2

Fluid tightness - Transport mechanisms through concrete

2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1 it already was mentioned that concrete is a porous material which is not entirely liquid
tight. The challenge in this respect is to discover the structural possibilities of reinforced and prestressed
concrete. A liquid of gas can penetrate the concrete by capillary suction or under influence of hydrostatic pressure, respectively pressure differences. Other driving forces behind the transport mechanisms
are concentration differences, temperature differences and the draining of pores by chemical shrinkage.
By the effect of pressure differences a medium shall be able to flow through the porous concrete. As a
result of concentration differences across a reservoir wall, diffusion will take place. When cracks, joints
and seams are present, the transport driven by pressure will generally be much larger than the transport
driven by diffusion. However, for an uncracked casing, molecular diffusion will be an important cause
of - a relatively small - transport of fluid.

2.2 Porosity and permeability of uncracked concrete

2.2.1 Porosity of hardened cement paste and concrete
Porosity of the hydration product ( = gel)
The reaction of cement with water creates the product cement paste, which is also called gel. For the
full hydration of cement a wcr (water cement ratio = mass/mass) is required of about 0.4. So, for the
hydration of 100 kg cement 40 kg water is needed. Of this amount, 25 kg will be chemically bound and
15 kg will be physically bound. The physically bound water is absorbed at the surface of the gel particles and fills up the so-called gel pores. These gel pores have a diameter of 20 to 40 (1 =10-10 m).
The volume of the formed gel, including the physically bound water, is smaller than the initial volume
of the cement and the water. This volume reduction is called the chemical shrinkage. The magnitude of
the chemical shrinkage is about 25% of the volume of the chemically bound water. In the above
sketched example 25 kg of chemically bound water is present, which corresponds with a volume of 25
litres. The volume reduction of the gel therefore becomes 0.2525 = 6.25 litres.
Assuming a density of the cement of ce = 3.15 kg/l , the initial volume of the cement and the water becomes:

Vce + w = Gce ce + Gw w = 100 3.15 + 40 1.0 = 71.75 l

Of these 71.75 l, an amount of 15 l is occupied by the physically bound water in the gel pores and 6.25 l
is present as capillary pores. The total porosity of the formed gel is equal to:
15 + 6.25
Pgel =
100% = 29.6%
71.75
In this case, the pores resulting from the chemical shrinkage are included in the gel porosity.
Porosity of hardened cement paste and concrete
A concrete mixture is considered with a cement content of C = 320 kg/m3 and a wcr = 0.6 . The density of the cement is ce = 3.15 kg/l . The initial air content is V1 = 1% = 10 l/m3 . For the total volume of
the cement paste per cubic metre of concrete it then holds:

V paste = Vce + Vw,o + V1 =

ce

+ wcr C + V1 =

320
+ 0.6 320 + 10 = 102 + 192 + 10 = 304 l
3.15

The porosity of the cement paste in unhardened state reads:

Ppaste,o =

192 + 10
100% = 66%
304
2-1

Suppose that after some time a hydration degree is reached of h = 0.7 , in 1 m3 of concrete an amount
of capillary water Vw,cap is left of :
Vw,cap = Vw,o h ( 0.4 C ) = 192 0.7 ( 0.4 320 ) = 102 l
For the determination of the porosity of the hardened cement paste, this capillary volume Vw,cap has to
be increased by the initial air entrapment V1 = 10 l and the extra capillary pore volume generated by the
chemical shrinkage. This last volume is indicated by Vch , shr and is equal to 25% of the chemically bound
water:

Vch , shr = 0.25 ( 0.25 h C ) = 0.25 ( 0.25 0.7 320 ) = 14 l

Now, the total capillary volume of the hardened cement paste becomes:

Vcap = Vw,cap + Vch , shr + V1 = 102 + 14 + 10 = 126 l

The capillary porosities of the hardened cement paste Ppaste ,hrd and of the concrete Pc with a degree of
hydration of h = 0.7 can now be obtained:
Vcap
126
Ppaste , hrd =
100% = 304 100% = 41.6%
V

paste
Vcap
126
Pc =
100% = 1000 100% = 12.6%
V

c
In most cases, the capillary porosity of concrete varies between 10% and 15%. The volume of gel pores
is normally not included in the capillary pore volume.

2.2.2 Permeability
Permeability of a material is the property that defines the ease of fluid transport through that material.
The material concrete, with a porosity of 10% to 15%, does not necessarily need to be permeable for
liquids. This depends on the manner how the porosity manifests itself. Several possibilities are shown in
Fig. 2.1.

high porosity
low permeability

porous
permeable

porous
not permeable

low porosity
high permeability

Fig. 2.1: Characteristic examples of different manifestations of pores in a material [1].

The determining factor is the degree of connectivity of the pores. For concrete, this connectivity is a
function of the wcr and the degree of hydration. Fig. 2.2 displays how large the degree of hydration for
a certain wcr needs to be, to be certain of a closed pore system. Additionally, it is indicated which degree of hydration can be achieved under practical circumstances. From the figure it immediately can be
concluded that for a wcr smaller than 0.5, the degree of hydration may reach values to guarantee a
closed capillary pore system. For a wcr larger than 0.5 a closed capillary pore system cannot be
achieved not even on the long term.

2-2

degree of hydration [%]

100
80

h ,max

60
40

h ,closed pore system

20
0
0

0.1

0.2
wcr

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Fig. 2.2: Maximum achievable degree of hydration and required degree of hydration
for the realisation of a closed capillary pore system.

2.2.3 Permeability parameters

Basically, the permeability of a material is given by the so-called intrinsic permeability [m 2 ] . It is
used to define the permeability k [m/s] according to:
k=

(2.1)

where:

= density of the penetrating fluid [kg/m3]

g = gravitational acceleration
[m/s2]
= dynamic viscosity (Table 2.1) [Pa.s = N.s/m2 = kg/(m.s)]

product
ammonia
n-butane
carbon dioxide
ethylene
hydrogen
methane
nitrogen
oxygen
propane
water
oil
sodium chloride

dynamic viscosity [10-3 Pa.s]

gas

liquid

0.009
0.008
0.014
0.010
0.008
0.010
0.017
0.019
0.008

0.174
0.241
0.138
0.125
0.012
0.142
0.141
0.166
0.216
1.0
3.2
1.0

Table 2.1: Dynamic viscosity of several liquids and gases [3].

Often the permeability k of concrete is determined for the liquid water. It should be clear that the permeability k is NOT a material constant. It indicates the permeability for a specific substance x.
From (2.1) it can be concluded that the dynamic viscosity plays an important role. For a number of
fluids, the dynamic viscosity can be obtained from Table 2.1; the variety in values is quite large.
From the above it should be clear that:
Water tightness is NOT the same as fluid tightness!

Contrary to the permeability k , the intrinsic permeability would be a real material parameter. However, one should be aware that in practice some dependence on the penetrating fluid will be present [2].
2-3

The permeability of concrete is depending on the permeability of the aggregates, the cement paste and
the boundary layer between the cement paste matrix and aggregates. Although the aggregates constitute
about 70|% of the concrete and their permeability demonstrates considerable variations (Table 2.2), still
the permeability of concrete will mainly be determined by the cement paste and the mentioned boundary layer between cement paste and aggregates.
type of aggregate

permeability k [m/s]
10-6 10-10
10-8 10-15
10-10 10-15
10-10 10-13
10-13 10-15

sandstone
limestone, dolomite
granite
diorite-porphyry
quartz

Table 2.2: Permeability of aggregates (after [4]).

Factors influencing the permeability of cement paste are:

wcr ;
degree of hydration;
micro-crack formation;
fabrication of the concrete (in relation to its purpose);
curing of the concrete.

Because of the many factors that influence the permeability, the values for are very different for the
several classes of concrete. The intrinsic permeability for concrete varies between 10-14 and 10-19 m2.
For hardened normal gravel concrete with a wcr from 0.4 to 0.5, often a permeability k is chosen of
10-11 up to 10-12 m/s. Application of blast furnace cement (CEM III) in combination with a low wcr
may lead to permeabilities that are a factor 100 less. Addition of fly ash to the cement delivers a lower
permeability as well. Very tight concrete is obtained by the suppletion of silica fume. This material is a
required additive for the production of high-strength concrete. The permeability of concrete produced
with light, slightly water absorbing aggregates, does not need to be larger than that of normal gravel
concrete, in some cases it even may be a factor 1000 lower. This is caused by the very dense boundary
layer between the aggregates and matrix.
As a result of the relatively porous boundary layer between the dense aggregates and the cement paste
matrix, the permeability of concrete generally will be larger that that of the hardened cement paste. A
rough estimate for the difference is a factor 10. However, slightly absorbing aggregates may produce a
very dense boundary layer leading to a permeability that does not need to be larger than that of the cement paste itself.

2.2.4 Permeability as a function of water-cement ratio and degree of hydration

Fig 2.3 shows the permeability of cement paste for water as a function of the capillary pore volume. In
its turn, this pore volume can determined as a function of the wcr and the degree of hydration from the
lower part of the diagram in Fig. 2.3.
Example 1
A cement paste is being produced with a wcr of 0.4 and a degree of hydration of h = 60% . According to Fig.
2.3 this delivers a capillary pore volume of the cement paste of about 26% with a corresponding permeability of
k = 8.5 1013 m/s .
Application of a wcr less than 0.45 to 0.5 leads to concrete that is practically water tight. A condition for water
tight concrete is that the pore system is closed. For higher values of wcr , the degree of hydration has to be higher
as well for the realisation of a closed pore system. Fig. 2.2 already showed that for values of wcr larger than ca
0.5, generally an open pore system will be created, which results into a severe increase of the permeability k .

2-4

100
90
80

permeability [10-13 m/s]

70
60
50
40
30
20

degree of hydration [%]

10
100

0.7

wcr

0.6

80
0.4

0.3

0.5

60
0.2

40

10
20
amount of capillary pores [vol. %]

30

40

Fig. 2.3: Permeability k [m/s] for water of hardened cement paste [Powers].

2.3 Penetration depth into uncracked concrete

2.3.1 The numerical determination of the penetration depth
For the penetration depth x resulting from the capillary suction it holds:
x=

r t
2

(2.2)

where:
x
r

= penetration depth
= pore diameter
= surface tension
= time
= dynamic viscosity

[m]
[m]
[N/m]
[s]
[Pa.s]

The penetration depth x of a gas or a liquid driven by a (hydrostatic) pressure can be computed with
the formula ([5], also see Fig. 2.4):
x=

r 2 g ht
Pcap

(2.3)

where:

= density of the fluid

= gravitational acceleration

[kg/m3]
[m/s2]
2-5

pi
h

Qc

pe

Fig. 2.4: Penetration depth (left) and flow (right) through uncracked concrete.
h = pressure head (m water column) [m]
Pcap = capillary porosity
[m3/m3]

From a number of liquids and gases that are stored in tanks, the dynamic viscosity is listed in Table 2.1.
For several other liquids, in Germany classified as reference liquids used for classification of environmentally damaging liquids, the dynamic viscosity is given in Table 2.3.
The practical use the formulae (2.2) and (2.3) is limited, because the determination of the representative
pore diameter r is quite a challenge. Capillary pores vary in diameter between 10-9 and 10-4 m. To
avoid this problem, with the formula of Valenta ([6], [7]) a reasonable approximation can be obtained:
2k ht
Pcap

x=

(2.4)

where:

= permeability

no.

main
chemical group

[m/s]
possible
hazardous
action

reference
liquid

dynamic
viscosity
[Pa.s]

surface
tension
[N/m2]

density
[kg/m3]

aliphatic
hydrocarbons

loss of
strength

n-heptane

0.041

20.3

686.8

aromatic
hydrocarbons

loss of
strength

toluene

0.582

28.5

866.9

alcohols

dissolving
attack

n-butane
alcohol

2.928

33.5

809.4

esters

dissolving
attack

ethyl acetate

0.450

23.9

925

aldehydes,
ketones

dissolving
attack

methyl ethyl
ketone

0.4

24.6

803

aliphatic
amines

n-butyl amine

0.5

23.0

740

halogenated aliphatic
hydrocarbons

production of
chlorides

methyl
chloride

0.440

26.5

1325.5

organic
acids

dissolving
attack

acetic acid
(20% solution)

1.10

47.7

1026.1

halogenated aromatic
hydrocarbons

production of
chlorine

chloro
benzene

0.810

33.5

1106.4

Table 2.3: Physical properties of several reference liquids [6].

2-6

Above formulae for the calculation of the penetration depth are based on the assumption that during the
penetration process the permeability remains unchanged. However, when the penetrating fluids are able
to react with the cement paste, the assumption of a constant permeability is no longer correct. In the
pore system reaction products may be deposited, leading to a reduction in permeability (also see Section
2.3.3). When the reaction products are soluble, a process of leaching out may occur, which even can increase the permeability. Further, the extrapolation of short-term permeability tests to the long-term behaviour of structures is a challenging but difficult task.
Example 2
Question
Give an indication of the penetration depth of lightly aggressive waste water under a pressure head of 1 m in hardened concrete after 3 and 28 days, followed by 1 and 5 years.
Data
Cement type: blast-furnace cement (coarse) CEM III 42.5;
A wcr of 0.45 and 0.55, respectively;
The concrete with wcr = 0.55 appeared to be poorly compacted and poorly cured;
The waste water can be considered to be water with the following properties:
Dynamic viscosity: = 103 Pa.s
Density: = 1000 kg/m3
Maximum pressure head: h = 1 m
Intrinsic permeability
It is assumed that the concrete reaches a degree of hydration of 60% and 70% for a wcr of 0.45 and 0.55, respectively. With the aid of Fig. 2.3, the permeability k and the capillary porosity Pcap of the hardened cement paste
can be found, the obtained values are listed in the table below under the headings mixture A and mixture B.
Because of the relatively poor curing of mixture B, a permeability factor for the concrete is selected, which is a
factor 10 higher that that of the hardened cement paste.
Penetration depth x
The penetration depth is determined with the formula of Valenta (2.4). The table below shows the results.

theoretical penetration depth x [m]

time
exposure time
days or years

3 days
28 days
1year
5 years

exposure time
seconds

260 103
2.4 106
31 106
157 106

mixture A
wcf = 0.45
k = 17 1013 m/s
kcon = k = 17 1013 m/s
Pcap 0.30
0.002
0.005
0.019
0.042

kcon

mixture B
wcf = 0.55
k = 45 1013 m/s
= 10k = 45 1012 m/s
Pcap 0.35
0.008
0.025
0.089
0.201

Discussion
The calculated values clearly show the effect of the wcr on the penetration depth. For a wcr of 0.45, after 5
years of penetration, the waste water will just have reached the reinforcement (assume a concrete cover of 30
mm). Notice that transport of ions by diffusion is not taken into account and may lead to an extra contribution
to the flow.
Penetration by capillary suction into the outer centimetres of concrete is often much larger than the penetration
driven by fluid pressure.
Next to the wcr , the way and carefulness of the fabrication and curing of the concrete are determining factors
for the actual permeability. In many cases, these factors are even more important than the choice of the wcr
However, it should be clear that in the opposite case of a concrete with a superb fabrication and curing but
with a high value for the wcr , it is not possible to produce a concrete with a high tightness.

2-7

2.3.2 Experimental determination of the penetration depth

The prediction of the penetration depth by numerical models is possible, but is nevertheless not very accurate. The reason for this is that it is very hard to estimate the permeability of concrete with sufficient
accuracy, without testing. That is why the engineering practice often relies on experimental determination of the penetration depth. For this purpose, the standardised ISO/DIS 7031 test and the capillary absorption test can be utilised. Both test methods have been intensively investigated by the Dutch CUR/
CROW/PBV research commission D29. The results have been published in CUR aanbeveling 63.
ISI/DIS 7031 test
With the ISI/DIS 7031 test, liquid is forced to penetrate into the concrete by an excess pressure of 1, 3
and 7 bars in consecutive periods of 48, 24 and 24 hours. After the test the penetration depth is determined from a split face. For a brief discussion of the ISI/DIS 7031 test, it is referred to [19].
Capillary absorption test
In the capillary absorption test, an excess pressure of 400 mm is used to penetrate the concrete. The
penetration depth is obtained from split faces. Fig. 2.5 shows a test setup.
1 mm
plug

burette with calibration

connection tube
400 mm

glass funnel
liquid

second layer of coating

aluminium adhesive foil
first layer of coating

100 mm

Fig. 2.5: Setup for capillary absorption test [8].

2-8

In [8] a comparison has been made between the results of the ISI/DIS 7031 test and the capillary absorption test. In this research the penetration depth has been studied of water as well as diesel and petrol. No unambiguous relation could be established between the penetration depth according to the
ISO/DIS 7031 test and the capillary absorption test. For an extensive elaboration it is referred to [8, 9].

2.3.3 Autogenous healing (self healing)

According to equation (2.2), capillary suction is a process that proceeds according to a t relation. For
a number of fluids such behaviour as a function of time was observed over a period of several months.
However, water displays a deviating tendency. In Fig. 2.7 the results are displayed of absorption tests,
3% relative humidity

plastic cap
75 mm

50 80 mm

dehydrating
agent

dehydrating zone

5-70 mm

inside, dry

capillary zone

seal of
epoxy resin

100 mm

Fig. 2.6: Schematic of test setup for the determination of moisture transport through concrete.
12

water absorption or emission after 290 days [l/m2]

10

8
water emission
moisture from
specimen only

2
capillary water absorption
0
change moisture
content of concrete

-2

-4

100
200
300
400
height of specimen [mm]

500

600

700

800

Fig. 2.7: Absorption and emission of water after 290 days as function of the specimen height [12].
2-9

at which a concrete specimen sucks up water from a shallow basin and releases moisture at the top in a
confined space with a constant humidity of 3% (Fig. 2.6). Because of the constant difference in relative
humidity one would expect that a steady-state situation would develop, in which a constant flow of water would be absorbed at the bottom and released again at the top of the specimen. However it was observed that for the larger specimen the absorption of water stagnated. No water was sucked up anymore
and (nearly) no moisture released at the top. This phenomenon is caused by a reaction between the cement paste and the water. Lime crystals in the pore system dissolve and generate a concentration gradient, which creates a diffusion process that prohibits further capillary intrusion of the water [10]. It
should be remarked that chemical interactions between the penetrating fluid and the cement paste
may occur that influence the penetration rate as well (for example the dynamic viscosity may be reduced).

2.4 Determination of the leakage flow through uncracked concrete

For the determination of the flow of a liquid or gas through uncracked concrete driven by a pressure
gradient, Darcys law can be used (see [13] and Fig. 2.4b), i.e.:

Qc =

A p

(2.5)

Where:

= intrinsic permeability
Qc = flow through the concrete

[m2]
[m3/s]
A = cross-sectional area of wall
[m2]
p = pressure difference over the wall or slab thickness [Pa]
= dynamic viscosity of the fluid
[Pa.s]
d = wall thickness
[m]
A worked out example can be found below.
Example 3
Question
Determine the flow of water through an uncracked concrete panel.
Data
Concrete on bases of CEM I
Wall thickness: d = 0.25 m
Pressure difference across the wall: p = 4 104 Pa
Wall area considered: A = 1 m 2
Intrinsic permeability: = 18 10 20 m 2
Dynamic viscosity: = 103 Pa.s
Solution
With Darcys formula it directly follows:
A p
1 4 104
Qc =
18 1020 = 28.8 1012 m3 /s = 0.0025 l/day
= 3
d
10 0.25

2.5 Transport of fluids through cracked concrete

A number of factors are decisive in the determination of fluid transport through cracked concrete. Distinction has to be made between factors at structural level and at crack level.

A. Structural level
At structural level attention is paid to the existing crack pattern. The following characteristic aspects
can be distinguished:
2-10

1) Crack width;
2) Number of cracks;
3) Type of cracks;
a) Separation cracks;
b) Flexural cracks;
4) Crack characteristics;
a) Stability (for example not stable due to settlement and continuous shrinkage);
b) Cyclic crack width (cyclic loading).

On the one side the crack pattern is determined by the relevant loading scenarios and on the other side
by the design and dimensioning of the structure.

B. Crack level
For the calculation of the transport of a fluid through a crack, the following parameters are important:
1) Crack width;
2) Crack length, i.e. the thickness of the concrete element;
3) Morphology of the crack face;

which is influence by:

a) Type of aggregates;
b) Water cement ratio wcr ;
4) Pressure drop across the crack;
5) Type of fluid (viscosity);
6) Autogenous healing capability.

Both the crack patterns and the transport of a fluid through a single crack are governed by factors that
display a large amount of scatter. These conditions invite to address transport problems of fluids
through cracks with probabilistic considerations respectively probabilistic computations.
However in the next section, a deterministic approach will be followed for the analysis of the transport
problem.

2.5.1 Transport calculation

Separation cracks
For the calculation of fluid transport through cracks normally the formula of Poiseuille is used:
Qcrack =

w3 p
l
d

[m3/s]

(2.6)

where:

w = crack width
p = pressure difference
l
= crack length
= dynamic viscosity
d = thickness of concrete element
= coefficient, depending on roughness of the crack face

[m]
[Pa]
[m]
[Pa.s]
[m]
[-]

The factor depends on the morphology of the crack surface, the type of aggregates and the wcr . For
smooth surfaces it holds = 1/12 (Poiseuille). Because of the roughness of the crack surface the value
of reduces with a factor 2 up to 10. The magnitude of the factor increases with increasing crack
width. For many practical applications a value of = 0.01 can be selected. Separation cracks with a
crack width w < 0.06 mm can be regarded as liquid tight for a period of at least 72 hours [14]. In Germany, these 72 hours is used as the reference period for the definition of the suitability of concrete for
environmental protective structures. By the way, for very small crack widths, w < 0.1 mm , the reliability of equation (2.6) is quite limited.

2-11

When determining the factor it normally is assumed that the crack width remains constant. Alterations in the crack width during the fluid transport due to clogging up of the crack, due to autogenous
healing or due to freezing up (cryogen applications) are not explicitly taken into consideration. Cracks
may also become larger by cyclic loading.
For separation cracks with a varying crack width in flow direction, the crack width w in formula (2.6)
has to be replaced by the effective crack width weff given by (Fig. 2.8):
wA
h

wB

Fig. 2.8: Schematic representation of separation cracks.

2 ( wA wB )
weff =
wA + wB

(2.7)

Example 4
Question
Calculate the flow of water through a crack of 1 m length in a 0.25 m thick wall. Vary the crack width from 0.1 to
0.2 mm.
Data
Wall thickness: d = 0.25 m
Crack width: w = 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 mm
Crack length: l = 1 m
Pressure drop over wall: p = 4 104 Pa (4 m water head)
Dynamic viscosity: = 103 Pa.s
Morphology factor: = 0.01
Solution
With the formula of Poiseuille (2.6) the following relation is found:
w3 p
w3 4 104
Qcrack =
l = 0.01 3
1 = 1.6 106 w3 m3 /s
d
10 0.25
The results for the given crack widths are shown in the table below. For reasons of comparison the results of example 2 (flow through uncracked concrete) are indicated as well.

Crack width w
[m]
0.00010
0.00015
0.00020

Comparison of Qcrack with Qc

Qcrack
3

m /s
-6

1.610
5.410-6
12.810-6

l/day

Qc (example 2)

Qcrack Q c

138
467
1106

0.0025 l/day
0.0025 l/day
0.0025 l/day

55103
187103
442103

conclusion
The results of the calculations clearly show that the fluid transport through cracks can easily exceed the flow
through uncracked concrete by a factor 105. Therefore, it confidently can be concluded that generally the transport
of fluids through cracks will be several orders of magnitude larger than the transport through the concrete itself.

2-12

Flexural cracks
In the case of the presence of flexural cracks, the flow rate will predominantly be determined by the size
of the concrete compressive zone (Fig. 2.9). Relation (2.5) can be used for the determination of the flow
rate, in which case the wall thickness d of the element has to be replaced by the depth of the concrete
compressive zone hx . This leads to a conservative estimation of the permeability, because the flexural
cracks that still have a significant flow resistance are not included in the analysis.
h
hx

Fig. 2.9: Fluid transport through flexural cracks.

Crack concentrations
For the control of crack widths in thick-walled structures, the reinforcement is preferably placed in the
edge regions. Due to this action, the crack widths indeed remain small near the edges, but in the core of
the structure may attain considerable values. The mechanism behind this is that in the core of the structure many small cracks are merging into a smaller number of large cracks. A schematic representation
of this crack pattern is shown in Fig. 2.10 and will be indicated by the term crack concentration.
The problem is to estimate the fluid flow through a concrete element in which crack concentrations are
h
htm
N

w2  w1

htm
w1

Fig. 2.10: Schematic representation of a crack concentration.

present. This phenomenon has been investigated by Favre e.a. [12]. The transport of air and water
through cracked concrete beams, with different reinforcement fractions and reinforcement configurations, was determined experimentally. The used test setup has been drawn in Fig. 2.11. Fig 2.12 depicts
the reinforcement configurations of the tested beams. The beams were made from high-strength concrete (C53/65, C55/67). Fig 2.13 shows the results of the permeability tests carried out on the beams E3,
E4, E5 and E6 as function of the imposed deformation. It clearly can be seen that a reduction of the
crack widths near the edges, by the application of a finely distributed reinforcement has a large positive
effect on the permeability. In the element E4 and E5 the reinforcement is concentrated near the edges.
The cracks in the core of these elements were larger than those in the elements E3 and E6, which had a
homogeneous distribution of the reinforcement. The larger crack widths in the core of the elements promote the liquid transport through these cracks. The fact however that the number of large cracks in the
core are limited and the fact that the crack widths at the surface of the elements E4 and E5 are smaller
that those of the elements E3 and E6, results into a smaller transport through the cracks in the beams E4
and E5. A similar favourable effect, of the application of a finely distributed reinforcement in the edge
regions, has been reported by Edvardsen [16].
2-13

measurement length
3000 mm
temperature

P1
pressure

at the top and bottom air

and water tight coating

strain gauges
cracks
displacement transducers

P0
pressure

P2 pressure

flow meters 1 2

pressue reducer
filter

Fig. 2.11: Setup for measurement of air and water transport through cracks in a concrete beam [12].
As1

= 0.60%
reinforcement
20

As 2

= 0.57%
16

As 3

As 4

As 5

= 0.86% = 0.86% = 1.15%

16
16
16

s = 250 mm s = 167 mm s = 167 mm s = 111 mm s = 83 mm

As 6

= 1.15%
16

s = 125 mm

concrete
IBAP
EDF

R1

R2

R3
E3

R4
E4

R5
E5

E6

Fig. 2.12: Reinforcement configurations in beams for permeability measurements [12].

1500
E3

corrected flow [l/h]

1250
1000
750
E4

500

E6

250
0

E5

0.05
0.10
0.15
imposed strain []

0.20

0.25

0.30

Fig. 2.13: Liquid transport through cracked concrete as function of the imposed strain
with reinforcement configurations according to Fig. 2.12 [12].
2-14

2.5.2 Leakage through poor functioning joints and through leads-through

Dilatation and settlement joints
These types of joints in liquid retaining structures are an undesired necessity. Practical experience has
confirmed that leakage at the spot of not properly functioning joints may easily exceed the leakage
through cracks by a factor 106 [15]. For this reason, the number of joints in liquid retaining structures
should be restricted to the bare minimum.
The design of an effective and durable properly sealing joint, which also has a high resistance against
chemical attack, is often a large challenge [17]. For this reason, the dimensioning and detailing of joints
should be focussed on the ability to inspect, reach, repair and replace the joints. The same design conditions as for joints do also hold for leads-through and the like.
Construction joints
These types of in-situ created joints require special attention during the construction phase. Not carefully carried out preparations will easily lead to leakage. The casting in of a porous tube, which is
grouted after the curing is an effective way to prevent leakage or to solve a leakage problem.
Prefabricated joints
For the production of liquid tight joints, prefabrication is an appealing option, because of the high concrete quality. In order to optimise the use of the tight concrete, special attention has to be paid to the detailing of the joints. Not much is known about the tightness of standard prefab-joints. Depending on
the type of structure prefab-joints, just like dilatation joints, have to comply with requirements regarding the ability for inspection, control, repair and replacement.

2.6 Tightness criteria

2.6.1 Local and global tightness
For reservoirs, Bomhard [20] makes distinction between local tightness and global tightness. Local
tightness occurs if nowhere any penetration of liquid can be observed (dark colouring). The evaporation
speed of the penetrated liquid is higher than the discharge. In this case Bomhard also speaks of absolute
tightness. A reservoir is called globally tight if the leakage is less than a prescribed threshold value. For
example, a water reservoir satisfies the condition of global tightness if the leakage percentage is lower
than 0.02% per day of the reservoir volume.
British Standards also describes a criterion for global tightness. In [21] the condition for liquid tightness
reads that the total leakage flow Qtot per day should not be larger than 0.1% of the reservoir volume.
According to BS (1976), a reservoir is called liquid tight if the liquid level does not fall more then 0.4
inches (about 10 mm) in seven days [22]. In the BS of 1982 this condition has been made more stringent because next to the condition for dropping of the liquid level, it is required that the total leakage
flow Qtot per week should not exceed 0.2% of the reservoir volume (see [23]).

2.6.2 Autogenous healing (self healing)

The fact that liquid tightness even may occur under the presence of separation cracks has to do with the
ability of filling up the cracks. This ability is called autogenous healing or self healing. Possible mechanisms for self healing are:

continuous hydration;
sedimentation of solid particles that are present in the penetrating liquid;
closure of the crack by cement particles from the crack face;
swelling of the cement paste.

Conditions for eventual closure of the cracks are:

the crack must be stable,
remark: a small crack mobility does not have to be disastrous (see Edvardsen [16]);
the flow rate in the crack should not be too large;
2-15

 the penetrating liquid should not have leaching properties.

Schntgen [24] investigated the relation between the width of separation cracks and water tightness.
The crack widths varied between 0.08 and 0.3 mm and were governed by the reinforcement present. After an initial leakage, for crack widths from 0.08 up to 0.3 mm, the rate of flow considerably reduced
within 24 hours. Irrespective the pressure drop across the crack, no leakage could be observed anymore
for a crack width of 0.06 mm (parallel crack faces), only drop-wise leakage at the back of the wall.
According to Bomhard [20] autogenous healing is possible for crack widths w < 0.2 mm , under the
condition that the flow velocity in the crack is low. On the basis of practical observations Lohmeyer
[25] has constructed a simple graph, in which a critical crack width for self healing is provided as function of the ratio between liquid head and wall thickness (Fig. 2.14). For crack widths larger than 0.2
mm, self healing should not be considered to be a real option.
hw
0.25

self healing not possible

Schiessl

wcrit 0.20
[mm]
Hl

Meischner

0.15
0.10

Lohmeyer
0.05

high probability of self healing

0

10

15

20

25

30

35

H l hw [-]

Fig. 2.14: Relation between critical crack width and ratio of liquid head and wall thickness
(Lohmeyer [25], Meischner [26] and Schiessl et.al. [27]).
Meischner [26] is a bit more optimistic, however it should be remarked that his curve is based on results
of experiments conducted under laboratory circumstances.
Recent laboratory research of Scheissl et. al. [27] even provides wider margins for the occurrence of
autogenous healing.
However the values of Lohmeyer, that are based on practical observations, still have preference for
practical applications.

2.6.3 Water tightness criteria on basis of practical experience

Generally a structure will behave water tight if no separation cracks are present. Flexural cracks are allowed to be present as long as the depth of the compressive zone satisfies certain conditions. When
separation cracks are present, these should be smaller than a critical value wcrit . As long as the crack
width remains below this critical value, the crack may close through autogenous healing, provided that
certain requirements are met (see Section 2.6.2).
On basis of practical experience Bomhard [20] has formulated an integral tightness criterion, i.e.:
hx hx ,min = 50 mm

(2.8)

Smaller values of hx are acceptable, provided that certain crack-width conditions are satisfied. These
conditions depend on the presence or absence of self healing:
w95% < 0.1 mm (without self healing)
w95% < 0.2 mm (with self healing)

(2.9)

2-16

For gravel sizes Dmax > 32 mm it holds:

hx ,max Dmax + 20 mm or

hx ,max 2 Dmax

(2.10)

In the case of separation cracks, Lohmeyer gives a guideline for the critical crack width for which autogenous healing is still possible. This guideline is given in Table 2.4. An important parameter in this table is the ratio of the pressure head H l and the wall thickness hw or hb of the element. For a crack in
the floor slab the pressure head should be measured from the bottom side of the slab.

ground
water
level

ground
water
level
liquid
head
Hl

hw

liquid
head
Hl

position
of largest
crack

Cat.
1
2
3

Hl
hw

or

2.5
5
> 5 1)

Hl
hb

calculated
wcrit
[mm]
0.20
0.15
0.10

1) an upper limit for H l hw or H l hb

can be obtained from Fig. 2.14.
crack in floor
hb

liquid head H l to be applied for wall and floor slab

Remark
Cyclic loading is permissible as long as
its effect is explicitly taken into account.
This delivers such a stringent condition
that preferably cyclic loading should be
prevented, for example by thermal isolation of the structure.

Table 2.4: Permissible crack widths for separation cracks for which still water tightness
can be guaranteed (after [28]); Classification of tightness criteria [2].

2.7 Fibre reinforced concrete

An effective method to keep the crack widths within limits is the addition of fibres to the concrete mix.
This can be done for example in the form of steel fibres. The fibres have crack distributing properties.
In the transport formula (2.6) the crack width appears to the third power, which means that the reduction of the crack width has an immense effect on the transport rate. Fig. 2.15 gives an idea about the effect of the addition of fibres on the water-permeability of cracked concrete. In this figure the leakage
volume of normal cracked concrete is compared with fibre concrete that is subjected to the same imposed deformation.

2.8 System technology

When very severe conditions are imposed on the tightness of a structure, a large possibility exists that
untreated concrete will not meet these conditions. Possible solutions for this kind of problems may lie in
the domain of system technology. System Technology is a design method that realises structuraltechnological solutions, which will guarantee that environmentally hazardous fluids cannot leave the
storage system. An example is the double-walled reservoir for the storage of non-processable chemical
waste. The primary storage structure has to be designed such that, in the case leakage of the hazardous
fluid, it is accessible from all directions for the purpose of inspection and repair. If necessary total overhaul of the structure should be possible. These measures prevent that fluids leave the system. So, at
macro-level the system can be regarded to be fluid tight.

2-17

800
water

hd / h = 7

temp. 20 0C
= PVA fibres (0.8 vol. %)
= steel fibres (1.0 vol. %)
= PAN fibres (1.7 vol. %)
= no fibres

flow [ml/min.m]

600

400

200

0
0

0.1
crack width [mm]

0.2

0.3

0.4

Fig. 2.15: Permeability for water of ordinary concrete and fibre concrete [18].

2.9 References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]

Stutech (1992): Permeabiliteit van beton, Research report No. 12, 73 p.

Walraven, J.C., et al (1994): Betonnen beschermingsconstructies tegen milieubelastende stoffen, CUR-report 94-3, 65 p.
Turner, F.H. (1979): Concrete and Cryogenics, Viewpoint publication, Cement and Concrete
Association.
Reinhardt, H.W. (1985): Beton als constructiemateriaal - Eigenschappen en duurzaamheid,
Delft University Press.
Deutcher Ausschluss fr Stahlbeton (1991): Beton beim Umgang mit Wassergefrdenden Stoffen, Vol. 416, 201 p.
Valenta D. (1970): Durability of concrete, from the 2nd RILEM symposium Prague, Materials
and Structures 3, No. 17, pp. 333-345.
Valenta D. (1979): The permeability and the durability of concrete in aggressive conditions,
10th congrs des grands Barrages, Montreal, Vol. IV, pp. 103-119.
CUR/CROW/PBV (1998-2): Vloeistofindringing in beton, Background report of CUR/PBVRecommendation 63, 51 p.
CUR-Recommendation 63 (1998): Bepaling van de vloeistofindringing in beton door de capillaire absroptieproef, CUR, Gouda, 8 p.
Wegen G. van der (1996): Vloeistofdichtheid van betonvloeren: De stand der kennis, INTRON
report No. 95278 (for PBV), 42 p.
Beddoe R. (1998): Gibt es einen Feuchtetransport durch Betonbauteile?, Proc. Seminar
Technologie und Ausfhrung anspruchsvoller Betonkonstruktionen, Mnchen.
Favre R. et al (1996): Cracking and tightness of reinforced concrete structures, Publication
IBAP, No. 143, pp. 3-13.
Breugel K. van et al (1983): Betonconstructies voor opslag van tot vloeistof gekoelde gassen,
STUVO report No. 70.
Imhoff C.: Tightness and permeability of pressed separation cracks and flexural cracks in reinforced concrete, Darmstadt Concrete, Vol. 7, pp. 49-54.
2-18

[15] Bomhard H. (1992): Concrete and Environment - An Introduction, FIP symposium, Budapest,
Vol. 1, pp. 51-59.
[16] Edvardsen C. (1996): Water penetration and autogenous healing of separation cracks in concrete, Betonwerk+Fertigteiltechnik, Vol. 11, pp. 77-85.
[17] Nordheuss H.W. (1991): Berechnungsgrundlagen und Vorschlge fr die Konstruktion und
Ausbildung von Fugen in Bodenplatten aus Beton, die chemischen Angriffen ausgesetzt sind,
Darmstadt.
[18] Tsukamoto M. et al: Permeability of cracked fibre reinforced concrete, Darmstadt Concrete,
Vol. 6, pp. 123-136.
[19] Betoniek (1998): Voeistofdicht beton III, no. 9, October 1998.
[20] Bomhard H. (1983): Wasserbehlter aus beton Anforderungs-, Entwurfs, Planungs- und Bemessungskriterien, Mnchen, 46 p.
[21] BS 5337 (1976), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Concrete for Retaining Aqueous
Liquids, British Standards Institution, London.
[22] BS 5337 (amendment 1982: see [23]) (1976), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Concrete for Retaining Aqueous Liquids, British Standards Institution, London.
[23] ACI-committee 350/AWWA (1993), Testing Reinforced Concrete Structures for water tightness, ACI-Structural Journal, Vol. 90, No. 3, pp 324-328.
[24] Schntgen B., Durchlssigkeituntersuchungen an gerissenen Betonbauteilen (mit Wasser und
wssriger Lsung), Deutscher Ausschluss fr Stahlbeton, 25, Forschungkoll., pp. 79-86.
[25] Lohmeyer G., Wasserdurchlssige Betonbauwerke Gegenmassnahmen bei Durchfeugtungen,
Beton 2/84, pp 57-60.
[26] Meischner H., Ueber die Selbstheilung von Trennrissen in Beton, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau,
Vol. 87 No. 4, pp95-99.
[27] Schiessl P. et. al. (1993), Massgebende Einflussgrssen auf die Wasserdurchlssigkeit van gerissenen Stahlbetonbauteilen, DBV Arbeitstagung, Wiesbaden, pp. 25-32.
[28] Lohmeyer G. (1994), Weisse Wannen Einfach und Sicher, Beton-Verlag, Dsseldorf, p. 255.

2-19