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Interview
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Aninterviewisaconversationbetweentwoormorepeoplewherequestionsareaskedbythe
interviewertoelicitfactsorstatementsfromtheinterviewee.[1]Interviewsareastandardpartof
qualitativeresearch.Theyarealsousedinjournalismandmediareporting(seeInterview(journalism))
andinvariousemploymentrelatedcontexts.
Thequalitativeresearchinterviewseekstodescribeandthemeaningsofcentralthemesinthelifeworld
ofthesubjects.Themaintaskininterviewingistounderstandthemeaningofwhattheintervieweessay.
Interviewing,whenconsideredasamethodforconductingqualitativeresearch,isatechniqueusedto
understandtheexperiencesofothers.

Contents
1Characteristicsofqualitativeresearchinterviews
2Technique
3Strengthsandweaknesses
4Howitfeelstobeaparticipantinqualitativeresearchinterviews
5Typesofinterviews
6Householdresearch
7Interviewer'sjudgements
8Othertypesofinterviews
9Stagesofinterviewinvestigation
10Seealso
11References
12Furtherreading

Characteristicsofqualitativeresearchinterviews
Interviewsarecompletedbytheinterviewerbasedonwhattheintervieweesaystobeconformed.
Interviewsareafarmorepersonalformofresearchthanquestionnaires.
Inthepersonalinterview,theinterviewerworksdirectlywiththeinterviewee.
Unlikewithmailsurveys,theinterviewerhastheopportunitytoprobeoraskfollowupquestions.
Interviewsaregenerallyeasierfortheinterviewee,especiallyifwhatissoughtareopinionsand/or
impressions.
Interviewsaretimeconsumingandresourceintensive.
Theinterviewerisconsideredapartofthemeasurementinstrumentandhastobewelltrainedin
howtorespondtoanycontingency.
Interviewsprovideanopportunityoffacetofaceinteractionbetween2personshence,they
reduceconflicts.

Technique
Whenchoosingtointerviewasamethodforconductingqualitativeresearch,itisimportanttobetactful
andsensitiveinyourapproach.Interviewerandresearcher,IrvingSeidman,devotesanentirechapterof
hisbook,InterviewingasQualitativeResearch,totheimportofproperinterviewingtechniqueand
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intervieweretiquette.Someofthefundamentalsofhistechniquearesummarizedbelow:
Listening:AccordingtoSeidman,thisisboththehardestaswellasthemostimportantskillin
interviewing.Furthermore,interviewersmustbepreparedtolistenonthreedifferentlevels:theymust
listentowhattheparticipantisactuallysaying,theymustlistentotheinnervoice[2]orsubtextofwhat
theparticipantiscommunicating,andtheymustalsolistentotheprocessandflowoftheinterviewsoas
toremainawareofhowtiredorboredtheparticipantisaswellaslogisticssuchashowmuchtimehas
alreadypassedandhowmanyquestionsstillremain.[2]Thelisteningskillsrequiredinaninterview
requiremorefocusandattentiontodetailthanwhatistypicalinnormalconversation.Thereforeitis
oftenhelpfulforinterviewerstotakenoteswhiletheparticipantrespondstoquestionsortotaperecord
theinterviewsthemselvestoastobeabletomoreaccuratelytranscribethemlater.[2]
Askquestions(tofollowupandtoclarify):Whileaninterviewergenerallyenterseachinterviewwitha
predetermined,standardizedsetofquestions,itisimportantthattheyalsoaskfollowupquestions
throughouttheprocess.Suchquestionsmightencourageaparticipanttoelaborateuponsomething
poignantthattheyvesharedandareimportantinacquiringamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofthe
subjectmatter.Additionally,itisimportantthatanintervieweraskclarifyingquestionswhentheyare
confused.Ifthenarrative,details,orchronologyofaparticipantsresponsesbecomeunclear,itisoften
appropriatefortheinterviewertoaskthemtoreexplaintheseaspectsoftheirstorysoastokeeptheir
transcriptionsaccurate.[2]
Berespectfulofboundaries:SeidmanexplainsthistacticasExplore,dontprobe,[2]Itisessentialthat
whiletheparticipantisbeinginterviewedtheyarebeingencouragedtoexploretheirexperiencesina
mannerthatissensitiveandrespectful.Theyshouldnotbeprobedinsuchawaythatmakesthemfeel
uncomfortableorlikeaspecimeninlab.Iftoomuchtimeisspentdwellingonminutedetailsoriftoo
manyfollowupquestionsareasked,itispossiblethattheparticipantwillbecomedefensiveor
unwillingtoshare.Thus,itistheinterviewersjobtostrikeabalancebetweenambiguityandspecificity
intheirquestionasking.[2]
Bewaryofleadingquestions:Leadingquestionsarequestionswhichsuggestorimplyananswer.While
theyareoftenaskedinnocentlytheyruntheriskofalteringthevalidityoftheresponsesobtainedasthey
discourageparticipantsfromusingtheirownlanguagetoexpresstheirsentiments.Thusitispreferable
thatinterviewersaskopenendedquestionsinstead.Forexample,insteadofaskingDidtheexperience
makeyoufeelsad?whichisleadinginnatureitwouldbebettertoaskHowdidtheexperience
makeyoufeelasthissuggestsnoexpectation.[2]
Dontinterrupt:Participantsshouldfeelcomfortableandrespectedthroughouttheentireinterviewthus
interviewersshouldavoidinterruptingparticipantswheneverpossible.Whileparticipantsmaydigressin
theirresponsesandwhiletheinterviewermayloseinterestinwhattheyaresayingatonepointor
anotheritiscriticalthattheybetactfulintheireffortstokeeptheparticipantontrackandtoreturntothe
subjectmatterinquestion.[2]
Maketheparticipantfeelcomfortable:Interviewingproposesanunusualdynamicinthatitoften
requirestheparticipanttodivulgepersonaloremotionalinformationinthepresenceofacomplete
stranger.Thus,manyinterviewersfindithelpfultoasktheparticipanttoaddressthemasiftheywere
someoneelse,[2]suchasaclosefriendorfamilymember.Thisisoftenaneffectivemethodfortuning
intotheaforementionedinnervoice[2]oftheparticipantandbreakingdownthemorepresentational
barriersoftheguardedoutervoicewhichoftenprevails.[2]

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Strengthsandweaknesses
Therearemanymethods.Whenconsideringwhattypeofqualitativeresearchmethodtouse,Qualitative
Interviewinghasmanyadvantages.PossiblythegreatestadvantageofQualitativeInterviewingisthe
depthofdetailfromtheinterviewee.Interviewingparticipantscanpaintapictureofwhathappenedina
specificevent,tellustheirperspectiveofsuchevent,aswellasgiveothersocialcues.Socialcues,such
asvoice,intonation,bodylanguageetc.oftheintervieweecangivetheintervieweralotofextra
informationthatcanbeaddedtotheverbalansweroftheintervieweeonaquestion.Thislevelof
detaileddescription,whetheritbeverbalornonverbal,canshowanotherwisehiddeninterrelatedness
betweenemotions,people,objectsunlikemanyquantitativemethodsofresearch.[3]
Inaddition,QualitativeInterviewinghasauniqueadvantageinitsspecificform.Researcherscantailor
thequestionstheyasktotherespondentinordertogetrich,fullstoriesandtheinformationtheyneedfor
theirproject.Theycanmakeitcleartotherespondentwhentheyneedmoreexamplesorexplanations.[4]
Notonlycanresearchersalsolearnaboutspecificevents,theycanalsogaininsightintopeoplesinterior
experiences,specificallyhowpeopleperceiveandhowtheyinterpretedtheirperceptions.Howevents
affectedtheirthoughtsandfeelings.Inthis,researcherscanunderstandtheprocessofaneventinsteadof
whatjusthappenedandhowtheyreactedtoit.
AnotheradvantageofQualitativeinterviewingiswhatitcangivetothereadersofacademicjournals
andpapers.Researchcanwriteaclearerreporttotheirreaders,givingthemafullerunderstandingof
theexperiencesofourrespondentsandagreaterchancetoidentifywiththerespondent,ifonly
briefly.[3]
NowQualitativeInterviewingisnotaperfectmethodforalltypesofresearch.Itdoeshaveits
disadvantages.First,therecanbecomplicationswiththeplanningoftheinterview.Notonlyisrecruiting
peopleforinterviewshard,duetothetypicallypersonalnatureoftheinterview,planningwheretomeet
themandwhencanbedifficult.Participantscancancelorchangethemeetingplaceatthelastminute.
Duringtheactualinterview,apossibleweaknessismissingsomeinformation.Thiscanarisefromthe
immensemultitaskingthattheinterviewermustdo.Notonlydotheyhavetomaketherespondentfeel
verycomfortable,theyhavetokeepasmucheyecontactaspossible,writedownasmuchastheycan,
andthinkoffollowupquestions.Aftertheinterview,theprocessofcodingbeginsandwiththiscomes
itsownsetofdisadvantages.First,codingcanbeextremelytimeconsuming.Thisprocesstypically
requiresmultiplepeople,whichcanalsobecomeexpensive.Second,thenatureofqualitativeresearch
itself,doesntlenditselfverywelltoquantitativeanalysis.Someresearchersreportmoremissingdatain
interviewresearchthansurveyresearch,thereforeitcanbedifficulttocomparepopulations[3]

Howitfeelstobeaparticipantinqualitativeresearchinterviews
Comparedtosomethinglikeawrittensurvey,interviewsallowforasignificantlyhigherdegreeof
intimacy,[5]withparticipantsoftenrevealingpersonalinformationtotheirinterviewersinarealtime,
facetofacesetting.Assuch,thistechniquecanevokeanarrayofsignificantfeelingsandexperiences
withinthosebeinginterviewed.
Onthepositiveend,interviewingcanprovideparticipantswithanoutlettoexpressthemselves.Since
thejobofinterviewersistolearn,nottotreatorcounsel,theydonotofferparticipantsanyadvice,but
nonetheless,tellinganattentivelisteneraboutconcernsandcarescanbepleasing.Asqualitative
researcherRobertS.Weissputsit,Totalktosomeonewholistens,andlistensclosely,canbevaluable,
becauseonesownexperience,throughtheprocessofbeingvoicedandshared,isvalidated.[6]Such
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validation,however,canhaveadownsideifaparticipantfeelsletdownuponterminationofthe
interviewrelationship,[7]for,unlikewithfiguresliketherapistsorcounselors,interviewersdonottakea
measureofongoingresponsibilityfortheparticipant,andtheirrelationshipisnotcontinuous.[8]To
minimizethepotentialforthisdisappointment,researchersshouldtellparticipantshowmanyinterviews
theywillbeconductinginadvance,andalsoprovidethemwithsometypeofclosure,suchasaresearch
summaryoracopyoftheprojectpublication.[7]
Onthenegativeend,themultiplequestionbasednatureofinterviewscanleadparticipantstofeel
uncomfortableandintrudeduponifaninterviewerencroachesonterritorythattheyfeelistoopersonal
orprivate.Toavoidcrossingthisline,researchersshouldattempttodistinguishbetweenpublic
informationandprivateinformation,andonlydelvedeeperintoprivateinformationaftertryingtogauge
aparticipantscomfortlevelindiscussingit.[8]
Furthermore,thecomparativelyintimatenatureofinterviewscanmakeparticipantsfeelvulnerableto
harmorexploitation.[9]Thiscanbeespeciallytrueforsituationsinwhichasuperiorinterviewsa
subordinate,likewhenteacherinterviewershisorherstudent.Inthesesituations,participantsmaybe
fearfulofprovidingawronganswer,orsayingsomethingthatcouldpotentiallygetthemintotrouble
andreflectonthemnegatively.[9]However,allinterviewrelationships,notjustexplicitlysuperior
subordinateones,aremarkedbysomedegreeofinequality,asinterviewersandparticipantswantand
receivedifferentthingsfromthetechnique.[9]Thus,researchersshouldalwaysbeconcernedwiththe
potentialforparticipantfeelingsofvulnerability,especiallyinsituationswherepersonalinformationis
revealed.
Inordertocombatsuchfeelingsofvulnerabilityandinequityandtomakeparticipantsfeelsafe,equal,
andrespected,researchersshouldprovidethemwithinformationaboutthestudy,suchaswhoisrunning
itandwhatpotentialrisksitmightentail,andalsowithinformationabouttheirrights,suchastheright
toreviewinterviewmaterialsandwithdrawfromtheprocessatanytime.Itisespeciallyimportantthat
researchersalwaysemphasizethevoluntarynatureofparticipatinginastudysothattheparticipants
remainawareoftheiragency.[9]
Theseaforementionedpowerdynamicspresentininterviewscanalsohavespecificeffectsondifferent
socialgroupsaccordingtoracialbackground,gender,age,andclass.Race,forexample,canposeissues
inaninterviewsettingifparticipantsofamarginalizedracialbackgroundareinterviewedbywhite
researchers,[9]inwhichcasetheexistenceofhistoricalandsocietalprejudicescanevokeasenseof
skepticismanddistrust.[9]Genderdynamicscansimilarlyaffectfeelings,withmensometimesacting
overbearinglywheninterviewingwomenandactingdismissivelywhenbeinginterviewedbywomen,
andsamegenderedpairsbeingvulnerabletofalseassumptionsofcommonalityorasenseofimplicit
competition.[9]Intermsofclass,participantsofperceivedlowerstatusdemonstrate,insomecases,
eitherexcessiveskepticismorexcessivesubmissiveness,andintermsofage,childrenandseniorsmay
exhibitfearsofbeingpatronized.[9]Inordertominimizethesesocialgrouprelatednegativefeelings,
researchersshouldremainsensitivetopossiblesourcesofsuchtensions,andactaccordinglyby
emphasizinggoodmanners,respect,andagenuineinterestintheparticipant,allofwhichcanallhelp
bridgesocialbarriers.[9]
Finally,anotheraspectofinterviewsthatcanaffecthowaparticipantfeelsishowtheinterviewer
expresseshisorherownfeelings,forinterviewerscanprojecttheirmoodsandemotionsontothosethey
areinterviewing.Forinstance,ifaninterviewerfeelsnoticeablyuncomfortable,theparticipantmay
begintosharethisdiscomfort,[9]andifaninterviewerexpressesanger,heorsheisindangerofpassing
itontotheparticipant.So,researchersshouldtrytoremaincalm,polite,andinterestedatalltimes.
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Typesofinterviews
Informal,Conversationalinterview
Nopredeterminedquestionsareasked,inordertoremainasopenandadaptableaspossibletothe
intervieweesnatureandprioritiesduringtheinterviewtheinterviewergoeswiththeflow.
Generalinterviewguideapproach
Intendedtoensurethatthesamegeneralareasofinformationarecollectedfromeachinterviewee
thisprovidesmorefocusthantheconversationalapproach,butstillallowsadegreeoffreedom
andadaptabilityingettingtheinformationfromtheinterviewee.
Standardized,openendedinterview
Thesameopenendedquestionsareaskedtoallintervieweesthisapproachfacilitatesfaster
interviewsthatcanbemoreeasilyanalyzedandcompared.
Closed,fixedresponseinterview
Allintervieweesareaskedthesamequestionsandaskedtochooseanswersfromamongthesame
setofalternatives.Thisformatisusefulforthosenotpracticedininterviewing.Thistypeof
interviewisalsoreferredtoasstructured.[10]

Householdresearch
Researchonhouseholdsposespecificethicalproblemsofanonymityandconsentamonginterviewees,
andthereisanongoingcontroversyoverwhetherspousesshouldbeinterviewedinpersonal,individual
interviewsorincoupleinterviews.[11]

Interviewer'sjudgements
AccordingtoHackmanandOldmanseveralfactorscanbiasaninterviewer'sjudgmentaboutajob
applicant.Howeverthesefactorscanbereducedorminimizedbytraininginterviewstorecognized
them.
Someexamplesare:
PriorInformation
Interviewersgenerallyhavesomepriorinformationaboutjobcandidates,suchasrecruiter
evaluations,applicationblanks,onlinescreeningresults,ortheresultsofpsychologicaltests.This
cancausetheinterviewertohaveafavorableorunfavorableattitudetowardanapplicantbefore
meetingthem.
TheContrastEffect
Howtheinterviewersevaluateaparticularapplicantmaydependontheirstandardsof
comparison,thatis,thecharacteristicsoftheapplicantstheyinterviewedpreviously.
Interviewers'Prejudices
Thiscanbedonewhentheinterviewers'judgementistheirpersonallikesanddislikes.Thesemay
includebutarenotlimitedtoracialandethnicbackground,applicantswhodisplaycertain
qualitiesortraitsandrefusetoconsidertheirabilitiesorcharacteristics.

Othertypesofinterviews
Cognitiveinterview
Computerassistedpersonalvs.telephoneinterviewing
Ladderinterview
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Mallinterceptpersonalinterview
Onlineinterview
Psychiatricinterview
Referenceinterview,betweenalibrarianandalibraryuser
Repertorygridinterview
Structured,semistructured,andunstructuredinterview
StructuredClinicalInterviewforDSMIV

Stagesofinterviewinvestigation
Thematizing,thewhyandwhatoftheinvestigation
Designing,planthedesignofthestudy
Interviewing,conducttheinterviewbasedonaguide
Transcribing,preparetheinterviewmaterialforanalysis
Analyzing,decideonthepurpose,thetopic,thenatureandmethodsofanalysisthatare
appropriate
Verifying,ascertainthevalidityoftheinterviewfindings
Reporting,communicatefindingsofthestudybasedonacademiccriteria

Seealso
Surveymethodology
Thematicanalysis

WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoInterviews.

References
1. http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/interview
2. Seidman,I(1998).Techniqueisnteverything,butitisalot.InInterviewingasqualitativeresearch:Aguide
forresearchersineducationandthesocialsciences.NewYork,NY:TeachersCollegePress.
3. Weiss,R.S.(1994).Learningfromstrangers,theartandmethodofqualitativeinterviewstudies.NewYork,
NY:FreePr.
4. Emans,Ben(1986).Interviewentheorie,techniekentraining.Groningen:WoltersNoordhoff.
5. Seidman,Irving.InterviewingasQualitativeResearch:AGuideforResearchersinEducationandtheSocial
Sciences.TeachersCollegePress,1998,pg.49
6. Weiss,Robert.LearningfromStrangers:TheArtandMethodofQualitativeInterviewStudies.TheFree
Press,1994,pg.122
7. Weiss,Robert.LearningfromStrangers:TheArtandMethodofQualitativeInterviewStudies.TheFree
Press,1994,pg.123
8. Seidman,Irving.InterviewingasQualitativeResearch:AGuideforResearchersinEducationandtheSocial
Sciences.TeachersCollegePress,1998,pg.91
9. Seidman,Irving.InterviewingasQualitativeResearch:AGuideforResearchersinEducationandtheSocial
Sciences.TeachersCollegePress,1998
10. Moore,Brenda(2014)."InDepthInterviewing"inRoutledgeHandbookofResearchMethodsinMilitary
Studies(http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT23&ots=TRFdlv1qZH&sig=dp4OqiNnE9QZSlWdW40P
bp6cHm4#v=onepage&q&f=false),(eds.)J.Sorters,P.Shields,SHenriette.NewYork:Routledge.115128.
11. Bjrnholt,MFarstad,G.R.(2012)." 'AmIrambling?'Ontheadvantagesofinterviewingcouplestogether"
(http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp
content/uploads/2012/10/Am_I_rambling_on_the_advantages_of_interviewing_couples_together.pdf)(PDF).
QualitativeResearch14(1):319.doi:10.1177/1468794112459671
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1468794112459671).

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Furtherreading
Bechhofer,FrankPaterson,Lindsay(2000)."Tointerviewornottointerview".Principlesof
ResearchDesignintheSocialSciences.London:Routledge.pp.5571.ISBN0415214432.
Boynton,Petra(2005).TheResearchCompanion:APracticalGuidefortheSocialandHealth
Sciences.ThePsychologyPress.ISBN1841693049.
Campion,M.A.Campion,J.E.Hudson,J.P.,Jr.(1994)."StructuredInterviewing:ANoteon
IncrementalValidityandAlternativeQuestionTypes".JournalofAppliedPsychology79(6):
9981002.doi:10.1037/00219010.79.6.998(https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F00219010.79.6.998).
Dick,Bob.ConvergentInterviewing.Session8of"AreolActionResearchandEvaluation",
SouthernCrossUniversity,2002
Foddy,William(1993).ConstructingQuestionsforInterviewsandQuestionnaires.Cambridge
UniversityPress.ISBN0521420091.
GeneralAccountingOffice(1991)."UsingStructuredInterviewingTechniques"
(http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/pe1015.pdf)(PDF).ProgramEvaluationandMethodology
Division.WashingtonD.C.
Groat,LindaWang,David(2002).ArchitecturalResearchMethods.NewYork:JohnWiley&
Sons.ISBN0471333654.
Hollowitz,J.Wilson,C.E.(1993)."StructuredInterviewinginVolunteerSelection".Journalof
AppliedCommunicationResearch21(1):4152.doi:10.1080/00909889309365354
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00909889309365354).
Kvale,Steinar(1996).Interviews:AnIntroductiontoQualitativeResearchInterviewing.Sage
Publications.ISBN0803958196.
McNamara,Carter(1999)."GeneralGuidelinesforConductingInterviews"
(http://communities.usaidallnet.gov/fa/system/files/General+Guidelines+for+Conducting+Intervie
ws.pdf)(PDF).Minnesota.
Pawlas,G.E.(1995)."TheStructuredInterview:ThreeDozenQuestionstoAskProspective
Teachers".NASSPBulletin79:6265.
Schultz,DuaneP.Schultz,SydneyEllen(2010).PsychologyandWorkToday:AnIntroductionto
IndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology(10thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,N.J.:PrenticeHall.
p.71.ISBN9780205683581.
Trochim,WilliamM.K.(2002)."TypesofSurveys"
(http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/survtype.php).ResearchMethodsKnowledgeBase.
Watts,G.E.(1993)."EffectiveStrategiesinSelectingQualityFaculty".InternationalConference
forCommunityCollegeChairs,Deans,&OtherInstructionalLeaders(Phoenix,Arizona).
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interview&oldid=662193709"
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