UNIT 1

The Environment
Interrelationship Between EVS and Other Subjects
Environment education is the new areas of study of the discipline of education.
With recent developments and advances, environmental education is a new
source of concern for educators, teachers and students. As with the rapid
development in each area, there are problems- both internal and external ones.
The environmental education aims at developing in the child and
awareness and understanding of the physical and social environment in its
totality. Environmental studies involve a childs investigation and systematic
exploration of his own natural and social environment and prepare him to solve
the problems for improving his life.
Environmental education is a process of providing learning experiences to
obtain knowledge, understanding, skills and awareness with desirable attitude
change about mans relationship with his natural and man-made surroundings
which includes the relation of population, pollution, resource allocation,
transportation technology and urban and rural planning to the total human
environment.
Objectives of environmental education:
Goals of EE are to develop a world population that is aware of and concerned
about, total environment and its related problems, and commitment to work
individually and collectively towards solution of current problems and the
prevention of new ones.
A few objectives are given below:
1. Awareness i.e. acquire an awareness of sensitivity to the total
environment and its allied problems.
2. Knowledge i.e. gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic
understanding of the environment and its associated problems.
3. Attitude i.e acquire a set of values and feelings of concern for the
environment and the motivation for active participation in the
environmental improvement and protection.
4. Skill i.e. acquire skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
5. Evaluation ability i.e. evaluate environmental measures and education
programmes in terms of ecological, economic and social, aesthetic and
educational factors.
6. Participation i.e. provide an opportunity to be actively involved at all
levels in working towards the resolution of environmental problems.

Ecosystem
The term ecosystem was proposed by A.C. Tansley in 1935 where eco implies
the environment and system denotes an interacting, interdependent complex.
Ecosystem may be defined as the system resulting from the integration of all
living and non-living factors of the environment. Thus, any unit that includes all
the organisms i.e. the communities in a given area interact with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure,
biotic diversity and material cycle within the system is known as ecological
system or ecosystem.

Basic Components of Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the species of organisms that are
present, including information on their life histories, populations and distribution in space. It
is a guide to whos who in the ecosystem. It also includes descriptive information on the nonliving (physical) features of environment, including the amount and distribution of
nutrients.The structure of ecosystem provides information about the range of climatic
conditions that prevail in the area. From structural point of view all ecosystems consist of
following four basic components:
1. Abiotic Substances:
These include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the environment or habitat of the
organism. The inorganic components of an ecosystem are carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen,
calcium, phosphate, all of which are involved in matter cycles (biogeochemical cycles).
The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids,
all of which are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an ecosystem and are reached to
ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains, etc, The climate, temperature, light, soil, etc., are
other abiotic components of the ecosystem.
2. Producers:
Producers are autotrophic organisms like chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria, blue
green algae, algae and all other green plants. They are called ecosystem producers because
they capture energy from non-organic sources, especially light, and store some of the energy
the form of chemical bonds, for the later use.
Algae of various types are the most important producers of aquatic ecosystems, although in
estuaries and marshes, grasses may be important as producers. Terrestrial ecosystems have
trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, and mosses that contribute with varying importance to the
production of the ecosystem.
Since heterotrophic organisms depend on plants and other autotrophic Organisms like
bacteria and algae for their nutrition, the amount of energy that the producers capture, sets the
limit on the availability of energy for the ecosystem. Thus, when a green plant captures a
certain amount of energy from sunlight, it is said to produce the energy for the ecosystem.
3. Consumers:
They are heterotrophic organisms in the ecosystem which eat other living creatures. There are
herbivores, which eat plants, and carnivores, which eat other animals. They are also called
phagotrophs or macroconsumers. Sometimes herbivores are called primary macroconsumers
and carnivores are called secondary Macroconsumers.
4. Reducers or Decomposers:
Reducers, decomposers, saprotrophs or Macroconsumers are heterotrophic organisms that
breakdown dead and waste matter. Fungi and certain bacteria are the prime representatives of
this category. Enzymes are secreted by their cells into or onto dead plant and animal debris.

These chemicals digest the dead organism into smaller bits or molecules, which can be
absorbed by the fungi or bacteria (saprotrophs).
The decomposers take the energy and matter that they harvest during this feeding process for
their own metabolism. Heat is liberated in each chemical conversion along the metabolic
pathway.
No ecosystem could function long without decomposers. Dead organisms would pile up
without rotting, as would waste products. It would not be long before an essential element,
phosphorus, for example, would be first in short supply and then gone altogether, because the
dead corpses littering the landscape would be hoarding the entire supply.
Thus, the importance of the decomposers to the ecosystem is that they tear apart organisms
and in their metabolic processes release to the environment atoms and molecules that can be
reused again by autotrophic organisms. They are not important to the ecosystem from the
energy point of view but from the material (nutrient) point of view. Energy cannot be
recycled, but matter can be.
Food Chain and Food Web

Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants get
energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other animals.
A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an
ecosystem) to obtain nutrition. A food chain starts with the primary energy source,
usually the sun or boiling-hot deep sea vents. The next link in the chain is an
organism that make its own food from the primary energy source -- an example is
photosynthetic plants that make their own food from sunlight (using a process
called photosynthesis) and chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food energy
from chemicals in hydrothermal vents. These are called autotrophs or primary
producers.
Next come organisms that eat the autotrophs; these organisms are called
herbivores or primary consumers -- an example is a rabbit that eats grass.
The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores - these are called
secondary consumers -- an example is a snake that eat rabbits.
In turn, these animals are eaten by larger predators -- an example is an owl that eats
snakes.
The tertiary consumers are are eaten by quaternary consumers -- an example is a
hawk that eats owls. Each food chain end with a top predator, and animal with no
natural enemies (like an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy, from the sun or hydrothermal
vent to a top predator. As the energy flows from organism to organism, energy is
lost at each step. A network of many food chains is called a food web.
Trophic Levels:
The trophic level of an organism is the position it holds in a food chain.
1. Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight
and/or chemical energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food
chain - these organisms are called autotrophs.
2. Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also
called herbivores (plant-eaters).
3. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meateaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).
4. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.
5. Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers.
6. Food chains "end" with top predators, animals that have little or no natural
enemies.
When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms
and crabs) and broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the
exchange of energy continues.
Some organisms' position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For
example, when a bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer.
When a bear eats a plant-eating rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary
consumer. When the bear eats salmon, the bear is functioning as a tertiary
consumer (this is because salmon is a secondary consumer, since salmon eat
herring that eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make their own energy
from sunlight). Think about how people's place in the food chain varies - often
within a single meal.
Numbers of Organisms:
In any food web, energy is lost each time one organism eats another. Because of
this, there have to be many more plants than there are plant-eaters. There are more
autotrophs than heterotrophs, and more plant-eaters than meat-eaters. Although
there is intense competition between animals, there is also an interdependence.
When one species goes extinct, it can affect an entire chain of other species and
have unpredictable consequences.

Equilibrium
As the number of carnivores
in a community increases,
they eat more and more of
the herbivores, decreasing
the herbivore population. It
then becomes harder and
harder for the carnivores to
find herbivores to eat, and
the population of carnivores
decreases. In this way, the
carnivores and herbivores stay in a relatively stable equilibrium, each limiting the
other's population. A similar equilibrium exists between plants and plant-eaters.
Forest: A forest is a large area of land covered with trees or other woody vegetation.[1]
Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating
factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function.[2][3][4]
According to the widely-used[5][6] United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
definition, forests covered an area of four billion hectares (15 million square miles) or
approximately 30 percent of the world's land area in 2006.[4]
Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem on Earth, and are distributed across the globe.[7]
Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and
contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.[7]
Forests at different latitudes form distinctly different ecozones: boreal forests near the poles
tend to consist of evergreens, while tropical forests near the equator tend to be distinct from
the temperate forests at mid-latitude. The amount of precipitation and the elevation of the
forest also affects forest composition.
Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways.[8] Forests
provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also
impose costs, affect people's health, and interfere with tourist enjoyment. Human activities,
including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.
Grasslands: Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae),
however sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found. Grasslands
occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica. Grasslands are found in most ecoregions
of the Earth. For example there are five terrestrial ecoregion classifications (subdivisions) of
the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome ('ecosystem'), which is one of eight
terrestrial ecozones of the Earth's surface.

Water: Water plays an array of vital roles in ecosystems across the planet. Although
many other substances are necessary for life and for ecosystems to exist, without water
nothing else would function to produce life as we know it.

Life Support

Water is essential to life since every living cell of every living thing needs water for
sustenance. Without water an ecosystem would not exist.

Erosion

Water is an agent of erosion. Rainwater, river water and freezing and thawing water
can break up enormous amounts of rock into small fragments, forming some of the
building materials of soil.

Climatic Effects

Water in the atmosphere affects the climate, as in cloud formations that can produce
snow and rain. Clouds can also reflect sunlight away from Earth, producing a cooling
effect.

Evaporative Cooling

The cooling effect of water can also result from evaporation or evapotranspiration (the
combination of evaporation in general and the evaporation of water through plants'
leaves called transpiration).

Hydropower

Human industry has produced hydropower, power from water through dams where
turbines generate electricity. This usage has an impact on ecosystems, especially
migratory fish.

Agro Ecosystems: An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study in agroecology, and is

somewhat arbitrarily defined as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural
activity, and includes the living and nonliving components involved in that unit as well as
their interactions. [1]
An agroecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a conventional ecosystem. As the name
implies, at the core of an agroecosystem lies the human activity of agriculture. However, an
agroecosystem is not restricted to the immediate site of agricultural activity (e.g. the farm),
but rather includes the region that is impacted by this activity, usually by changes to the
complexity of species assemblages and energy flows, as well as to the net nutrient balance.
Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one managed intensively, is characterized as
having a simpler species composition and simpler energy and nutrient flows than "natural"
ecosystem.[2] Likewise, agroecosystems are often associated with elevated nutrient input,
much of which exits the farm leading to eutrophication of connected ecosystems not directly
engaged in agriculture.[3]

UNIT 2
Natural Resources
Natural resources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by
humanity, in a natural form. A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of
biodiversity and geodiversity existent in various ecosystems.
Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of them are essential for our
survival while most are used for satisfying our needs. Natural resources may be further
classified in different ways.
Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be
found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at
its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water,
and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which
must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, oil, and most forms of energy.

Uses and Misuse of Natural Resources:

Use/ Conservation of natural resources:
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES As the human population is
continuously growing the consumption of natural resources is also increasing. With the
increasing industrialization and urbanization of the modern human society, the use of all the
resources is rising. If they are not properly used and well managed, a serious scarcity will
result. Therefore we need to conserve the natural resources. This will also upset the
ecological balance. Conservation is the proper management of a natural resource to prevent
its exploitation, destruction or degradation. Conservation is the sum total of activities,
which can derive benefits from natural resources but at the same time prevent excessive use
leading to destruction or degradation.
6. Need for Conservation of Natural Resources We know that nature provides us all our
basic needs but we tend to overexploit it. If we go on exploiting the nature, there will be no
more resources available in future. There is an urgent need to conserve the nature. Some of
the needs are : to maintain ecological balance for supporting life. to preserve different

kinds of species (biodiversity). to make the resources available for present and future
generation. to ensure the survival of human race.
7. Conservation of Natural Resources and Traditions of India The need for
conservation of natural resources was felt by our predecessors and in India, there was a
tradition of respecting and preserving the nature and natural resources. Natural resources
were conserved in the form of sacred groves/forests, sacred pools and lakes, sacred species
etc. In our country the conservation of natural forests is known from the time of Lord Asoka.
Sacred forests are forest patches of different dimensions dedicated by the tribal to their deities
and ancestral spirits. Cutting down trees, hunting and other human interferences were strictly
prohibited in these forests. This practice is wide spread particularly in peninsular, central and
eastern India and has resulted in the protection of a large number of plants and animals and.
Similarly, several water bodies, e.g., Khecheopalri lake in Sikkim was declared sacred by
people, thus, protecting aquatic flora and fauna. Worshipping certain plants like banyan,
peepal, tulsi etc. has not only preserved them but also encouraged us for their plantation.
History recalls numerous instances where people have laid down their lives in protecting the
trees. Recent Chipko movement in India is one of the best examples. This movement was
started by the women in Gopeshwar village in Garhwal in the Himalayas. They stopped the
felling of trees by hugging them when the lumbermen arrived to cut them. This saved about
12000 square kilometers of the sensitive water catchment area. Similar movements also
occurred in some other parts of the country.
8. Conservation of Soil In the previous section we learnt about the various causes of soil
erosion. Soil loses its fertility due to erosion. So we need to conserve the soil. Soil
conservation means checking soil erosion and improving soil fertility by adopting various
methods. Let us know some of these methods. 1. Maintenance of soil fertility: The fertility
can be maintained by adding manure and fertilizers regularly as well as by rotation of crop.
2. Control on grazing: Grazing should be allowed only on the areas meant for it and not on
agricultural land. 3. Reforestation: Planting of trees and vegetation reduces soil erosion by
both water and wind. 4. Terracing: Dividing a slope into several flat fields to control rapid
run of water. It is practiced mostly in hilly areas. 5. Contour ploughing: Ploughing at right
angles to the slope allows the furrows to trap water and check soil erosion by rain water.
9. Conservation of Water Conservation and management of water are essential for the
survival of mankind, plants and animals. This can be achieved adopting the following
methods: 1. Growing vegetation in the catchment areas, which will hold water in the soil and
allow it to percolate into deeper layers and contribute to formation of ground water. 2.
Constructing dams and reservoirs to regulate supply of water to the fields, as well as to
enable generating hydroelectricity. 3. Sewage should be treated and only the clear water
should be released into the rivers. 4. Industrial wastes (effluents) should be treated to prevent
chemical and thermal pollution of fresh water. 5. Judicious use of water in our day-to-day
life. 6. Rainwater harvesting should be done by storing rainwater and recharging
groundwater.
10. Different methods of water harvesting
11. Conservation of Biodiversity Now you have an idea of the importance of biodiversity
for our survival and how it is destroyed. Let us know how to protect the biodiversity. There
are two basic strategies for conservation of biodiversity: (i) In-situ conservation (ii) Ex-situ
conservation (i) In-situ (on site) conservation includes the protection of plants and animals
within their natural habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are areas of land or sea
dedicated to protection and maintenance of biodiversity. For example: e.g., National Parks,
Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, etc. (ii) Ex-situ (off site) conservation is the
conservation of plants and animals outside their natural habitats. These include Botanical

Gardens, Zoo, Gene Banks, DNA Banks, Seed Banks, Pollen Banks, Seedling and Tissue
Culture etc.
12. Conservation of Forests Forests is an important part of the environment, because trees
clean the air and keep the atmosphere cool. We cannot live without plants, because the
oxygen need for breathing is produced by plants. Trees absorb sunlight and reduce the heat.
Plants provide fodder for animals, firewood, timber, medicines, honey, wax, gum, lac and
food for us. Tree roots penetrate deep into the soil and from cavities in the ground. The dry
leaves which fall on ground, cover the soil and absorb more rain water, which slowly
percolates through the soil. Thus, a large portion of the rain water can be retained in the field,
by planting more trees.

Different Types of Misuse of Natural Resources

Natural
Resource

Types of misuse/ecological problems

Excessive mining
Loss of forest area (if mines are in forest)

I Ecological
Resources

Displacement of population and their profession

Loss of agricultural lands (if resource is in cultivated land)
Dumping of ore or spent ore on surface leading to soil / water
pollution
Risks and health hazards to employees / population
Directly contributing pollution to water / soil /air in petroleum
exploration and processing industry
Excessive, unscientific and uneconomic ground water
exploitation

II Hydro
ecological
Resources

Exploration of underground water without any regard to its

rate of rechange
Displacement of human settlement during establishment of
hydro-projects
Loss of agricultural / forest area in standing water (in dam
construction)
Unscientific use / overuse of irrigation water leading to loss of
fertility, increased pollution of land / water
Loss of biodiversity
Destructive use of atmospheric oxygen to burn carbon
sources to produce CO and CO2 which in turn change the
composition of air

III Atmospheric
Resources

Deforestation on one side and polluting the atmosphere by

CO2 loading on other side have led to increased CO 2 levels in
atmosphere
Ozone coverage is slowly degenerating due to release of
chlorine generating gases to atmosphere

Continuous deforestation for commercial and fuel purposes

V Forest
resources

Encroachment of forest area for agriculture,mining, industrial

purposes

Recycling of materials
Recycling is a process to change waste materials into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy
usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by
reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as
compared to plastic production.[1][2] Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction
and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse and Recycle" waste hierarchy.
There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste
and ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and
electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable wastesuch as food or garden
wasteis also considered recycling.[2] Materials to be recycled are either brought to a
collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into
new materials bound for manufacturing.
In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same
materialfor example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or used
foamed polystyrene into new polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive
(compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources), so
"recycling" of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different
materials (e.g., paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain
materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value (e.g., lead from car
batteries, or gold from computer components), or due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal
and reuse of mercury from various items). Critics dispute the net economic and
environmental benefits of recycling over its costs, and suggest that proponents of recycling
often make matters worse and suffer from confirmation bias. Specifically, critics argue that
the costs and energy used in collection and transportation detract from (and outweigh) the
costs and energy saved in the production process; also that the jobs produced by the recycling
industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in logging, mining, and other industries
associated with virgin production; and that materials such as paper pulp can only be recycled
a few times before material degradation prevents further recycling.[3] Proponents of recycling
dispute each of these claims, and the validity of arguments from both sides has led to
enduring controversy.

In the past, human interaction with nature, although often having a disruptive effect
on nature, often also enriched the quality and variety of the living world and its
habitats - e.g. through the creation of artificial landscapes and soil cultivation by
local farmers.
Today, however, human pressure on natural environments is greater than before in
terms of magnitude and efficiency in disrupting nature and natural landscapes,
most notably:

intensive agriculture replacing traditional farming; this combined with the

subsidies of industrial farming has had an enormous effect on western rural
landscapes and continues to be a threat.

mass tourism affecting mountains and coasts.

the policies pursued in the industry, transport and energy sectors having a
direct and damaging impact on the coasts, major rivers (dam construction
and associated canal building) and mountain landscapes (main road
networks).

the strong focus of forestry management on economic targets primarily

causes the decline in biodiversity, soil erosion and other related effects.

The clearest manifestations of the degradation of the natural environment are:

Reduction and fragmentation of habitats and landscapes

The expansion of humans activities into the natural environment, manifested
by urbanisation, recreation, industrialisation, and agriculture, results in
increasing uniformity in landscapes and consequential reduction,
disappearance, fragmentation or isolation of habitats and landscapes.
It is evident that the increasing exploitation of land for human use greatly
reduces the area of each wildlife habitat as well as the total area surface
throughout Europe. The consequences are:
o A decreased species diversity, due to reduced habitable surface area

which corresponds to a reduced "species carrying capacity".

o The reduction of the size of habitats also reduces the genetic diversity

of the species living there. Smaller habitats can only accommodate

smaller populations, this results in an impoverished gene pool.
o The reduction of genetic resources of a species diminishes its

flexibility and evolutionary adaptability to changing situations. This

has significant negative impacts on its survival.
The conditions under which the reduction of habitats often occur prevent
living organisms making use of their normal ways to flee their threatened
habitat. Those escape routes include migration to other habitats, adaption to
the changing environment, or genetic interchange with populations in
nearby habitats. Of particular concern is:

o The abrupt nature of human intervention; human projects are planned

and implemented on a much shorter time scale than natural processes;

o Furthermore human intervention, such as the construction of

buildings, motorways or railways results in the fragmentation of

habitats, which strongly limits the possibility for contact or migration
among them;
o In extreme cases even the smallest, narrowest connections between

habitats are broken off. Such isolation is catastrophic for life in the
habitat fragments.

Loss of Species of Fauna and Flora

Although relatively few species of Europe's fauna and flora have actually
become totally extinct during this century, the continent's biodiversity is
affected by decreasing species numbers and the loss of habitats in many
regions. Approximately 30 % of the vertebrates and 20 % of the higher
plants are classified as "threatened". Threats are directly linked to the loss of
habitats due to destruction, modification and fragmentation of ecosystems as
well as from overuse of pesticides and herbicides, intensive farming
methods, hunting and general human disturbance. The overall deterioration
of Europe's air and water quality add to the detrimental influence.

Agriculture
Europe's natural environment is inextricably linked with agriculture and forestry.
Since agriculture traditionally depends on sound environmental conditions, farmers
have a special interest in the maintenance of natural resources and for centuries
maintained a mosaic of landscapes which protected and enriched the natural
environment.
As a result of needs for food production since the 1940s, policies have encouraged
increased pro- duction through a variety of mechanisms, including price support,
other subsidies and support for research and development. The success achieved in
agricultural production has however entailed increased impact on the environment.
Modern agriculture is responsible for the loss of much wildlife and their habitats in
Europe, through reduction and fragmentation of habitats and wildlife populations.
The drainage of wetlands, the destruction of hedgerows and the intensive use of
fertilizers and pesticides can all pose a threat to wildlife. Highly specialised
monoculture are causing significant loss in species abundance and diversity. On the
other hand increased production per hectare in intensive areas, raising of livestock

volume, and lower prices for agricultural products also caused marginalization of
agricultural land, changing the diversity of European landscapes into the direction
of two main types: Intensive Agriculture and Abandoned land.

Energy
Abandonment can be positive for nature, but this is not necessarily so. Land
abandonment increases the risk of fire in the Mediterranean Region, causes a
decline of small-scale landscape diversity and can also cause decrease in species
diversity.
All energy types have potential impacts on the natural environment to varying
degrees at all stages of use, from extraction through processing to end use.
Generating energy from any source involves making the choices between impacts
and how far those impacts can be tolerated at the local and global scale. This is
especially of importance for nuclear power, where there are significant risks of
radioactive pollution such as at Chernobyl.
Shell Oil Company and IUCN have jointly drafted environmental regulations for
oil-exploitation in Arctic areas of Siberia. Other oil companies are aware of this
and use these environmental regula- tions voluntarily for developing oil fields.
Into the future the sustainability of the natural environment will be improved as
trends away from damaging energy uses and extractive methods reduce and whilst
real cost market forces and the polluter pays principle take effect.

Fisheries
The principle of the fisheries sector is towards sustainable catches of wild aquatic
fauna. The principle environmental impact associated with fisheries activities is the
unsustainable har- vesting of fish stocks and shellfish and has consequences for the
ecological balance of the aquatic environment. The sector is in a state of "crisis",
with over capacity of the fleet, overexploitation of stocks, debt, and marketing
problems.
Growing aquaculture industry may increase water pollution in western Europe, and
is appearing to be a rising trend in the Mediterranean and Central/East Europe.
Fishing activities have an impact on cetaceans and there is concern that large
numbers of dolphins, and even the globally endangered Monk seal, are being
killed.

Forestry
Compared to other landuses, forest management has the longest tradition in
following sustainable principles due to which over 30% of Europe is still covered
with trees. Without such an organised approach, forests are likely to have already
disappeared from Europe's lowlands. However, as an economic sector, forestry has
also impacted severely on the naturalness of Europe's forests: soils have been
drained, pesticides and fertilizers applied, and exotic species planted. In many
areas monocultures have replaced the original diverse forest composition.
Monocultures are extremely sensitive to insect infestations, fires or wind, and so
can lead to financial losses as well as biological decline. The inadequate
afforestation practices characterize new trends in impacting on the sustainability of
the natural environment.

Industry
Almost all forms of industry have an impact on the natural environment and its
sustainability. The impact varies at different stages in the life cycle of a product,
depending upon the raw materials used through to the final end use of the product
for waste residue, re-use or recycling. Industrial accidents and war damage to
industrial plants can also endanger the natural environment.

Tourism and Recreation

Tourism and recreation impact in various ways on the natural environment. On the
one hand, natural areas form the very basis of many touristic attractions by
highlighting scenic value or exceptional encounters with fauna and flora. However,
some forms of tourism can be extremely detrimental to ecologically sensitive areas,
resulting in habitat degeneration or destruction, in the disturbance or hunting even
rare or threatened species. The pressure from short holiday seasons and specific,
sometimes small, locations of touristic interest result in conflicting land-uses, such
as in the Alpine regions, at Mediterranean beaches and along many banks of inland
waters.

Transport and Infrastructure

Transport is perhaps the major contributor to pollution in the world today,

particularly global envi- ronmental issues such as the greenhouse effect. The key
impacts of transportation include frag- mentation of habitats and species and
genetic populations, disruption of migration and traffic mortalities to wildlife.
Since the 1970s transport has become a major consumer of non-renewable
resources, 80% of oil consumption coming from road transport.

UNIT 3
Pollution
Air Pollution:
Pollution is now a common place term, that our ears are attuned to. We hear about the various
forms of pollution and read about it through the mass media. Air pollution is one such form
that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical,
biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It
occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult
for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
Air pollution can further be classified into two sections- Visible air pollution and invisible air
pollution. Another way of looking at Air pollution could be any substance that holds the
potential to hinder the atmosphere or the well being of the living beings surviving in it. The
sustainment of all things living is due to a combination of gases that collectively form the
atmosphere; the imbalance caused by the increase or decrease of the percentage of these
gases can be harmful for survival.
Causes of Air pollution, several divisions can be made. Primarily air pollutants can be
caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The pollutants that are a direct result of the
process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be
the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories
Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of
primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known
to be as secondary pollutant.

Causes of Air pollution

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution.
Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause immense
amount of pollution. We rely on them to fulfill our daily basic needs of transportation. But,
there overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are polluting the environment.
Carbon Monooxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion and generally emitted
from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that is produced from
both natural and man made processes.

2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related

activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful
chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large amount of
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby
depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found at every corner of the earth
and there is no area that has not been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release
hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted
using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing
massive air pollution. This is one of the reason which is responsible for the deteriorating
health conditions of workers and nearby residents.
5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals
in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you paint walls of your
house, it creates some sort of smell which makes it literally impossible for you to breathe.

Effects of Air pollution

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are
known to create several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among other
threats to the body. Several millions are known to have died due to direct or indirect effects of
Air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from
pneumonia and asthma.
2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is
witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures world wide, increase in sea
levels and melting of ice from colder regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat
have already signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and normalization
arent undertaken soon.
3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combines
with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid rain.
Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals and crops.
4. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen present in
some pollutants gets developed on seas surface and turns itself into algae and and adversely
affect fish, plants and animal species. The green colored algae that is present on lakes and
ponds is due to presence of this chemical only.
5. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating affects of air
pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to new place
and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can
also affect sea animals.

6. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earths stratosphere and is responsible for
protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earths ozone layer is depleting due to
the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As ozone
layer will go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye related
problems. UV rays also have the capability to affect crops.
When you try to study the sources of Air pollution, you enlist a series of activities and
interactions that create these pollutants. There are two types of sources that we will take a
look at: Natural sources and Man-made sources.
Natural sources of pollution include dust carried by the wind from locations with very little or
no green cover, gases released from the body processes of living beings (Carbon dioxide from
humans during respiration, Methane from cattle during digestion, Oxygen from plants during
Photosynthesis). Smoke from the combustion of various inflammable objects, volcanic
eruptions etc along with the emission of polluted gases also make it to the list of Natural
sources of Pollution.
While looking at the man-made contributions towards air pollution, smoke again features as a
prominent component. The smoke emitted from various forms of combustion like in bio
mass, factories, vehicles, furnaces etc. Waste used to create landfills generate methane, that is
harmful in several ways. The reactions of certain gases and chemicals also form harmful
fumes that can be dangerous to the well being of living creatures.

Solutions for Air Pollution

1. Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public
modes of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If you and
your colleagues come from the same locality and have same timings you can explore this
option to save energy and money.
2. Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount of
fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from degradation
by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.
3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items that
are of no use to you. In-fact reuse them for some other purpose. For e.g. you can use old jars
to store cereals or pulses.
4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and
geothermal are on high these days. Governments of various countries have been providing
grants to consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for their home. This will go a
long way to curb air pollution.
5. Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their
counterparts. They live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills and also help
you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.
Several attempts are being made world wide on a personal, industrial and governmental
levels to curb the intensity at which Air Pollution is rising and regain a balance as far as the

proportions of the foundation gases are concerned. This is a direct attempt at slacking Global
warming. We are seeing a series of innovations and experiments aimed at alternate and
unconventional options to reduce pollutants. Air Pollution is one of the larger mirrors of
mans follies, and a challenge we need to overcome to see a tomorrow.
Improving indoor Air Quality

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a term which refers to the air quality within and around
buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building
occupants. IAQ can be affected by gases (including carbon monoxide, radon, volatile organic
compounds), particulates, microbial contaminants (mold, bacteria), or any mass or energy
stressor that can induce adverse health conditions. Source control, filtration and the use of
ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in
most buildings. Residential units can further improve indoor air quality by routine cleaning of
carpets and area rugs. EPA has guidelines for frequency of cleaning based on traffic, number
of household members, pets, children and smokers. Carpets and rugs act like an air filter and
must be cleaned.
Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to
pollutants, collection of samples on building surfaces, and computer modelling of air flow
inside buildings.
IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality (IEQ), which includes IAQ as well as other
physical and psychological aspects of life indoors (e.g., lighting, visual quality, acoustics, and
thermal comfort).
Indoor air pollution in developing nations is by far the most deadly risk globally. A major
source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass (e.g. wood,
charcoal, dung, or crop residue) for heating and cooking.The resulting exposure to high levels
of particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000.

There are three basic strategies to improve indoor air quality

1. Source Control
2. Improved Ventilation, and
3. Air cleaners
Source Control

Usually the most effective way to improve indoor air quality is to eliminate individual
sources of pollution or to reduce their emissions. Some sources, like those that contain
asbestos, can be sealed or enclosed; others, like gas stoves, can be adjusted to decrease the
amount of emissions. In many cases, source control is also a more cost-efficient approach to

protecting indoor air quality than increasing ventilation because increasing ventilation can
increase energy costs.

Ventilation Improvements

For most indoor air quality problems in the home, source control is the most effective
solution.
Another approach to lowering the concentrations of indoor air pollutants in your home
is to increase the amount of outdoor air coming indoors. Most home heating and cooling
systems, including forced air heating systems, do not mechanically bring fresh air into the
house. Opening windows and doors, operating window or attic fans, when the weather
permits, or running a window air conditioner with the vent control open increases the outdoor
ventilation rate. Local bathroom or kitchen fans that exhaust outdoors remove contaminants
directly from the room where the fan is located and also increase the outdoor air ventilation
rate.
It is particularly important to take as many of these steps as possible while you are involved
in short-term activities that can generate high levels of pollutants for example, painting,
paint stripping, heating with kerosene heaters, cooking, or engaging in maintenance and
hobby activities such as welding, soldering, or sanding. You might also choose to do some of
these activities outdoors, if you can and if weather permits.
Air Cleaners

There are many types and sizes of air cleaners on the market, ranging from relatively
inexpensive table-top models to sophisticated and expensive whole-house systems. Some air
cleaners are highly effective at particle removal, while others, including most table-top
models, are much less so. Air cleaners are generally not designed to remove gaseous
pollutants.
The effectiveness of an air cleaner depends on how well it collects pollutants from
indoor air (expressed as a percentage efficiency rate) and how much air it draws
through the cleaning or filtering element (expressed in cubic feet per minute). A very
efficient collector with a low air-circulation rate will not be effective, nor will a cleaner with
a high air-circulation rate but a less efficient collector. The long-term performance of any air
cleaner depends on maintaining it according to the manufacturer's directions.
Another important factor in determining the effectiveness of an air cleaner is the strength of
the pollutant source. Table-top air cleaners, in particular, may not remove satisfactory
amounts of pollutants from strong nearby sources. People with a sensitivity to particular
sources may find that air cleaners are helpful only in conjunction with concerted efforts to
remove the source.

Over the past few years, there has been some publicity suggesting that houseplants have been
shown to reduce levels of some chemicals in laboratory experiments. There is currently no
evidence, however, that a reasonable number of houseplants remove significant quantities of
pollutants in homes and offices. Indoor houseplants should not be over-watered because
overly damp soil may promote the growth of microorganisms which can affect allergic
individuals.

Water and the environment

Water is crucial for all life on earth. It plays an essential role in our health,
economy, food production, and environment. Safe drinking water and freshwater
are imperative for development and public health since 21 of the 37 primary
diseases in developing countries are related to water and sanitation. Despite its
importance, water is a finite natural resource and cannot be created. Instead, the
hydrologic cycle recycles water through the atmosphere. The fact that our supply
is finite has dire implications on our world population of nearly 7 billion people
and growing. The global water consumption rate doubles every twenty years, a
pace that is double the rate of population growth. If population and consumption
trends persist, it is estimated that the demand for water will surpass its
availability by 56% and 1.8 billion people will be living in regions of water
scarcity by 2025. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that developing
countries, already experiencing water-stress, often have the highest population
growth ratesbringing more people into a region that already cannot support
them.
Fresh water and food production are intricately connected; producing one ton of
grain requires 1,000 tons of water. Food production is so wholly dependent on
water that agriculture can use 75 to 90% of freshwater in a region. Water scarcity
creates food shortages, raises food prices, and increases a countries
dependence on food imports. This water scarcity, which used to be a local
dilemma, has since grown into an international issue. Since producing grain
requires large quantities of water, countries have started to cut back on their
own grain productionopting to import instead. Thus, the global water market is
nearly synonymous with the international grain market. The situation has
become so extreme that several of the largest cities worldwideincluding Los
Angeles, Cairo, and New Delhican only increase their water consumption by
reducing agricultural water use. Nearly every country in the Middle East and
North Africa is approaching its water limitturning the region into the worlds
fastest growing grain import market.

Improving water quality

1. REDUCE YOUR LAWN

By creating no-mow zones of native wildflowers, grasses, shrubs, and trees,

especially as buffers near ponds and streams. This reduces water, fertilizer, and
pesticide use and provides a welcoming habitat for wildlife.
2. FERTILIZE SMART

Have your soil tested before applying fertilizer to your lawn to see if it even
needs it. Dont over - fertilize - more is not better. During rainstorms, nutrients
from fertilizers can wash off lawns into local waters where the excess nutrients
promote algae blooms, including some algae that are harmful to people and
pets. Algae blooms cause a decrease in oxygen in the water which endangers
aquatic life and can cause fish kills. Use phosphorus fertilizer for new lawns only,
unless the soil test shows a need for phosphorus on an established lawn. Sweep
up fertilizer that spills on hard surfaces. Leaving grass clippings on your lawn can
reduce your fertilizer needs by up to 25%.
3. REDUCE USE OF LAWN AND GARDEN PESTICIDES
Investigate use of biological controls and products with natural ingredients. Read
the labelsapply the right amount at the right time and be aware of the toxicity
warnings.
4. REDUCE RUNOFF
Increase the amount of stormwater absorbed into the ground by directing downspouts onto your lawn, not onto paved surfaces where the runoff could pick up
oil, yard waste, and other debris. Install a rain barreluse the water for
plantings. Install a rain garden to increase the amount of storm water absorbed
into the ground.
5. DONT DRAIN YOUR SWIMMING POOL into

storm drains, wetlands, rivers, or ponds. Instead

drain it onto the ground away from your drinking water well. Drain your pool only
when your test kit does not detect chlorine levels so that it wont harm
vegetation.
6. WASH VEHICLES ON YOUR LAWN

(Away from your drinking water well) or use a commercial car wash. Washing on
your lawn minimizes the amount of dirty, soapy water flowing into the storm
drains that run directly into our water bodies. If you are unable to wash your car
on your lawn, use only biodegradable, phosphate-free cleaners. If washing near a
storm drain, temporarily divert the water towards grassy areas. Commercial car
washes typically use far less water, recycle their wash water, and treat their
water prior to releasing it into the sewer system.
7. CONSERVE WATER

Dont overwater your lawn. Lawns need only one inch of water per week (from
either watering or rain). Excessive water use, especially in summer, can
dramatically reduce flow in rivers and streams, harming aquatic life. If your
house is connected to a public sewer, conserving water will help reduce the
discharge from your wastewater treatment facility into local waters AND save
you money! If you use a septic system, water conservation helps prevent system
failures.

NOISE POLLUTION
Introduction
Noise is perhaps one of the most undesirable by products of modern mechanized
lifestyle. It may not seem as insidious or harmful as the contamination of
drinking water supplies from hazardous chemicals, but it is a problem that affects
human health and well-being and that can also contribute to the general
deterioration of environmental quality. It can affect people at home, in their
community, or at their place of work. Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate,
activating middle and inner organs and sending bioelectrical signals to the brain.
The human ear can detect sounds in the frequency range of about 20 to 20,000
Hz, but for most people hearing is best in the range of 200 to 10,000 Hz. A sound
of 50 Hz frequency, for example, is perceived to be very low-pitched, and a
15,000 - Hz sound is very high pitched. Simply defined, noise is undesirable and
unwanted sound. It takes energy to produce sound, so, in a manner of speaking,
noise is a form of waste energy. It is not a substance that can accumulate in the
environment, like most other pollutants, but it can be diluted with distance from
a source. All sounds come from a sound source, whether it be a radio, a machine,
a human voice, an airplane, or a musical instrument. Not all sound is noise. What
may be considered music to one person may be nothing but noise to another. To
a extent, noise pollution is a matter of opinion. Noise is measured in terms of
Decibel units. Sources of noise Based on the type of noise include a) Industrial
Noise b) Transport Noise c) Neighbourhood Noise.
a) Industrial Noise: It is caused by machines used for the technological
advancement. There exist a long list of sources of noise pollution including
different machines of numerous factories, industries and mills.
b) Transport Noise: Main source is transport. In addition to adversely
impacting urban air quality, heavy automobile traffic creates seemingly
unbearable noise pollution. Ever since industrial revolution doubling of noise
for every 10 years.
Measurement of noise
The noise is usually measured either by i) Sound Pressure or ii) Sound Intensity.
The Sound intensity is measured in Decibel (dB), which is tenth part of the
longest unit Bel named after Alexander Graham Bell. Decibel (dB) is a ratio
expressed as the logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound pressure level.
The db is thus expressed as Intensity Measured (I) Sound Intensity Level = 10 log
----------------------------------- Reference intensity (I0) or dB = 10 log I / I0

Problems of noise and program for tackling it

1.

Auditory fatigue -- Whistling & buzzing in ears( noise level - 90dB)

Deafness -- Permanent hearing loss (noise level100dB)
2. Tinnitus Persistent sound in one or both ears.

 Tinnitus is often experienced as a high-pitched hiss, ring, buzz, or

roar.
It is usually continuous, but it may pulsate, and the beats may
coincide with the heartbeat.
3. Non auditory effects
Interference with speech communication - 50dB
Annoyance, ill temper, bickering
loss in working efficiency - tiredness, deterioration or complete
loss of ability to work
4. Physiological disorders
Neurosis, anxiety, hypertension, increased sweating, giddiness, nausea,
fatigue, visual disturbance, reduces depth and quality of sleep , peptic
ulcers, Increases cholesterol level resulting in constriction of blood vessel ,
Low weight children to mothers.
5. Even the nonliving things such as buildings undergo physical damage by
cracks, breakage of windows, doors, and glasses etc. by sudden and
explosive sounds.

Control of Noise Pollution

Noise definitely affects the quality of life. It is therefore important to ensure the
mitigation or control of noise pollution. Noise pollution can be controlled
At source level Can be done by i) Designing and fabricating silencing devices
in air craft engines, automobiles industrial machines and home appliances, ii) By
segregating the noisy machines
During Transmission can be achieved by adding insulation and sound-proofing
to doors, around industrial machinery. Zoning urban areas to maintain a
separation between residential areas and zones of excessive noise. Sound
a) Acoustillite : made up of Compressed wood pulp, wood fibers and is available
in the form of tiles
b) Acoustical blanket : Prepared from mineral wool or glass fibres
c) Hair Felt: Consists of wool fibres, Coarse Cotton Fibres.
d) Fibre Glass
e) Cork Carpet: Prepared out of pieces of corks treated with linseed oil and is
used for covering floors.
f) Acoustic Plaster: Mainly consists of gypsum in the form of plaster.
Protecting the exposed person
By creating vegetation cover Plants absorb and dissipate sound energy and
thus act as Buffer Zone. Trees should be planted along highways, schools and
other places. Planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution Trees
can act as a noise barrier

 Through law
a) Silence Zones must be created near Schools, hospitals
b) Indiscriminate use of loudspeakers at public places should be banned/
restricted by laws
c) Restriction on unnecessary us e of horns and vehicles plying without
silencers
d) Restrictions on aircraft flight at midnight
Through education - We Indians are Noisy people. Every occasion, it may be
religious or family functions or elections; we used to celebrate with noise.
Educating the people that noise is a pollutant, not a part of our routine life.

UNIT 4
Social Issues in Environment
Sustainable development
The world commission on environment and development in its report to the
United Nations in 1987 defined sustainable development as meeting the needs
of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generation to meet their own needs. For sustainability to occur, advance
technology in process control, product design and monitoring are essential for
efficient use of resources in production while simultaneously abating pollution.
The objective of all these efforts is the quest for zero pollutant emissions from
the industrial processes. Following schemes from this new strategy are:
1. Prevention of pollution: it is a proactive multimedia management
approach to achieve front end reduction of pollutants in the waste
streams by strictly controlling the industrial processes with respect
to process upsets, undesirable emission and by improving the
product quality, reducing loss of raw material to the waste effluents
and recycling the by-products. Pollution prevention also eliminates
the transfer of pollutants from one media to another because
pollutants are not generated in the first place.
2. Design for eco-friendly environment: Besides pollution control
during industrial processes, it is also essential to check the overall

synthetic sequence in the production of chemical substances and to

consider the substitution or elimination of hazardous chemicals
wherever possible. In view of the new emphasis on pollution
prevention by both the industry and regulatory agencies and also
due to the huge cost of treatment, disposal and compliance,
selection of any synthetic scheme solely on the bass of yield is no
longer, valid. All the scientific, environmental and economic impact
should be incorporated into the synthetic scheme being selected to
ensure environmentally benign synthesis of a chemical substance.
Thus, the paradigm shift for the future emphasises pollution
prevention by ensuring that industrial processes run under tight
control, substitute less hazardous chemicals and recycle byproducts or designs new production processes which are
environmentally benign. The future challenge is to shift from the
present environmental policy based on pollution controls and
government mandated regulations to a new and more realistic
environmental policy based on pollution prevention, source
reduction, recycling and waste minimisation.

Urbanisations and problems

1. Urban Sprawl:

Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical area, of
rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic base is
incapable of dealing with the problems created by their excessive size. Massive immigration
from rural areas as well as from small towns into big cities has taken place almost
consistently; thereby adding to the size of cities.
This is due to the fact that such large cities act as magnets and attract large number of
immigrants by dint of their employment opportunities and modern way of life. Such
hyperurbanisation leads to projected cities sizes of which defy imagination. Delhi, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc. are examples of urban sprawl due to large scale migration
of people from the surrounding areas.
In several big cities wealthy people are constantly moving from the crowded centres of the
cities to the more pleasant suburbs where they can build larger houses and enjoy the space
and privacy of a garden around the house. In some cities, the outskirts are also added to by
squatters who build makeshift shacks of unused land although they have no legal right to the
land. The difficulty of restricting town growth in either case is immense and most towns and
cities are surrounded by wide rings of suburbs.
2. Overcrowding:

Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. Overcrowding
is a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas. It is naturally expected that cities
having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must suffer from overcrowding.
This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.

Delhi has a population density of 9,340 persons per sq km (Census 2001) which is the highest
in India. This is the overall population density for the Union territory of Delhi. Population
density in central part of Delhi could be much higher. This leads to tremendous pressure on
infrastructural facilities like housing, electricity, water, transport, employment, etc. Efforts to
decongest Delhi by developing ring towns have not met with the required success.
3. Housing:

Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This problem
is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or
underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter cities/towns from
the surrounding areas.
For about a third of urban Indian families, a house does not include a kitchen, a bathroom, a
toiletand in many cases there is no power and water supply. Only 79 per cent (42.6 million)
urban household live in permanent (pucca) houses. 67 per cent (36 million) of the urban
houses are owned by the households while 29 per cent (15 million) are rented.
Several factors are responsible for the above mentioned sad state of affairs with respect to
housing problems faced by the urban people. The major factors are shortage of building
materials and financial resources, inadequate expansion of public utilities into sub-urban
areas, poverty and unemployment of urban immigrants, strong caste and family ties and lack
of adequate transportation to sub-urban areas where most of the vacant land for new
construction is located.
4. Unemployment:

The problem of unemployment is no less serious than the problem of housing mentioned
above. Urban unemployment in India is estimated at 15 to 25 per cent of the labour force.
This percentage is even higher among the educated people.
One of the major causes of urban unemployment is the large scale migration of people from
rural to urban areas. Rural-urban migration has been continuing for a pretty long time but it
has not always been as great a problem as it is today. The general poverty among the rural
people pushes them out to urban areas to migrate in search of livelihood and in the hope of a
better living.
5. Slums and Squatter Settlements:

The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is the
growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking feature in the
ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres.
The rapid urbanisation in conjunction with industrialisation has resulted in the growth of
slums. The proliferation of slums occurs due to many factors, such as, the shortage of
developed land for housing, the high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor, a large
influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of jobs etc.

6. Transport:

With traffic bottleneck and traffic congestion, almost all cities and towns of India are
suffering from acute form of transport problem. Transport problems increase and become
more complex as the town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs varied and
complex functions and more people travel to work or shop.
The traffic scenario in almost all the Indian cities presents a pathetic picture with Mumbai
still having the best city transport system and Chennai, Ahmedabad and Pune being
reasonably well served by local transport system. In all other cities, if one does not own a
personal vehicle, great hardship is experienced in moving about in the city.
Apart from that, the level of incomes and affordability of Indian masses is very low and the
citizens are not able to pay an economic fare for use of public transport system. Therefore, all
city bus services sustain such heavy losses that they cannot really expand or even maintain a
fleet adequately to meet the city needs.
Moreover, mixture of vehicles causes uncontrollable chaos on the roads. Free movement of
stray cattle and domestic animals on the roads adds to traffic problem and often cause
accidents. Heavy traffic and congestion leads to slow movement of traffic, fuel wastage
environmental pollution and loss of precious time.
7. Water:

What is one of the most essential elements of nature to sustain life and right from the
beginning of urban civilisation, sites for settlements have always been chosen keeping in
view the availability of water to the inhabitants of the settlement. However, supply of water
started falling short of demand as the cities grew in size and number.
Today we have reached a stage where practically no city in India/ gets sufficient water to
meet the needs of city dwellers. In many cities people get water from the municipal sources
for less than half an hour every alternate day. In dry summer season, taps remain dry for days
together and people are denied water supply at a time when they need it the most.
Sadly majority of the cities and towns do not get the recommended quantity of water. Gap in
demand and supply of water in four metro cities, viz., Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai
varies from 10 to 20 per cent. The condition is still worse in small cities and towns. To meet
the growing demand for water, many cities are trying to tap external sources of water supply.
8. Sewerage Problems:

Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient sewage
facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch faced by the
municipalities and unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic
state of affairs.

According to latest estimates, only 35-40 per cent of the urban population has the privilege of
sewage system. Most of the cities have old sewerage lines which are not looked after
properly. Often sewerage lines break down or they are overflowing.
Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and it is drained
into a nearly river (as in Delhi) or in sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai), thereby
polluting the water bodies.
9. Trash Disposal:

As Indian cities grow in number and size the problem of trash disposal is assuming alarming
proportions. Huge quantities of garbage produced by our cities pose a serious health problem.
Most cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the existing landfills are
full to the brim. These landfills are hotbeds of disease and innumerable poisons leaking into
their surroundings.
Wastes putrefy in the open inviting disease carrying flies and rats and a filthy, poisonous
liquid, called leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates ground water. People
who live near the rotting garbage and raw sewage fall easy victims to several diseases like
dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice, diarrhoea, typhoid, etc.
10. Urban Crimes:

Modem cities present a meeting point of people from different walks of life having no affinity
with one another. Like other problems, the problem of crimes increases with the increase in
urbanisation. In fact the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to disturb peace and
tranquility of the cities and make them unsafe to live in particularly for the women.
Growing materialism, consumerism, competition in everyday life, selfishness, lavishness,
appalling socio-economic disparities and rising unemployment and feeling of loneliness in
the crowd are some of the primary causes responsible for alarming trends in urban crime.
Not only the poor, deprived and slum dwellers take to crime; youngsters from well-to-do
families also resort to crime in order to make fast buck and for meeting requirements of a
lavish life. Occasional failures in life also drag youngsters to crime.
The problem of urban crime is becoming more complicated in the present day world because
criminals often get protection from politicians, bureaucrats and elite class of the urban
society. Some of the criminals reach high political positions by using their money and muscle
power.

Climate change and global warming acid rain and ozone

depletion
Climate means the average pattern in which weather varies in time. The
climate of a region depends on the presence & absence of water, the reflection

of solar radiation, the ability to transfer water to the atmosphere (evaporation),

the capacity to store heat, topography and texture of the region.

CLIMATE EFFECTS
Green House Effect and Global Warming
The term Greenhouse effect, first coined by J. Fourier in 1827, is also called
global warming, atmospheric effect or carbon di oxide problem. Green house
means a building made of glass, with heat and humidity regulated by plants. It
may be defined as follows:
1. Greenhouse effect is progressive warming up of the earths surface
due to blanketing effect of man-made carbon di oxide in the
atmosphere.
2. Greenhouse effect is the phenomenon due to which the earth
retains heat.
3. Greenhouse effect means the excessive presence of those gases
blocked in the radiation from the earth surface to the atmosphere
leading to an increase in temperature, which in turn would make life
difficult on earth.

Global Warming and climate changes

The climate system consists of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the
cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. Disturbance in any one system
will affect the others. Natural factors such as solar radiation changes and
volcanic activity have contributed to hot years, such as 1990, 1994, 1997, 1998.
Consequences of global warming:
1. The highest air temperature increases are expected to occur in the
northern hemisphere at high latitudes as a result of a substantial reduction
in the amount of sea ice and snow cover on the land because of the
warming. Normal sea ice acts as a thermal blanket between the water and
the air.
2. Plants will respond favourably to increased carbon di oxide concentrations
by increasing rates of photosynthesis. If carbon di oxide concentration
doubles, photosynthetic rates in most cases will increase from 20-50%.
3. All agricultural crops will respond favourably to increasing atmospheric
concentrations of carbon di oxide and these responses will be affected by
the benefits or difficulties caused by increased temperatures.
4. The climate changes anticipated In a warmer world are quite different. Low
latitudes will have the least amount of warming and the high latitudes the
most.
5. Wheat yield will decrease with increase in temperature but increasing
levels of carbon di oxide may mitigate this and stabilise yields.
6. Warming up of earth will make the ice at poles to be increasingly
converted to water resulting in rise in world sea level.

Environmental legislation for hotel industryenvironment protection act

The Environment (Protection) Act 1986
The environment protection act 1986 was enacted as per the spirit of the
Stockholm conference held in June 1972 to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement to prevent hazards to human beings, living
creatures and property. This act ensures enforcement of several acts or
regulations concerning pollution control. It empowers the central government to
issue directions:
1. For the closure, prohibition of any industry, operation and process.
2. For the stoppage or regulation of the supply of water, power or any other
service, even without obtaining court orders.
The act also empowers the central government to make rules for the first time
for the:
1. Standard of quality of air, water and soil for various areas and for various
purposes.
2. Maximum permissible limits of concentration for various environmental
pollutants (including noise) for different areas.
3. Procedures and safeguards for handling of toxic substances
4. Prohibition and restrictions on the location of industries and carrying out
operations
5. Procedures and safeguards for prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution.
6. Providing for remedial measures in case of accidents.

Issues involved in enforcement of environmental

legislation:
1. Although the legislative measures taken and the administrative setup are
sufficiently indicative of the governments concern, the implementation
does not reflect a sound appreciation of the issues involved in eco
management and development.
2. Environment is a resource, the most precious of all the earths resources.
The measures adopted by the government until now do not reveal an
equal emphasis on the management and development aspects of this vital
resource.
3. The more modern view is that law must guide and help people and
establish a trend of acceptance.
4. Environmental litigation is more expensive than other types of disputes;
sincerity involves expert testimony and technical evidence.
5. There is nothing fundamentally wrong with out of court settlement of
environmental disputes. But in India, officially initiated and sanctioned out
of court settlements may aggravate the perennial problem of corruption.
6. Sharing the cost of antipollution measures taken by the industry seems to
be a better strategy than state sponsored expensive and lengthy
prosecutions.