The input signal in the
common collector circuit encounters not only the forward biased junction but the load
resistor in the emitter lead as well. As mentioned before, the output current also goes
through this resistor and establishes a voltage drop across it that opposes the input
current. For this reason, the input resistance is quite high for the common collector.
9.5
The output resistance can be thought of, as being the resistance from the output
element Looking back into the transistor to the common element. The
output
resistance for the common base is the reverse biased collector to base junction. This
is the highest output resistance of the three configurations. The common emitter
output resistance is lower than the common base, because it includes the reverse
based collector base junction and provides an internal feedback path that lowers the
resistance of the reverse biased collector base junction and therefore decreases the
whole output resistance. The output resistance of the common collector circuit is the
lowest of the three configurations. Because of its high input resistance and low output
resistance, the common collector circuit is often used to match a high resistance
device. Such as a crystal phonograph pickup to a low resistance load, the table below
shows some typical values (for comparison purposes) of the more important
characteristics of the three configurations.
IRISET
34
9.4
A comparison of characteristics of three configurations is given below:

Characteristics
Current Gain
Common
Common
Common
Base
emitter
collector
Less than 1
30 to 300
30 to 300
(.95 to.99 )
(about.95 )
Voltage Gain
500 to 800
300 to 600
Less than 1
Input resistance
50 to 200
500 to 1000
20k-100k
Output resistance
300,000
50,000
500
1800 out of phase
in Phase
Input-Output phase In phase
IRISET
35
CHARECTERISTIC CURVES
CHAPTER -10
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
10.1
A clear picture of how a transistor amplifies can be derived from the characteristic
curves. These curves are plots of various voltages and currents as other voltages or
currents are varied.
Two sets of curves are particularly useful. They are the output
characteristic curves for the common emitter and common base circuits.
10.2
The most widely used family of curves supplied by the transistor manufactures is the
common emitter output characteristics curves. Figure shows a circuit that can be
used to develop the family of curves. The three items of interest are the base current,
the collector current, and the collector voltage. Meters are inserted in the circuit to
measure these parameters. The curves are plotted by selecting a particular base
current (by adjusting Rb) and increasing the collector voltage while monitoring the
collector current.
FIG. 10.1 CIRCUIT USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF CURVES
10.3
Figure shows a portion of the family of curves that results from measurements taken
for different values of lb. Start with lb = 0 A. Set the collector voltage to 5 volts and
measure lc. This is point 1 on the curve. Then set the collector voltage to 10, 15 and
20 volts, measuring lc, each time. This results in points 2, 3 and 4 on the curve. The
result of joining these points together is the single curve marked lb = 0 A. By
increasing the base current to say 20 A (by adjusting Rb) and again making
measurements of Ic as collector voltage is varied will lead to another curve marked lb
= 20 A. A whole family of curves can be generated this way by selecting convenient
values of base current.
IRISET
36
0
0
1
=
b
I
5
4
3
)
A
m
0
2
=
b
I
C
I
S
T
L
O
V
E
C
0
2
5
1
0
1
0
=
b
I
FIG. 10.2 OUTPUT CURVES (PARTIAL)

10.4
For previous section described how the output curves are generated. This was done
by keeping lb constant and varying the collector power supply. However, this is done
only to construct the curves. The actual use of the curves is quite different. For
practical working, load lines have to be drawn.
10.5
An important line, called the load line, is determined and drawn on the curves.
Assume, from the amplifier specifications, that a load resistor RL of 4000 ohms is
required. a straight line, called the 4000 ohm line is shown in the figure and it can be
constructed on the family of curves in the following way. The example uses a 20 volt
power supply. The two points used to determine the location of the load line are, 1.
When Vce=0 and the full 20 volts are across the 4000 ohm resistor this
makes Ic =
4 mA and is marked A (on the curves), and 2, when Vce = 20 volts and there is no
current in the collector (this is marker B on the curves). The line joining these two
points is the 4000 ohm load line.
Note that point B is determined solely by the power supply voltage. If RL were 8000
ohms, point B would be the same as with a 4000 ohm load. However when Vce = 0,
Ic would be 2.5 mA and it is shown as point C on the curves. The 8000 ohm load line
would be the line joining the points B and C.
Once the load line has been drawn On the family of curves, a suitable operating point
can be determined. Suppose it is decided to operate somewhere in the middle of the
load line at point Q, this is specified by a particular base current (40 A) and collector
voltage (12 volts). The whole purpose of bias current then is to establish an operating
point with no signal in the circuit. This point is called the quiescent point because it is
the quiet, still, or no signal operating point. It is, determined solely by the bias
conditions.
IRISET
37
This same set of curves can be used for the common collector circuit since Ic and le
are almost the same (Ic = le). The only changed needed would be to use le instead
of lc in the curves shown in the illustration.
E
N
I
L
D
A
O
L
0
0
4
0
8
=
b
I
0
6
=
b
I
VC
S
T
5L
1O
V
0 E
1 C
V
0
2
= B
b
I
0
2
1 0
Ib
0
4
=
b
I
L 0
R 2
0
0
1
=
b
I
5
A
C E
N
I
L
0
0D
8A
O
L
FIG. 10.3 COMMON EMITTER OUTPUT CURVES
10.6
To construct the common base output characteristics curves, a circuit such as the one
shown in figure is used. Meters are placed in the circuit to measure the parameters of
interest. For the plotting of the common base curves, le is held constant and the
collector current is monitored while the collector supply is varied. For each value of le
a single curve is determined. When all these curves for different values of IC are
plotted together, a family of curves shown in figure results.
They look very similar to the common emitter curves except for one very important
point. The so called "running" parameter in the common base curves is the emitter
current, while in the common emitter it was the base current. These are the input
currents to their respective circuits.
FIG. 10.4 CIRCUIT FOR COMMON BASE CURVE CONSTRUCTION
IRISET
38
10.7
The load line for the common base is determined in a similar manner as that used for
the common emitter. An example is shown in figure for a 4000 ohm load resistor. Just
as for the common emitter, the operating point with no signal is called the quiescent
point and is labelled Q in the figure. Note that the le curves have the same value as
the value of lc along vertical axis. This is as expected, since le & lc are approximately
equal (lc =. (le)
FIG. 10.5 COMMON BASE OUTPUT CIRCUIT CURVES
IRISET
39
OPERATING LIMITS OF TRANSISTORS
CHAPTER - 11
11.1
Several precautions must be considered in selecting a particular type, of transistor for

reliable operation in a circuit. The most important limitations are maximum collector
voltage and current, maximum power dissipation and cut off frequency.
11.2
Just as for other electronic devices, it is reasonable to assume that the voltage and
current applied to a transistor cannot be increased indefinitely without damage
occurring. The maximum voltage that can be applied between the collector and
emitter is limited by the "breakdown voltage". The output curves previously shown for
the common emitter did not extend in the We direction far enough to show the
breakdown voltage. Fig. shows that if we is extended far enough, a sudden increase
in collector current occurs even though the base current has been kept constant. The
voltage at which the curves break sharply upward is called "Breakdown voltage". Most
transistors have a voltage breakdown rating of at least 30 volts. Since the transistor
does not function normally and is subject to destruction in this region, the quiescent
operating point has to be selected, so that this area is avoided.
Fig.11.1 Breakdown Voltage
11.3
Breakdown voltage establishes the maximum allowable voltage. The maximum

current, however, is not as well defined. The maximum current allowed really depends
on the operating voltage, and the combinations of the two establish maximum power
dissipation. Except in special cases, such as pulse - switching applications a large
collector current is not desirable. The, higher the collector current, the lower is the
current gain. Generally speaking, the particular requirements for establishing the
quiescent point will' establish the collector current.
IRISET
40
11.4
There is a maximum power that the transistor itself can dissipate. If more than this
power is dissipated, the transistor will be destroyed. Since power is current times
voltage, the maximum allowable power can be plotted on the collector voltage versus
collector current output curves, as shown in figure. If the collector voltage is
multiplied by the collector current a curve such as that labelled "maximum allowable
power" results. The shaded area is where the power dispassion exceeds the
manufacture's rating. The curve in the illustration is for an assumed maximum rating
of .5 watt. The load line and quiescent point should be selected so that no time does
the collector voltage and current result in operating in the shaded area.
Fig.11.2 Maximum Power Dissipation

11.5 The current gain,, is usually specified for a low-frequency signal such as 1000 hertz
(cycle per second). However, as frequency is increased, gain begins to diminish; this
is due to transit time of the internal carriers and various capacitances in the transistor.
The fall of with frequency is shown in figure. The frequency at which (x falls to 0.7
of its value at low frequency is called the cut-off frequency. The example in the figure
shows a cut off frequency of approximately 10 MHz. The transistor still operates
beyond this frequency, but the gain will be lower.
FIG. 11.3 FREQUENCY CUT-OFF
IRISET
41
SPECIFICATION OF TRANSISTORS
CHAPTER - 12
SPECIFICATIONS OF TRANSISTORS
12.1
Transistors are often classified as either general - purpose, high frequency or high
power types. These groups, however, unlike the groups for vacuum tubes, are further
sub-divided according to the material from which the transistor is made such as
germanium or silicon. The method of basic construction provides further separation
into type groups. Junction transistors, either PNP or NPN are usually listed apart from
point contact transistors. Surface barrier (SBT) transistors form still another group,
since their possible applications differ from those of the above mentioned groups. For
convenience, PNP and NPN types are often listed separately.
12.2
Power transistors are generally listed separately from the physically smaller general
purpose transistor. The same holds true for the special high frequency transistors,
tetrode transistors, photo and other special purpose types.
12.3
Semiconductor like, diodes, transistors, are classified according to the basic materials
from which they are made, their basic construction, and their use. Thus silicon diodes
are usually listed separately from germanium diodes. Point contact diodes may be
listed apart from junction diodes and so forth. Again, usage forms a basis for further
separation. General purpose diodes comprise most of the germanium types. High
frequency types used for radar or microwave applications are usually grouped
separately since An physical shape and construction, they differ appreciably from the
general purpose types. The same holds true for the high power types used in power
handling circuits and power supplies. This last type may be grouped or listed with
metallic rectifiers, such as selenium or copper oxide, since they serve a similar
purpose.
12.4
Semiconductors, like vacuum tubes, are available in a large variety of different types,
each with its own unique characteristics. The characteristics of each of these devices
are usually presented in specification sheets, or they may be included in tube or
transistor, manuals.
12.5
The lead paragraph of a semiconductor' specification is a general description of the

device, and usually contains three specific pieces of information, the kind of transistor
(or diode), a few major application areas, and general sales features, including
physical size and packaging.
IRISET
42
12.6
The absolute maximum ratings should not be exceeded under any circumstance.
Exceeding them may cause semiconductor failure.
12.7
The power dissipation of a transistor depends on its junction temperature. The higher
the temperature of the air surrounding the transistor (ambient temperature), the less
power the device can dissipate. A factor telling how much the transistor must be
derated for each degree of increase in ambient temperature in degrees centigrade is
usually given. All of the remaining ratings define the capabilities of the device under
specified test conditions. These characteristics are used by the design engineer to
design matching networks and to calculate exact circuit performance.
12.8
Small signal characteristics are usually expressed in minimum, nominal and

maximum values. Included in these are: the current transfer ratio which is another
name for input impedance; output admittance; power gain; and noise figure. When is
expressed as an a-c characteristic, the symbol life may be used.
Many specification
sheets also list the dc using the symbol hFE. Since it is somewhat dependent on
frequency some specification sheets list P for more than one frequency.
The
noise
figure is a measurement derived to evaluate the amount of noise produced in a circuit

by a transistor.
12.9
High frequency characteristics, usually listed separately include the frequency cut off
of a transistor, which is, defined as that frequency at which the grounded base current
gain drops to 0.707 of the 1 KHz value. It gives a rough indication of the useful,
frequency range of the device. The collector to base capacity and power gain at
specified frequencies may also be included in high frequency characteristics.
12.10 The d-c characteristics usually include the collector breakdown voltage, collector
cut-off current, and collector saturation resistance. The collector cut-off current is the
leakage current from collector to base when no emitter current is being applied. This
leakage current varies with temperature changes, and must be taken on to account
whenever any semiconductor, devices is designed into equipment to be used over a
wide range of ambient temperature.
12.11 Switching characteristics, also listed separately, show how the device responds to an
input pulse under specified driving conditions. The response time given is very much
dependent on the circuit. The terms used are explained in the curves shown in figure.
IB1 and IB2 are base current values of an applied input pulse, and lc is resultant
collector current. The delay time (td) is the time between the start of the input pulse
IRISET
43
and the point at which the output pulse reaches ten percent of its maximum
amplitude. The rise time (tr) is that time required for the output pulse to reach ninety
per cent amplitude from the ten percent level. The stoppage time (ts) is the time
between the removal of the input pulse and the point at which the amplitude of the
output pulse has decreased to ninety percent of' its millimetre. The fall time (tf) is the
time it takes the output pulse to reach ten percent of its amplitude from the ninety
percent level. Such values are usually expressed in microseconds (s.).
E
S
L
U
P
T
U
P
N
I
B I
B
I
2
r
t
T
UE
PS
TL
UU
OP
C
I
00
91
%
%
r
t
r
t
&
t
Fig, 12.1 Switching Characteristics Of Semi-Conductor Devices
12.12 Probably the oldest standard numbering system in current common use is the
American JEDEC". In this, the Electronic Industries Association (E.I.A.) in the United
States registers devices from specifications put up by manufactures. It uses a
numbering system in which the first numeral shows how many diode junctions the
device has, with a 1 for a diode, a '2' for a triode transistor and a "3 for a tetrode.
After this initial numeral comes an 'N' and then the number in serial order under which
the device was registered with the authority. As an example, the N914" is the 914th
triode transistor registered. By the end of 1967 both IN (diode) and 2N (triode)
numbers registered has passed the 5,000 marks.
Any manufacturer, provided he meets the specification as registered by the original

manufacturer with E.I.A. can supply devices to JEDEC numbers. The full details of
any individual registered device can be obtained from E.I.A. 200 Eye st,N.W.,
Washington, D.C.20006. Unfortunately, they do not publish an easily available
comprehensive authoritative list of "JEDEC" devices and their characteristics.
IRISET
44
12.13 Although the "JEDEC" standard numbering has come into fairly common use in
Europe, there is a European standard system, known as "PRO ELECTRON" which is
also widely used in parallel with "JEDEC". The organising authority is the Association
International "PRO ELECTRON", of 10, Avenue Namoir, Brussels.
As with the "JEDEC" system, the manufacturer registers- with PRO ELECTRON" a
device he has developed. Any other manufacturer can then supply devices marked
with the same registered number, provided his version also meets the electrical and
mechanical specification registered with PRO ELECTRON".
The "PRO ELECTRON" system has one high advantage over "JEDEC". All you can
tell from a 'JEDEC" numbers is whether the device is a diode, triode, etc., and same
indications of the time or registration, since low numbers, mean the device was
registered years age. With "PRO ELECTION, the letters and numbers used are
much more significant.
The "PRO ELECTRON" type number always has five places: either two letters and
three numerals (as in BC 107) or three letters and two numerals (as in BCY72). The
first letter indicates the bulk semiconductor material used:
A:
Germanium;
B:
Silicon;
The second letter indicates the circuit type of the device.

A:
Signal diode, non-power;
B:
Variable capacitance diode;
C:
Transistor I.f. non-power;
D:
Transistor I.f. power;
E:
Tunnel diode;
F:
Transistor h.f. non-power;
G:
Multiple device;
H:
Field probe;
K:
Hall generator;
L:
Transistor h.f. power;
M:
Hall modulator or multiplier;
P:
Radiation sensitive device (photo- diode. Photo-transistor or photo conductive

device);
IRISET
45
Q:
Radiation generating device;
R:
Specialised break down device.,
S:
Transistor, switching non-power;
T:
Controlling and switching device with break down
characteristics;
power (S.C.R. or thyristor etc.);

U:
Transistor switching power;
X:
Multiple diodes;
Y:
Rectifier, power;
Z:
Zener diode (voltage reference or regulator);
The final three places of the PRO ELECTRON five place registration numbers give
an indication of the general area of use and serial number. Where three numerals are
used (BC 107) this indicates a device for "entertainment or "Consumer" use, i.e. for
ratio etc. The three numbers run from 100 to 999. Where a letter indicates a device
for use in industrial and professional equipment.. The letters (which bear no
significance) in this case start from Z back through Y,X etc. The accompanying serial
numbers run from 10 to 99 only. Sub-classifications are permitted in certain devices
such as Zener diodes, and thyristors (SCRs) in the "PRO ELECTRON" system.
These are indicated by further coding added after a hyphen at the end of the five
place basic number according to a significant system.
From Zeners, the code addition gives information on the nominal voltage and its
tolerance. The tolerance appears first as a single letter:
A = 1%;
B = 2%;
C = 5%;
D = 10%
and E = 15%.
The nominal voltage follows as a numeral plus the letter V in the position of the
decimal point where necessary. Thus BZY88-09V1 represents a silicon zener for
industrial use with registration number Y88 tolerance 5% and nominal voltage 9.1V.
For rectifiers and thyristers, the additional "PRO ELECTRON" code numbers signify
the repetitive peak reverse voltage in volts. Thus BYX36-100 indicates a silicon
rectifier for industrial use with registration number X36 and a 100-Y rating while the
BTY 99-100 represents a silicon thyrister for industrial use with registration number Y
99 and 100 - V rating. With power rectifiers and thyristors, the cathode is normally
connected to the stud mounting. Where the anode is connected to the stud ("reverse
polarity"), a final letter R is added. By this, a BTY99 - 100R signifies a reverse polarity
BTY99-100.
IRISET
46
Recently supplementary coding have arisen for ordinary transistors too, viz. the well
known BC108 in versions coded BC 108A,B and C. The final letter suffix in this case
denotes narrow spread limits of the Basic BC108 device.
12.14 The "PRO ELECTRON" system has become widely accepted in EUROPE during the
1960s and is often referred to as the "new" European system. It has replaced the old
European system under which semiconductors were indicated by an initial "0"
(standing for zero hector volts in the then existing valve coding) After the initial 0
'came a letter in the coding with A = diode, C = triode, etc. and registration number.
Typical -examples are such coding as the OC71 transistor and the OA81 diode.
Devices are still being marketed under this old system, but it is to be expected that
they will ultimately disappear.
12.15 In Japanese system the first two symbols of the code are "2s" for triode transistor and
the third gives an indication of the general characteristics of the transistor, according
to the following code:
A = pnp(r.f.)
B = pnp(a.f.)
npn(r.f.)
D = npn(a.f.)
As an illustration, the 2SA49 is p-n-p, r.f transistor with registration number 49.
12.16 The "Services" standard systems use CV numerals. The commonest of these are the
"CV types, where the type designation consists of the letters CV followed by a four
and recently five digit number.
12.17 The British Post Office too, has in the past issued its own series of semiconductor
specifications. Examples are the self evident numbering series P01, P02, etc. The
only other Government numbering system the American "Mil. Spec." series
corresponding to the British "CV system. Under this coding, devices are normally
specified as the corresponding commercial "JEDEC" number with the prefix JAN
added; e.g. JAN 2N3093 is the Mil Spec. Version of 2N3093. This is the current
procedure, but "Mil. Spec." devices may also be found coded under the previous
system, where the prefix indicates the branch of the services sponsoring the device.
The single JAN prefix now used replaces the separate prefixes USA, USAF and USN
formerly used. The "Mil. Spec" Jargon name of these devices arose because they
were related to a specification document numbered Mil-S19500, where the individual
IRISET
47
devices were distinguished by a suffix number; for example, the 2N914 has the
designation Mil-S 19500/375 in its military version.
12.18 Because of their extremely small size, the pin construction of semiconductor devices
differs radically from that of vacuum tubes rather than a base for pin connections.
Most semiconductors are fitted with lead which protrude through the very small case
into which such devices are sealed. Semiconductor diodes have only two leads, or, as
in the construction of special microwave diodes, the case has two unlike fittings in the
former type, a colour dot on can identifies the cathode terminal or load, and in the
latter type improper mounting is prevented by the design.
12.19 Transistor leads or terminals are coded by one of several methods. In most cases the
collector lead is identified by a colour dot (usually red) or by a wider spacing between
leads. The lead farthest moved from the collector lead is, in most cases the emitter
lead. The base lead is, in most configurations, located between these two.
12.20 Most transistors have leads coded by one of the methods shown in figure A and F. In
figure A, a wide space separates the collector lead from the others. A colour dot
(usually red) identifies the collector lead in the equal spaced pattern shown in figure
B. In. figure C, a transistor having leads triangularly spaced, or equally spaced above
a circle is shown a red line identifies the collector lead and, for further identification,
the emitter lead is at least one-sixteenth of an inch shorter than the other. In figure, D,
the leads are located at three of the four quadrants of a circular formation, with the
fourth quadrant left vacant. When viewed from bottom, in the anticlockwise direction
from the vacant space, first lead is the emitter. Number 2 is the base and 3 is the
collector. Figure E shows the base for a power transistor, and these types are
generally clamped by mounting bolts. The mounting bolt is the collector. In figure F
the base lead is identified by green sleeve The collector lead is slightly spaced from
the rest. The order from left is emitter, base 1, base 2, collector.
IRISET
48
FIG. 12.2 TRANSISTOR LEAD IDENTIFICATION
IRISET
49
THE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
CHAPTER - 13
13.1
An important recent advancement in the semiconductor field is the field effect

transistor (FET). The basic principles on which these devices operate is the control of
current an electric 'field', whereas in a regular transistor one current is controlled by
another current. One of the basic features of FET's is the very high input impedance
which implies that the input is voltage controlled as in the vacuum tube. As a matter of
fact, the characteristics of an FET are similar enough to a vacuum tube, so that
engineers can adapt their vacuum tube knowledge very readily to the FET. It is
somewhat ironic that in order to study the transistor, one has always been told to
forget about vacuum tubes and learn transistor theory from the beginning. Now there
is a transistor that is more like a vacuum tube than like a regular, transistor.
13.2
There are two types of FETs known as the junction field effect transistor (IGFET) and
the insulated gate field effect transistor (IGFET). Quite often, the IGFET is called the
"metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) which term will be used
in this chapter.
13.3
Basically, a JFET can be considered as a variable resistor. This resistor is really a

doped silicon bar that can be either an N-type or P-type material, figure A shows ail
N-type material. Two terminals are connected to this bar; one is called the "Source"
and the other is called the "Drain". Current between the source and drain depends on
the resistance of the N-type material. A P-type region is diffused into the N-type bar.
This P-type material is used to control the resistance of the N-type material, and so
the load attached to it is called the 'GATE' As with all P-N Junctions, a depletion
region is formed around the Junction. Tile size of the region depends on the amount
of reverse voltage applied to the junction. As the reverse voltage is increased the
depletion region enlarges and spreads into the N-type material and restricts the
current. The actual resistance of the N-type material between the source and drain is
regulated by the size of the depletion region. This in turn, is controlled by the reverse
bias between gate and source. It will be noted that there is no current in the gate
circuit since the junction is reverse biased. Figure B shows the symbol for an N
channel JFET. A P-channel, FET can be formed by starting with a P-type bar between
the source and drain and diffusing an N-type material for the gate. The word 'channel'
is used to indicate that current between the source and drain is channelized by the
action of the depletion region.
IRISET
50
N
I
A
R
D
N
I
A
R
D
N
ON
I
TO
EI
LG
PE
ER
D
E
T
A
G
E
T
A
G
E
C
R
U
O
S
E
C
R
U
O
S
( )
L
O
B
M
Y
S
C
I
T
A
M
E
H
C
S
N
O
I
T
C
U
R
T
S
N
O
C
( )
FIG. 13.1 N CHANNEL JFET
13.4
The insulated gate FET, more often called MOSFET, operates with a different control
mechanism than the JFET. The N-channel device is constructed as shown in figure A.
Two N-type materials are diffused
into a P-type substrate. These two N-type
materials are the "Source" and Drain". An insulating oxide material covers the whole
surface except for holes for the leads to the source and drain. The 'GATE' metal is
then attached to the insulating oxide layer. In the construction just described, there
is no physical connectionor junction between the gate and either the source or the
drain. Thus, no current exists in the gate circuit and for all practical purposes the input
gate can be considered an open circuit. The operation of the MOSFET depends on
the ed in the vicinity of the substrate, between the 'source field created between the
gate and substrate material to induce current between the N-type materials forming
the source and drain. As a positive voltage at the gate is increased negative charges
are induced into drain. This causes the material in this region to become an N-type
material. Also called 'channel' of N-type material is then formed
IRISET
51
FIG. 13.2 N CHANNEL MOSFETFET
between the 'source' and 'drain' as shown in figure B and there is current in this Drain
Source circuit. This current will depend on how much an N-type material is formed by
the gate in this channel, thus decreasing the drain-source current field. The Drain
source current is thus regulated by the gate voltage. The type of MOSFET just
described is an, 'enhancement' type because the gate voltage increases the number
of carriers in the channel. Another type of MOSFET is called a 'depletion' type. In this
device, a resistive N-type channel is diffused in the substrate between the Source and
Drain, as shown in Fig. C the gate voltage decreases the carriers.
13.5
Typical transfer curves for N-channel device are shown in Fig. A to C. These curves
show the current voltage relationships for the depletion and enhancement modes just
described, as well as a combination of them called the depletion enhancement mode.
These curves and the whole discussion of most FET's have been based on the N
channel device. P-channel devices are made by switching the N-type materials for
P-type and vice versa. The polarities of applied voltages would have to be reversed,
also. This is the same situation -as with NPN and PNP transistors.
IRISET
52
FIG. 13.3 N CHANNEL CURVES
13.6
The symbol for the P-channel and N-channel types of MOSFET are shown in Fig. A
and B. The current voltage transfer curves, shown in Fig.13.4 A to C indicate what the
depletion and enhancement modes mean in terms of gate voltage and drain current.
As the gate voltage is decreased the current is reduced. In the enhancement type, at
zero gate voltage the drain current is zero. The gate voltage is increased to increase
the drain current. The depletion enhancement mode is a combination of the two at
zero gate volts, there is drain current and it can be increased from this value by
increasing or decreasing die gate voltage.
FIG. 13.4 N MOSFET SYMBOLS
13.7
Typical output characteristic curves for the three modes of MOSFET
operation are
illustrated in figure. The N-channel device is chosen for illustration. It will be noted
that the characteristics are similar to a pentode tube.
The shape is similar to
transistor curves but there is a very important difference in that the' running variable
for the transistor is base current while the running variable for MOSFETS is gate
voltage.
IRISET
53
FIG. 13.5 N CHANNEL OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS CURVES
13.8
The design of a circuit follows almost the same procedure as for a transistor. A load
line is determined and gives quiescent point selected. For linear amplification, the
quiescent point is chosen to be in the centre of the curves so that the operating point
can move up and down the load line in the linear region. The MOSFET can also be
used as a switching device, in which case, gate voltages are applied which will either.
turn the FET ~ON' into saturation, or 'OFF' into the cut-off region.
FIG. 13.6 TYPICAL JFET AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
IRISET
54
13.9
The values for the different parameters give only an indication of the magnitudes of
the voltages and currents involved. Since there are three modes, quite a bit of
versatility is available. Usually, the requirements of the circuit to be used will dictate
which and type of MOSFET is to be used.
13.10 Just as with transistors, there is an unlimited number of circuits that could utilize the
FET. Applications include audio, rf, switching logic and timing circuits. Figure shows a
simple, basic audio amplifier. Resistors R1 and R2 establish the quiescent point
voltage at the gate. The a-c signal to be amplified is superimposed on the gate bias,
and the amplified output signal is taken from the drain terminal.
13.11 A switching circuit is shown in figure. This circuit uses both an N-channel FET and a
P-channel FET. As the input signal switches from zero to V volts the output switches
from V volts to zero, thus performing a simple inversion function.' FETs are found
more in integrated circuits, computers, performing all the required logical functions.
FIG. 13.7 COMPLIMENTARY CIRCUIT USING MOSFET
13.12 The two circuits mentioned above are intended to show how a FET is connected in a
circuit. The range of applications of FETs broadens continuously. Since it has very
high input impedance, the FET is ideally suited for audio and instrumentation
applications where the junction transistor is not too successful; the high input
impedance also allows timing circuits with very Ion g time constants to be designed in
the gate circuit. The FET is neither capable of handling large powers as are some. of
the power junction transistors nor it is capable of very high frequency operation as are
some of the junction transistors.
IRISET
55
13.13 The three configurations in which 'an FET can be used with their features are
given below:
COMMON SOURCE:
High voltage gain
High input impedance
Moderate output impedance
Input and output signals out of phase.
COMMON GATE:
Moderate voltage gain
Low input impedance
Moderate output Impedance
Input and Output signals in phase.
COMMON DRAIN:
No voltage gain
Good current gain
Very high input impedance
Input and -output signals in phase.
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56
THE ZENER DIODES
CHAPTER 14
THE ZENER DIODES
14.1
The Zener diode derives its electrical characteristics from a reverse biased P-N
P
junction. The main study of the PN junction is normally with the idea extending the
explanation to the transistor. For
this reason, when the junction was forward
biased it is said that there is current, and when the

the junction is reverse biased, it is said
there is no current. This latter statement is not completely true. Under certain
conditions there is a small current due to minority carriers.
14.2
P N junction is the, order before describing the phenomenon that

A brief review of the P-N
is characteristic of the zener diode. In a P type semiconductor material, some of the
semiconductor atoms have been replaced by an, element that leaves the resultant
material with positive charges (holes) diffused throughout it. This is shown in figure A
as encircled plus' signs in the P region. In a similar fashion, N-type
N
material results
when some of the atoms of the semiconductor material have been replaced by an
element that leaves the material with the negatively charged electrons throughout.
This is shown as encircled 'minus' signs in the N region in Fig.B.
(A) FORWARD BIAS
(B) REVERSE BIAS
FIG. 14.1 FORWARD AND REVERSE BIASING OF A ZENER DIODE
14.3
A P-N
N junction results when an N-type
N
region and a P-type
type region are formed in the
same crystal. When a battery is connected to the junction as in Fig.A, the majority
carriers are forced across the junction and there is current., When the battery is
connected as in Fig.B, the majority carriers are forced away from the junction and
there is no current. This is simplified explanation of what happens. Actually, besides
the positive majority carriers in the P-type
P type material there are always a few electrons.
electrons
Likewise, there are positive holes in the N-type
N type material as well as the electron
majority carriers. For this reason, when the junction is reverse biased there is actually
a small current due to these minority carriers mentioned above. This small current
IRISET
57
THE ZENER DIODES
stays relatively constant until the potential of the reverse bias reaches a certain critical
point, at which breakdown occurs, and so called 'zener action' takes place.
14.4
As the potential of the reverse voltage is increased the electric field in the region of
the junction also increases. When this field becomes sufficiently large, electrons could
acquire enough energy so that upon collision with atoms they could remove valence
electrons from their covalent bonds. These newly released electrons could in turn
produce more carriers across the junction and there is a relatively large reverse
current. This process is called avalanche multiplication (see figure). The series of
events can also be initiated by the electric field itself breaking some covalent bonds
and releasing electrons. The reverse voltage at which this avalanche phenomenon
occurs is known as the zener breakdown voltage.
Fig.14.2 Avalanche Break-Down
14.5
The interesting part of this process is that the diode will recover when the applied
reverse voltage is reduced below the breakdown or zener value. No damages will
occur unless the current is allowed to increase to the point where excessive heat is
dissipated in the region of the junction.
14.6
Advantage is taken of this reverse breakdown voltage of diodes to form a, large family
of so called zener diodes. The reverse voltage at which diode breaks down is closely
related to the impurity concentration in the semiconductor. Thus, by regulating the
amount of impurities, breakdown voltages from a few volts to hundreds of volts' are
available. The zener diodes, manufactured specifically to exhibit a certain reverse
breakdown characteristic, still behave as regular diodes in the forward direction.
Zener diodes are used in a similar fashion as voltage regulator tubes, except that a
much larger selection of voltages is available with the zener diodes.
14.7
It should be pointed out that practically all PN junctions exhibit this zener breakdown
phenomenon. It even occurs in the base to emitter and base to collector junctions of
transistors. However, careful manufacturing processes are required to control the
IRISET
58
THE ZENER DIODES
value of the zener breakdown voltage, which is the most important characteristic of
the zener diode.
14.8
The voltage current characteristic curve for a typical zener diode is shown in
fig. The forward biased zener is represented by the right hand half of the curve and is
similar to a regular semiconductor diode. The portion of the curve that characterizes
the zener diode, and therefore, is of particular interest here, is the left-hand portion of
the curve. The forward voltage portion of the curve is not drawn in proportion to the
reverse - voltage portion. The forward portion remains relatively constant for all
zeners and it is drawn in the illustration cut of proportion to the reverse voltage to
shown more detail. The Position of the zener breakdown voltage will naturally vary,
depending on the type of zener. This illustration shows a 15 volt zener diode.
Fig.14.3 ZENER CHARACTERISTICS CURVES
14.9
The most important characteristic of the zener diode in selecting one for a particular
application is the zener breakdown voltage. As the reverse voltage across the diodes
is increased from zero, a point will be reached where the voltage will not increase any
further. This point is labeled Vz in figure and is called the 'zener breakdown' voltage.
At this point, the current changes from practically no conduction at all to a value that
is determined by the amount of resistance in series with the zener voltage should not
be put directly across the zener, because there will be nothing to limit the current, and
destruction of the unit is likely to occur. The current through the zener is actually
determined by the resistor in series with it, and the voltage across the two
components. A simple calculation is included in the illustrations demonstrate the
point.
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59
THE ZENER DIODES
Fig.14.4 SERIES LIMITING RESISTOR
Of prime Importance to notice in the figure is that in the breakdown region, at

constant voltage, Vz is available for a rather large range of current. The limiting factor
of the allowable amount of current that a zener can conduct is 'Its rated maximum
power dissipation.
14.10 Probably the most basic circuit utilising the zener diode is the regulator circuit shown
in Fig. The power source V, could be an unregulated supply or it could be a regulated
supply that the outputs a higher voltage than is desired. The resistor labelled R is the
current limiting resistor which is in the circuit so that the whole power source V is not
placed across the zener. The voltage delivered to load RL is controlled by the value of
the zener diode.
Fig.14.5 BASIC REGULATOR CIRCUIT
14.11 When load resistance RL varies within certain limits load current IR will vary
accordingly. However, the voltage across the load resistor will stay constant as fixed
by the zener. Fig. shows a generalized plot of how IL, lz and Vz vary as RL varies.
When RL is zero (a short circuit), there is no current through the zener. As RL, is
increased, the current through the zener voltage is developed across RL. The zener
then takes over and keeps the voltage across RL constant for different values of RL
IRISET
60
THE ZENER DIODES
Fig.14.6 CURRENT VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP
14.12 The power dissipated in the zener diode is the voltage across it times the current
through it. The maximum current through the zener occurs when RL is an open
circuit. This would also be the maximum power dissipation condition.
14.13 The zener diode is used quite often in circuits to limit the voltage excursion at a
certain point. Fig shows a typical application. When the input level is a positive level,
the transistor is turned on and the collector voltage is close to ground potential. When
the input shifts to zero potential the transistor is turned off. If the zener diode was not
in the circuit the collector voltage would rise to Vcc, but with the zener in the circuit
the collector voltage is limited to a value equal to Vz, one reason for doing this could
be. to limit the voltage from collector to emitter so that the Vce rating of the transistor
is not exceeded. Another reason could be to establish logic levels"(at zero and Vz).
Fig.14.7 ZENER DIODE LIMITER
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61
THE ZENER DIODES
14.14 Another interesting application is the zener - diode clipper shown in fig. Two zeners
are used back to back so that when the polarity of the input is such that one conduct
as a zener, the other acts as a regular diode. If a alternating voltage is applied to the
input, a square wave will result at the output. This assumes that the amplitude of the
input signal is large enough so that the zeners will reach their breakdown potential.
The zeners can be of the same value, in which case the square wave has equal
positive and negative peaks. If the zeners are different values the positive and
negative peaks of the square wave will be different accordingly.
Fig.14.8 ZENER DIODE CLIPPER
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62
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
CHAPTER -15
15.1
The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is multilayered semiconductor device consisting

of 2 P-type materials alternated with 2 N-type, materials. The device is called a
rectifier because it has a forward direction that has low resistance and thus passes
current, and, a reverse direction that has a high resistance and blocks, current. The
forward direction is not always a low resistance, but rather under the control of a turn
on gate. The controlled rectifier is not always used to perform the usual rectifier
functions. Applications making use of the controlling feature have been developed to
make fullest use of its capabilities.
15.2
The actual internal working of the SCR is somewhat involved and only a simplified
explanation will be given. The basic internal construction is shown in fig. A. The SCR
has three leads which are called the anode, the cathode, and the gate. The anode is
attached to a P-type material which in turn forms the anode junction with an N-type
material. These two layers are denoted by P2 and N1. The N1 layer also forms a
junction called the control junction, with another layer of P-type material. This layer is
labelled P1 in the fig. has the gate lead attached to it. The P1 layer in turn forms the
so-called cathode junction with an N-type material which has the cathode attached to
it. The last layer is labelled N2 in the figure.
Fig.15.1 SILICON CONROLLED RECTIFIER
The external signals are applied to the SCR as shown in fig.B. Because of the polarity
of the external power supply connected between the anode and cathode, the anode
and cathode junctions are forward biased, while the control junction is reverse biased.
A positive trigger applied to the gate terminal will cause the cathode junction to pass
current. Tile control junction earl then be thought of as connected to the cathode
through the low resistance of the cathode junction. The forward biased anode junction
then passes current, and the whole device from
anode
to
cathode
is
low
resistance and passes current early. Note that before the positive trigger was applied
IRISET
63
to the gate, there was no current between the anode and cathode because of the
reverse biased control junction.
15.3
The schematic symbol for the SCR is shown in fig. It is very similar to a regular diode
with the important addition of the gate lead that actually controls when the SCR will
pass current.
Fig.15.2 SYMBOL OF SCR
15.4
The voltage current characteristics of the SCR can be described with the help of an
equivalent circuit. This equivalent circuit consists of an NPN and PNP transistor
connected together as shown in Fig.15.3. It should however be remembered that this
is not what is really inside the SCR, but rather an equivalent circuit, for explanatory
purpose only. Referring to the Fig. in the absence of any signal qt the gate, both
transistors are off, since the base current for each has to pass through the other
transistor. This is an important point. The trigger at the gate is necessary to initiate
action, but once current starts between the anode and cathode, it will continue even
after the trigger has been removed. However, if the anode to cathode current is
interrupted, the SCR reverts to the blocking condition and has to be triggered again.
Fig.15.3 SCR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
15.5
Fig. shows a typical SCR characteristic curve. If the anode, to cathode is reverse
biased, the device behaves like a regular diode. In the forward biased condition, there
is very little current until the gate trigger is applied. Note then how rapidly the forward
current increases. This implies a need for' current limiting ' device when it is fired
(triggered). The forward characteristics actually consist of two conditions. The first
condition is when the SCR is off, there is, very little current. The second condition is
IRISET
64
when the SCR is on, a relatively large current occurs and the voltage drop across the
SCR is small.
Fig.15.4 SCR CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
15.6
A basic application of the SCR is shown in Fig. In this circuit the SCR is placed in
series with a relay coil. When switch is closed, the relay will not be energized, until the
time delay circuit supplies a trigger to the SCR. One application of this is to allow the
filaments of the type in the time delay circuit to warm up before applying the high
voltage. The time delay circuit would then determine the warm up period.
Fig.15.5 SCR RELAY CIRCUIT
15.7
All interesting application of the SCR is the voltage regulator circuit shown in figure.
The circuit is not complete as drawn but it does show the function of the SCRs.
SCR1, SCR2, CR1, and CR2 form a bridge rectifier circuit. The box labelled "sensing
and timing circuit pulses the SCRs so that the one that is forward biased by the a-c
signal will be brought into conduction at the point in the ac cycle which will give the
desired d-c output. The output voltage is sensed by the sensing circuit which then
applies a trigger to the gate of the SCRs to cause the appropriate one to conduct at
just the right time if the output voltage is either too low or too high the sensing circuit
will apply the trigger to the SCR at a time so that more or less of the input signal is
delivered to the load.
IRISET
65
The time that the SCRs are 'ON' is called the conduction angle. Wave shapes
illustrating the typical situation are also shown. The point to notice is that the sensing
and timing circuit controls the conduction angle, which in turn will control the output
voltage. In this particular application, the SCR performs the function of a rectifier for a
period of time determined by the output voltage.
Fig.15.6 SCR APPLICATION
IRISET
66
THE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CHAPTER - 16
16.1
The unijunction transistor derives its name from the fact that it has only one PN
junction thus the prefix 'Uni'. It does not operate in the same manner as regular
transistors do, but rather performs functions that are unique to it. It is not used for
amplification but because of its characteristics, it is used for oscillator, timing circuits,
and trigger circuits. However, it should be noted that the unijunction transistor
performs only certain function of the transistor and does not really belong to the
regular family of transistors.
16.2
Even though the unijunction transistor has only one PN junction, it has three leads.
This is due to two leads being connected to opposite ends of the same N type
material. The details are shown in figure A. The two leads connected to the same
material are called Base 1 and Base 2 , while the third lead is connected to the P-type
material, which forms a small junction close to the base 2 lead. The power supply
connected between base 2 and base 1 establishes a voltage gradient through the
N-type material. If the potential in the N-type material, opposite to the location of the P
type material is larger than the voltage supply in the emitter circuit the junction is
reverse biased. If the voltage in the emitter circuit is increased, the junction will
eventually become forward biased. Holes will then be injected from the P-type
material into the N-type (Just as in a conventional forward biased diode) and will be
swept toward base1. This reduces the resistance between the emitter and base 1,
and the current continues to increase, with its final value depending on the voltage
supply in the emitter circuit. Current will also increase in the base circuits due to the
action of the forward biased junction. The symbol for the unijunction transistor is
shown in fig. B. It will be noticed in the drawing that if base 1 and 2 was connected
directly together tile resultant device would be very similar to the conventional diode.
Fig.16.1 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR
IRISET
67
16.3
Figure shows typical static emitter characteristic curves. These curves show that the
emitter to base 1 voltage decrease as the emitter current is increased. The peculiarity
of having the voltage decrease while the current is increasing is called negative
resistance. For a given VBB, the curve shows what emitter voltage is required for
various values of emitter currents. As the emitter current gets larger than ascertain
value, the emitter voltage remains the same regardless of the VBB value. This is
known as the saturation region.
16.4
The curve shown in the figure relates to the variation of the emitter current with the
Base 2 current. Depending on the circuit configuration, it might be important to know
the current in the base 2 lead as a function of the emitter current. These curves are
static curves. They are plotted as if all the parameters are d-c voltages and currents.
In actual operation VBB is usually a d-c power supply, but VF, is usually a pulse or
trigger derived by charging and discharging a capacitor. The curves can be used to
compare one type of unijunctiion transistor with another.
Fig.16.2 EMITTER CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
16.5
Figure shows the most basic and widely used circuit employing the unijunction
transistor. The circuit is a relaxation oscillator that can be used as a saw tooth or
trigger generator. When power is first applied capacitor C charges through R1. When
the voltage across C is large enough, the unijunction 'fires' and the capacitor
discharges through the unijunction. When the capacitor discharges sufficiently, there
is not enough emitter current and the unijunction shuts off. The capacitor starts to
recharge and the cycle begins again. The result is a saw tooth wave form across the
capacitor C and a train of triggers at base 1. The trigger appears across R2 at the
time the unijunction fires, and a current is developed in the emitter base 1 circuit. The
frequency of the saw tooth and triggers depends on the R1-C time constant. The utility
of the unijunction transistor is that it does the work of two of three conventional
transistors in the generation of a saw tooth or triggering wave shape.
IRISET
68
Fig.16.3 RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
16.6
Quite often the, trigger at the base 1 load is used to actuate a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR) as shown in figure. The unijunction acts as a time delay, since the
trigger will not appear at Base 1 until the capacitor is sufficiently charged. Thus the
RI-C time constant will determine the delay between the application of power to the
circuit and the time when the SCR fires. The relay is shown to indicate a typical load
the SCR might be controlling. In actual operating circuits, a circuit is usually
incorporated that shuts off the unijunction after it has turned the SCR 'on' so that it
does, riot keep supplying triggers to tile gate of the SCR 1 once an SCR is turned 'on'
the gate signal can be removed and the SCR will stay on.
Fig.16.4 UNIJUNCTION TRIGGER
IRISET
69
SPECIAL DEVICES
CHAPTER- 17
SPECIAL DEVICES
17.1
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
The energy contained in a photon depends on frequency of light. It is
expressed as = h.f
= Energy
h = Plank's constant 6.624 X 10-34 Joule-seconds
f = frequency
Frequency ( f ) and wave length () of light are related by the relation.
X= C / f
C = velocity of light
0
-10
1A = 1x10
3X10 m A
metres
Ultra violet , Visible light and Infrared spectrum is shown ill tile figure
17.1.
Light emitted or falling on a specified area and usually expressed as

lumens/square metre or watts/ square metre (refer fig.17.1).
1 Im/m 2 = 0.1497 X 10-12 W/M2 or watts/square metre.
17.2
Photo resistors.
It is a semiconductor device where resistance varies inversely with the intensity of
light that falls on the device (photosensitive area). The symbol is shown in fig 17.2(a)
These are constructed with cadmium compounds, such as cadmium sulphide or
cadmium selenide. They are more responsive to a particular wavelength of light.
CdS - about 7000 A0
CdSe - about 5500 A0
IRISET
70
SPECIAL DEVICES
When no light is incident on the device the cell resistance is maximum and this is
called the dark resistance. The resistance decreases with light intensity falling on the
device as shown in graph (refer fig 17.2 (b)).
17.3
Photo Diodes
Photo diode is a p-n junction device that operates in reverse bias. The symbol of
photo diode is as shown in 17.3 (a) circuit. The p-n junction of the device has a small
window such that light can strike the junction.
When no light is incident on it, a very small leakage current flow because of reverse
bias Oust like an ordinary 'diode) as shown in fig 17.3(b). This current is very small
called the dark current. When light is incident, depending on the amount of light
energy the reverse current changes (i.e., an increase in the amount of light energy
produces an increase in, reverse current).
It can be used as a variable resistance device controlled by light intensity.
17.4
Light Emitting Diode
In ordinary diodes when the electron hole recombination takes place (in forward bias
condition) energy is radiated in the form of heat (lower than light frequencies). If light
has to be emitted then frequencies of light has to be emitted. For this the diodes are
not just made by silicon or germanium. The light emitting diodes are made using
gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium phosphide (GaP) or gallium arsenide
IRISET
71
SPECIAL DEVICES
(GaAs). The symbol is shown in fig.17.4. Depending on the type of material used the
colour of light (frequencies) is emitted.
GaAsP
Red light
GaP
Yellow to green light
GaAs
Infra red radiation
They are commonly used in indicator lamps and all the products (displays) Here the
light emitted is not monochromatic but a mixture of frequencies of different colours.
Size 4mm 8mm bar
17.5
Laser Diode
Laser-(Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). This light is

monochromatic. It has only a single wavelength. Laser diode has a p-n junction
formed by two layers of doped GaAs. The wave length of the light can be determined
by the length of the junction formed. The LD (laser diode) is shown in figure 17.5. In
The junction end, one end is highly reflective and other partially reflective end. When
junction is forward biased, recombination takes place in the junction and releases
photons. These photons try to release more photons. Each photon is identical and
has one frequency (monochromatic). LD have a threshold level of current above
which the laser action occurs (monochromatic light is emitted).
IRISET
72
SPECIAL DEVICES
17.6
Solar Cells
In solar cells the light energy is converted directly to electrical energy. A basic solar
cell consists of n-type and p-type semiconductor forming p-n junction. The upper area
is maximum, exposed to sun with a lead at one end. The lower end is closed with
positive contact lead. (as shown in 17.6(c).
Electrons in semiconductor acquire sufficient energy from sun rays and break away
from the parent atoms. This potential difference is created across the junction.
Electrons in the semiconductor are pulled across the junction by the force of electric
field. If load is connected, these electrons crossing the junction contribute to the load.
The symbol is given in fig 17.6 (b).
A solar cell generates 0.4 V to 0.6 V or less and connects ranging from 4
microamperes to milliampere. So a large number of such diodes (solar cells) are
arranged in a array to get higher voltages and currents.
17.7
Photo Transistor
Photo transistor has three leads viz base, emitter and collector. When there is no light
and by increasing collector - emitter voltage Vce of the photo transistor, We have dark
current (refer figure 17.7(a) and 17.7(b). When light is incident on the phototransistor,
by increasing Vce the collector current changes as shown in the characteristic curve
(see the graph 17.7(b)). Here intensity of light is A Watts/square metre, B
Watts/square metre, and C watts/square metre. In some cases the base-emitter
junction is biased suitably depending on the application. The power dissipation should
not exceed the rated maximum power dissipation (power = Vce X lc).
Fig.17.6 (a) PHOTO TRANSISTOR (b) CHARACTERISTICS
IRISET
73
SPECIAL DEVICES
17.8
OPTO COUPLER
It is a device where light energy is converted to electrical energy. This device enables
information (Electrical Signal) to pass from one circuit to another even though the
circuits are isolated.
An opto-coupler (typical) which is mounted with a six-pin dual in line package is

shown in the fig 17.8 To identify the pin numbers a dot (spot) is on the top of the
package. The package has an LED and a transistor. The LED emits infra-red
radiation when biased properly (biased voltage). These radiations fall on the photo
transistor and change the collector current (depending on the intensity of radiation).
The quality of an opto-coupler depends on :1. Good Isolation
2. Current transfer ratio
3. Switching speed.
Fig.17.7 OPTO COUPLER
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SEMI CONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES - MICROWAVE TRANSISTORS
CHAPTER-18
SEMICONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES
MICROWAVE TRANSISTORS
18.1
GENERAL
The capacitance between electrodes plays an important part in determining high

frequency response. Both
and acquire reactive components, makes them
complex and unusable. However, inter electrode capacitances in bipolar transistor

depend also on the width of the depletion layers and hence bias-dependent.
Electrode inductances also play. a part and hence the electrode leads must be
shorter.
The effect of transit time is very important. The holes/electron drifts with velocities
across a bipolar transistor. These velocities are determined by ion mobility, bias
voltages and transistor construction. The majority carriers suffer an emitter delay time
and then the injected carriers encounter the base transit time, governed by base
thickness and impurity distribution. The collector depletion-layer transit time is
governed mainly by limiting drift velocity of the carriers and the width of depletion
layer. They take a finite time to cross the collector, line emitter. "fT" is the frequency
at which the short-circuit current gain in common emitter configuration falls to unity.
"fT" depends on both collector voltage and current. There is one more frequency
fmax, which is higher than "fT" is given by
fmax = (fT / 8rB'Cc) 1/2
rB = base resistance, Cc = collector capacitance.
18.2
Microwave bipolar transistors are constructed in planer form i.e, the emitter and base
electrodes are diffused from the top surface of the silicon and the collector is made by
way of the substrate. The input capacitance of transistor is directly proportional to the
emitter area and hence in order to get good high-frequency amplification the area has
to be kept small. But the current carrying capacity is proportional to emitter area and
the base resistance must be kept small. Hence a long, narrow emitter is formed by a
number of short emitter sites, which are then interconnected by means of a top
metallization layer.
18.3
The three principal types of geometry used are: (1) Inter digitised type, where the
emitter and base strips are interleaved.
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(2) In the overlay type, the emitter sites are interconnected by a metallization layer
which overlays the base sites.
(3) In the mesh type, a higher periphery- to-area ratio is achieved through use of
smaller base sites, which are then interconnected by a metallization layer (as shown
in Fig. 18.1(a)). The overlay and mesh types are more widely used for VHF-UHF
power applications, while the inter digitised type is preferred for S,C band small signal
applications.
(a)
(b)
Fig.18.1 (a) & (b) TYPE OF GEOMETRY

The most successful MW FET is one that uses a schottky - barrier gate i.e., a metal
semiconductor one. FETs have the advantage over bipolar, because they can use
GaAs, which has higher ion mobility than silicon. Hence they are able to work at
higher frequencies with higher gain and lower noise.
PACKAGING: Two typical method of packaging Microwave transistor chips are metalceramic strip line package and TO-72. can type. (as shown in Fig. 18.1(b)).
FET amplifiers in 71520 (Tx)--- S8803/S2740/S2741.

In Harris Tx also FET amplifier is used for the option of increasing the power from 1W
to 2W.
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MICROWAVE DIODES
18.4
Varactor diode
The varactor or variable capacitance diode is also a junction diode. When reverse
biased, almost any semiconductor diode has a junction capacitance which varies with
the applied back bias. If such a diode is manufactured so as to have suitable MW
characteristics it is then usually a varactor diode. Both silicon and GaAs are used, out
of which GaAs is preferred for high frequencies where as silicon for high power.
The diode conducts normally in the forward direction but the reverse current saturates
at a relatively low voltage and then remains constant, at avalanche point. For varactor
applications, the region of interest lies between the reverse saturation point, which
gives the maximum junction capacitance and a point just above avalanche at which
minimum diode capacitance is obtained. (as shown in figure).
Fig.18.2 VARACTER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
18.5
The equivalent circuit for a 'silicon varactor diode is shown' in the figure Rb - Base
resistance, Ls - stray lead inductance, CS - stray fixed capacitance between cathode anode. Figure of merit for the varactor diode is the resistive cut off frequency given by
fc= 1/2RbCmin
Values of fc over 250 GHz are available in silicon and 1000 GHz in GaAs. But
operation in excess of fc/10 is not advisable, since resistance increases due to sum
effect, leading to lower efficiency.
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77
Fig.18.3 EQUIVQLENT CIRCUIT OF VARACTOR DIODE
APPLICATION
Frequency multiplication: Since the capacitance of a varactor diode varies with the
applied reverse bias, the diode acts as a non linear capacitance, (like a non linear
resistance) and this property is used to produce frequency multiplications. Frequency
multiplier using diode require no power other than the input signal to be multiplied and
they are highly efficient (90%) compared to conventional multiplies (40%).
In modulator panel also, the varactor capacitance effect is used for multiplication.
7D 15 -
DTL,
18.6
MLT-50A
- 1N 5150A
(x4) (1S
1757)
MLT-51A
- 1N 5153A
(x2), (1N 5155A) (x2)
MLT-52A
- 1N 5157
(x2)
- Varactor is used as frequency variation of 4896 KHz carrier.
SCHOTTKY - BARRIER DIODE (Hot Carrier Diode)
This diode uses a metal like gold, silver on one side of the junctions and doped silicon
(usually n type) on the other side. Since there are no minority carriers, it is a unipolar
device and no reverse current with back bias. The electrons flowing from the
semiconductor to the metal have a higher energy level than electrons in the metal.
Mostly silicon and GaAs are used. The main advantage of this type of diode for
microwave , applications is that it responds very fast to changes in bias from forward
to reverse since there is no delay associated with minority - carrier withdrawal done in
p-n junctions. They are widely used as detectors and mixers like point-contact diodes.
The equivalent circuit is given as shown in Fig. 18.4. Ls lead inductance; Cc - case
capacitance Rs - series lead resistance; Cj effective junctions capacitance; Rj effective junctions resistance.
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Both Rj and Cj are functions of the diode voltage and this property is being used for
low level detection and mixing. Noise figures of about 5dB can be achieved easily,
unlike point contact diodes.
Fig.18.4 SCHOTTKY DIODE
18.7
STEP RECOVERY DIODE
A step recovery diode, also known as snap-off varactor is a silicon or GaAs p-n
junction diode of a construction similar to that of varactor diode. It is an epitaxial
diffused junction diode, designed to store charge when it is conducting with a forward
bias. , When reverse bias is applied the diode very briefly discharges this stored
energy, in the form of a sharp pulse very rich in harmonics. The step recovery diode
is so designed to have a doping profile as shown in the Fig. 18.5.
When diode goes from forward to reverse bias, free electrons and holes temporarily
move away from the junctions, resulting in reverse current. But due to the unusual
doping profile, reverse current will immediately stop at some point in the reverse half
cycle, that is why it is called as snap-off diode. This abrupt cut off of current produces
rich harmonies and any tuned circuit operating at. the wanted harmonics will result in
an efficiency excess of IM. The snap-off time is around 0.15ns-0.5ns. It must be
shorter than the reciprocal of the output frequency i.e., T < 1/f.
Comparison: Snap-off diode multiplies by high factor with better efficiency than
varactor diode. But varactor diodes can handle more power and are available up to
100GHz, compared to 20GHz for step recovery diode. Step recovery diode (S 3015A)
is used for (X16) multiplications in 7D15, receive direction in ITI radio equipment and
for (X4) in 7D20 -Transmitters.
IRISET
79
Fig.18.5 STEP RECOVERY DIODE
18.8
PIN DIODE
The pin diode consists of a narrow layer of p-type semiconductor separated from an
equally narrow layer of n-type material by a thicker region of intrinsic material.(as
shown in the figure).
At dc and low frequencies ic about 100 MHz, the diode acts as a normal p-n junction
diode. Under forward bias, a relatively large current flows. Under reverse bias, the
intrinsic layer becomes part . of the depletion region, which reduces current flow to
practically zero. But at Microwave frequencies the diode acts as a variable resistance,
with a simplified equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 18.6. When the bias is varied on a
pin diode, its microwave resistance changes from a typical 5-10kohms under negative
bias and around 1 to 10 ohms when the bias is positive. The Pin diode can be
inserted between a signal source and a load to provide controlled attenuations. When
connected in parallel with waveguides, the diode presents a high impedance in the
reverse-bias state and allows the signal to pass through to the load with little
attenuation with forward bias the diode impedance in parallel with the line is low and
most of the signal energy is reflected back along the line. Hence the diode acts as a
switch. The PIN diode may also be used to switch reactive elements into a circuit
producing a phase shift. It is used as a switch in 7D15 radio equipment to connect
either main/standby to antenna. 7D15 - MA 47082.
Fig.18.6 PIN DIODE
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80
18.9
GUNN DIODES
Gunn diode works on the principle of transferred electron effect, which is the
phenomenon for generation of Microwave oscillations in bulk semiconductor
materials. This effect is exhibited in gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide.
If a relatively small dc voltage is placed across a thin slice of GaAs, then negative
resistance will be observed if the voltage gradient across the slice is in excess of
about 3,300v/cm. The electron velocity becomes high and hence the oscillations
occur at Microwave frequencies. A cavity is the tuned circuit mostly used. Gunn Effect
occurs in only n-type bulk material and a domain is formed per cycle, which arrives at
the positive end of the slice to excite oscillations in the associated tuned circuit.
Fig.18.7 ENERGY BANDS
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE: Gallium arsenide is one of a fairly small number of

semiconductor materials in which an n-doped sample has an empty energy band
higher in energy than the highest filled/partly filled band. The size of the forbidden gap
between these two is small and this does not apply to Ge/Si. When 'a voltage is
applied across a slice of GaAs which is doped so as to have excess electron (n-type),
these electron flow as a current towards the positive end of the slice. The greater the
potential the higher the velocity with which electrons move towards the positive end
and hence greater current. The energy imparted to the electrons is so high due to the
high voltage gradient that they get transferred to the higher empty energy band,
where they slow down. This give rise to the name transferred electron effect by which
electrons are transferred from the conduction band to a higher energy band in which
they are less mobile and thus the current has reduced as a result of voltage rise.(as
shown
in
Fig.
18.7).
As
the
applied
voltage
rises
past
the
threshold
negative-resistance value, current falls and when the voltage across the slice
IRISET
81
becomes sufficient to remove electrons from the higher energy band, current will
again increase with voltage. The V-1 characteristic is similar to that of a tunnel diode.
The intrinsic frequency of the diode is determined by the drift velocity v and diode
length L as f=v/L for GaAS, v=107 Cm/s, independent of applied voltage.
The diode is normally mounted in a cavity resonator and the cavity is tuned for
intrinsic frequency of the diode.
GUNN DOMAINS: It is reasonable to expect that the density of doping material is not
completely uniform throughout the sample of GaAs. Hence there will be a region,
near the negative end, where the impurity concentration is less than the average. In
such an area there are fewer free electrons than in other areas and so there will be a
greater than average potential across it. Thus as the total voltage is increased, this
region will be the first to have a voltage gradient across it large enough to induce
transfer of electrons to the higher energy band. This region becomes a
negative-resistance domain and the whole domain moves towards the positive end at
107 cm/s velocity.
As soon as some electrons have been transferred to the less conductive energy
band, fewer free electrons are left behind and the potential gradient across it
increases. When this domain reaches the positive end, a pulse is received by the
associated tank circuit and starts it into oscillations. With the usual applied voltage,
once a domain forms, insufficient potential is left across the vest of the slice to permit
another domain to form. When the domain in a short sample arrives at the anode,
there is once again sufficient potential for formation of another domain. Thus one
domain is formed per RF cycle, which gives energy to the oscillation. A good
equivalent circuit at X-band for the Gunn diode may be assumed as consisting of a
negative resistance of 100 ohms in parallel with 0.6pF. It may require 9 volt dc- bias,
950 mA but consumes 8.5 Watts for producing 250 mw, leading to an efficiency of
only 3 %. Gunn diode is employed as low and medium power oscillators in
Microwave receivers and as frequency/modulated transmitter in CW Doppler radars.
18.10 IMPATT DIODE: Under certain reverse-bias condition, a p-n junction exhibits a
negative ac: resistance, which can be used to sustain oscillations or for amplifications.
The name impatt is derived from impact ionization, avalanching and transit time drift
mechanisms involved. Negative resistance can be defined as that property of a
device which causes the current through it to be 180 out of phase with the voltage
IRISET
82
across it. A combination of delay involved in generating avalanche current

multiplicities, together with delay due to transit time through a drift space, provides the
necessary 180 phase difference between applied voltage and the resulting current is
impatt diode. An extremely high voltage gradient is applied to the IMPATT diode, of
the order of 400 kV/cm, eventually resulting in a very high current. Such a high
potential gradient, back-biasing the diode causes a flow of minority carriers across the
junction. If it is now assumed that oscillation exist the effect of a positive swing of the
RF voltage super imposed on high dc voltage is considered now. Electrons and hole
velocity has now become so high that these carriers form additional holes and
electrons by knocking them out of the crystal structure, by impact ionization. These
additional carriers continue the process at the junction, which leads to an avalanche.
If the original dc field was just at the threshold of allowing this situation to develop,
this voltage will be exceeded during the whole of the RF positive cycle and the
avalanche current multiplication will be taking place during this entire time. Since
avalanche is not instantaneous, the current pulse maximum occurs at the instant
when the RF voltage across the diode is zero and going negative, producing a 90
phase difference between the voltage and current. Because of the reverse bias, the
current pulse flows to the cathode, at a drift velocity dependent on the presence of the
high dc field. The thickness of the n+ region is so selected that the time taken for the
current pulse to arrive at the cathode corresponds to a further 90 phase difference.
Accordingly the' voltage and current in the IMPATT diode are 180 out of phase and a
dynamic RF negative resistance has been proved to exist.(as shown in the Fig
18.8B).
IMPATT diodes are made of either silicon or GaAs. GaAs gives lower noise, higher
efficiency and higher maximum operating frequencies.
But silicon can give higher output powers than GaAs for commercial diodes. The
width of the drift region is determined by
d= 0.37 X T X 10 7 where T is the periodic time of microwave signal. The equivalent

circuit can be shown as below ill Fig. 18.8C. The diode chip consists of a resistor RD
in series with a capacitor Cj, which is the capacitance of the junctions at the
breakdown voltage. RD consists of two components in series; Rs the series lead
resistance and negative resistance representing impatt action.
The overall value of RD is a negative number, which depends on both bias current
and signal current. For a given bias current and load, oscillator operation will stabilize
IRISET
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at tile point RD = RL, but for amplification, RL is always made higher than RD. It is
used in 7D17 radio transmitter as an amplifier.
Fig.18.8 IMPACT DIODE
IRISET
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INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF

SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Issued in October 2008

S.S. Muralidharan IMP-1

No. of electrons should 'not exceed 8 in the outermost shell of any

it should not exceed 18 in the last but one, shell.

An example of an element with neutrons present in the nucleus is carbon shown in

makes the atomic weight of carbon very nearly 12.

Valence is defined as the chemical combining ability of an element referenced to

It is established that a definite amount of energy must be supplied in order to affect an

An example of the band structure of an insulating material is shown in part A of Fig.1.5.

ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTE

ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTE

reported to as energy band diagram or simply energy diagram.

Fig. 1.5 ENERGY DIAGRAM FOR INSULATORS & CONDUCTORS

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

The conductivity of a semiconductor is midway between that of a conductor and that

Although the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material causes a current to

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

SPACE LEFT BY No. 1 BEARING

No. 1 BEARING MOVED

SPACE LEFT BY No. 7 BEARING

FIG. 2.1 ANALOGY TO HOLE MOTION

FIG. 2.2. COVALENT

Pure form of germanium is of no use as a semiconductor device. By the addition of

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

EXCESS ELECTRON DUE

FIG. 2.3. GERMANIUM LATTICE WITH A DONAR IMPURITY ADDED

Primary importance in semiconductors are these impurities that align themselves in

When a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added to germanium, it will form

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Application of an electric field to an N-type semiconductor causes a current conducted

DIRECTION OF ELECTRON MOVEMENT

DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC FIELD

Fig. 2.4 ELECTRON MOVEMENT IN A N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

HOLE CAUSED BY IMPURITY

FIG. 2.5. GERMANIUM

Application of an electric field to a P-type semiconductor causes a current conducted

Fig. 2.6 HOLE MOVEMENT IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

is mobility of free electron, em/sec. per volt/cm.

is mobility of free hole cm/sec per volt/cm.

Representative diagrams of both P-type and N-type semiconductor materials are

(A) P - TYPE MATERIAL

(A) N - TYPE MATERIAL

Fig. 3.1 P-TYPE & N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

If a piece of P-type semiconductor material and a piece of N-type semiconductor

FIG. 3.2. THE P-N JUNCTION

In the absence of external forces, there is a process of carrier movement called

FIG.3.3 CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM ACROSS A PN - JUNCTION

FIG. 3.4. FORWARD BIAS CONNECTION OF A JUNCTION DIODE

Fig.3.5 illustrates the reverse bias connection of an external battery to a junction

ELECTRONS DRAWN AWAY

FIG. 3.6. TYPICAL STATIC CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

The current voltage relationship of a diode is given by

potential difference in volts.

Boltzmann constant (I.38 X10-23 Joules/Kelvin)

absolute temperature in degree Kelvin.

reverse saturation current.

consists of a, very thin layer of P-type germanium between two

FIG.4.2 THE PNP JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Fig. 4.3 Basic Current in a Transistor

TRANSISTOR CURRENT CONFIGURATIONS