Professional Documents
Culture Documents
energy industry
An introduction
9 780992 838713
Plant
Planttypes
types
BP Biomass Handbook
Table 3.1 (20 December 2013)
Draft produced by ON Communication
Perennial
Plant characteristics icons in chapter 6Perennial
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Feedstock
Conversion
Lignocellulosic biomass
Herbaceous
Chemical process
Pre-process
Oil crops
Anaerobic digestion
(Wood, straw,
energy crop, etc.)
Liquid fuels,
transport fuels
Biodiesel
Hydrogenation
Bioethanol
Transesterification
Other catalysis
Thermochemical process
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Other liquids
Woody
C 4C 4
Annual
Perennial
C3C3
C C4
Grain
or seed 4Herbaceous
Woody
Annua
Perenn
Grain or seed
Photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic pathway
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
C3
C4
C3
C4
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
types
types
types
types
Plant
Plant
types
types
C3
C4
C3
C4
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Seed
Stem
Rhizome Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
cutting
or
cuttings
cutting
orroot
root
cuttings
Woody
Woody
Woody
Woody
Grain
Grain
Grain
orGrain
seed
oror
seed
seed
or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Propagation method
Propagation method
Perennial
Perennial
Woody
Woody
Grain
Grain
or or
seed
seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Current
dominant
energy
use
Current
dominant
energy
use
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
pathway
Photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
Gaseous fuel
Syngas
C 3 CC33 C 3
C 4 CC44 C 4
DDC 4C 4Micropropagation
Seed
Stem EE C 3C 3 Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagat
CAM Stem
C3orCC3root
C4 CC4 4 C4
3 C3cuttings
cutting
cutting
or root cuttings
Bioethanol
Bioethanol Biodiesel
Biodiesel Heat
Heatand
andpower
power Biogas
Biogas
C3 C3
C4 C 4
Seed
Biogas
Combustion
Table 3.1
Bioenergy production routes
C 3C 3
Energy
Biochemical process
Woody
Woody Grain
Grainororseed
seed
Plant types
Annual
Annual
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
E
D
Car
Weight
Barrel
Car
Weight
Barrel
Biodiesel HeatAnnual
and power Perennial
Bioethanol
Biogas
Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
D
Other
Car
Seed
Seed
Seed
Seed
Stem
Stem
Stem
Stem
Rhizome
Rhizome
Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Seed
Seed
Stem
Stem
Rhizome
Rhizome Micropropagation
Micropropagation
cutting
cutting
cutting
cutting
or root
ororroot
root
or
cuttings
root
cuttings
cuttings
cuttings
Other
cutting
cutting
oruse
or
root
root
cuttings
cuttings
Current
Current
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
dominant
dominant
energy
energy
energy
energy
use
use
use
Primary energy use
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
energy
energy
use
use
Weight
E EE E
Barrel
Car
Weight
D DD D
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Heat
Heat
Heat
and
Heat
and
and
power
and
power
power
power
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biogas
E EBioethanol
DBiodiesel
DBiodiesel
Power
Powerusage
usage
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat
Heat
and
and
power
power Biogas
Biogas
Other
Other
Other
OtherBiodiesel
Other
Other
CarCar
CarCar Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
Power usage
CarCar
usage
Weight
Weight PowerBarrel
Barrel
Power
Power
Power
Power
usage
usage
usage
usage
Power
Power
usage
usage
Barrel
Biomass in the
energy industry
An introduction
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contents and About this book 3
Foreword by John Pierce
BP Chief Bioscientist 4
Foreword by Stephen P Long FRS
Gutgsell Endowed Professor of Plant Biology at the
University of Illinois, and Chief and Founding Editor,
Global Change Biology 5
Important concepts 22
3 Bioenergy potential 34
5 Where can biomass feedstocks be grown? 58
Growing regions (biomes)
Regional characteristics: comparison table
6
Glossary 115
BP Biomass Handbook
Figure X.XX (10 December 2013)
Draft produced by ON Communication
1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
1,000,000
510,000,000km2
150,000,000km2
5,500,000km2
Surface of earth
Amazon rainforest
Texas
Cuba
10,000km2 Lebanon
1,000km2 Hong Kong
100km2
44km
3.4km
Paris
Vatican City
1 hectare (ha)
Professional football playing area
4,047m2 1 acre
420m2 Basketball court
10m2 Standard parking space
4.2m2 Table tennis table
1m2 Average bath towel
Note: all values approximated to two significant figures apart from unit conversions.
Figure X.XX
Area comparisons
6 | 1Introduction
6
billion
billion
109
million
billion
108
million
107
thousand
billion
1,000
106
billion
100
105
etc.
10
104
10,000,000
103
100,000
102
10,000
10
thousand
square metres
m2
Units of area
BP
BP Biomass
Biomass Handbook
Handbook
Figure
Figure X.XX
X.XX (10
(10 December
December 2013)
2013)
Draft
Draft produced
produced by
by ON
ON Communication
Communication
105
106
107
108
109
1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
10
102
kilo
k
104
105
mega
M
107
108
giga
G
1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
10
10
100
100
10,000
10,000
100,000
100,000
10,000,000
10,000,000
etc.
etc.
thousand
thousand
billion
billion
109
billion
billion
million
million
106
1,000,000
1,000,000
1,000
1,000
thousand
thousand
103
exa
E
104
billion
billion
billion
billion
103
peta
P
102
million
million
billion
billion
10
tera
T
11
square metres
joules
m2
Units of energy
2
510,000,000km
Surface of earth
World energy consumption
in 2010
150,000,000km
Global
area
Global annual
oilland
production
2
2
5,500,000km
Amazon
rainforest
Solar energy
received on
earth every
minute
5 x 1020J
1.9 x 1020J
6 x 1018J
700,000km2 Texas
Oil passing through the Strait of Hormuz each hour 4.6 x 1015J
110,000km2 Cuba
1 x 1012J Typical road tanker full of gasoline
10,000km2 Lebanon
5 x 1011J Energy content of one hectare of miscanthus
1,000km2 Hong Kong
3 x 1010J One tonne of bioethanol
100km2 Paris
5.7 x 109J Energy in one barrel of oil
44km2 Vatican City
3.6 x 109J One megawatt hour (MWh)
3.4km2 Central Park, New York
1.6 x 107J Energy content of 1kg of maize
1.4km2 Hyde Park, London
1 x 107J Recommended human daily calorific intake
100Ha 1 square kilometre (1km2)
3.6 x 106J One kilowatt hour (kWh)
44Ha Tiananmen Square, Beijing
10,000m2
6
2.2 x 10
J Dietary energy in 100g dark chocolate
1 hectare
(ha)
Running
a largearea
television for one hour
1 x 106J football
playing
7,000m2 Professional
x 105J Dietary energy in one large apple
acre
4,047m2 14.2
2 x 103J One kilocalorie or dietary Calorie
4.18
Basketball court
420m
One British
Standard
space thermal unit (btu) = 1,055J
x 103Jparking
10m21.055
2
Table
tennis table
4.2m
One calorie
4.18J
2
bathgram
towel(nearly one litre) of air through one degree Celsius
1m
Heating one
1J Average
Note: all values approximated to two significant figures apart from unit conversions.
Figure X.XX
Energy comparisons
Figure X.XX
Area comparisons
1Introduction | 7
7
tCO2/person
4.7
OECD
Americas
17.1
OECD
Europe
7.2
OECD
Asia
Oceania
9.0
Eastern
Europe/
Eurasia
5.1
Non-OECD
Asia
4.6
Africa
0.9
Latin
America
2.8
Middle
East
Figure 1.1
5.9
Biomass
Hydro
Other renewables
Nuclear
Gas
Oil
Coal
Figure
1.2Handbook
BP
Biomass
Global
use
(EJ)2013)
of the six most important energy sources since 1850. Historically, biomass use is mainly
Figure 1.2 in
(20exajoules
Decmber
the traditional
useby
of ON
fuelwood;
the renewable curve includes all modern renewable sources except biomass.
Draft
produced
Communication
Major technology advances are shown and also significant changes in energy source: coal replacing biomass in the
Industrial Revolution; the increase in oil with the rise of the internal combustion engine; and gas for heating and
power generation[4].
500
400
Microchip
Commercial
aviation
300
Nuclear
energy
Television
200
Vacuum
tube
100
Steam
engine
Electric
motor
Gasoline
engine
0
1850
1950
1900
Biomass
Coal
Oil
Gas
2000
Nuclear
Other renewables
BP Biomass Handbook
EJ
Billion toe
1.3
Figure 1.3
(11Figure
June 2014)
Despite increasing energy efficiency, energy consumption
Draft produced by ON Communication
is on the rise globally as shown in Figure 1.3. World
The increase in energy demand in billion tonnes of oil equivalent
(toe), excluding biomass used for heat and cooking from 1990 to
primary energy consumption is projected to grow by
the present day, and projections until 2035. The effect of the global
1.5% per year from 2012 to 2035, adding 41% to global
economic crisis from 2008 can be seen clearly[5].
consumption by 2035. The fastest-growing fuels are
renewables (including biofuels), with growth averaging
Figure
6.4%
per 1.2
year from 2012 to 2035. Nuclear (2.6% per year)
18
and hydro (2.0% per year) are both projected to grow
700
faster than total energy consumption.
Among fossil fuels, natural gas use has grown the
15
600
fastest (1.9% per year), followed by coal (1.1% per year)
[5]
and oil (0.8% per year) . The lower relative growth rates
of fossil fuels, however, apply to a very large base of use.
12
500
On an absolute energy basis, for example, coal use grew
the most in the period 2000 10 and the additional use
400
of coal constituted almost 50% of the total increase in
9
energy use.
300
6
200
3
100
0
1990
2005
2020
Oil
Gas
Coal
Nuclear
Hydro
Other renewables
(includes biofuels)
Figure 1.3
2035
Figure 1.4
Woody biomass being blended with coal at
a Colorado electricity generating plant to
provide a mixed feedstock boiler fuel[6].
Figure
1.5
BP Biomass
Handbook
Use of
bioenergy
sector in 2014)
2010 and 2035 (projected by the IEA for conditions where new policies are implemented).
Figure
3 (10by
February
Use is
estimated
to riseby
from
in 2010 to 79EJ in 2035. The proportion used for heat by traditional methods (heating
Draft
produced
ON53EJ
Communication
and cooking) is projected to fall considerably; the proportion used for heat via modern methods of production remains
almost unchanged; while proportions used for power and transport by modern methods make significant increases[2].
2010
Other
5.7%
2035
Heat
22.4%
Other
5.5%
Power
8.5%
Traditional
58.8%
Transport
4.6%
Traditional
36.5%
Heat
24.6%
Power
22.5%
Transport
10.9%
Total 53EJ
Figure 2.6a
Use of bioenergy by sector in 2010 and 20351
Figure 1.6
Current and future mix of volumes of bioethanol supplied for fuel use projected annually to 2020[11].
160
160
Coarse
Coarsegrains*
grains*
160
140
140
Other**
Other**
Coarse
grains*
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Other**
140
120
120
Sugar
Sugarbeet
beet
Sugarcane
Cellulosic
Cellulosic
Sugar beet
Billion
Billion
litreslitres
Billion litres
120
100
100
100
8080
Wheat
Wheat
Cellulosic
80
60
60
Wheat
60
40
40
40
20
20
20
00
20082008- 2011
2011 2012
2012 2013
2013 2014
2014 2015
2015 2016
2016 2017
2017 2018
2018 2019
2019 2020
2020
2010
2010
2008- 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
2010 grains
* *Cereal
Cereal
grainsother
otherthan
thanwheat
wheatand
andrice.
rice.
****Production
Productionfrom
fromother
othersources
sourcesisiscomposed
composedofofresidues
residuesofofallallkinds,
kinds,ininparticular
particular
* wood,
Cereal
grains
other
than
wheat
and
rice.and
wood,as
aswell
well
asasfrom
from
roots
roots
and
and
tubers
tubers
andsugar
sugarproduction
productionby-products.
by-products.
** Production from other sources is composed of residues of all kinds, in particular
wood, as well as from roots and tubers and sugar production by-products.
Figure 1.7
Current and future mix of volumes of biodiesel supply projected annually to 2020[11].
4040
40
35
35
Vegetable
Vegetableoil
oil
Billion
Billion
litreslitres
Billion litres
35
30
30
Biomass-based
Biomass-based
Vegetable
oil
Waste
Wasteand
andby-products
by-products
Biomass-based
30
25
25
Jatropha
Jatropha
Waste
and by-products
25
20
20
Jatropha
20
15
15
15
10
10
10
55
050
0
2014 2015
2015 2016
2016 2017
2017 2018
2018 2019
2019 2020
2020
20082008- 2011
2011 2012
2012 2013
2013 2014
2010
2010
2008- 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
2010
Figure 1.8
The four main stages of bioenergy production.
Biomass
cultivation
Collection,
densification,
transport and storage
Conversion to
energy carrier
Distribution
and end use
Overview of agroecosystems
Figure 1.9
1961 yields
Maize grain: 1.65 dry tonne/ha
Sugarcane: 15.08 dry tonne/ha
160%
140%
2011 yields
Maize grain: 4.38 dry tonne/ha
Sugarcane: 21.33 dry tonne/ha
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
2011
2007
2003
1999
1995
1991
1987
1983
1979
1975
1971
1967
1963
-20%
Year
World average maize grain yield increase
World average sugarcane yield increase
BP Biomass
BP Biomass
Handbook
Handbook
Figure Figure
1.9 (18 1.9
November
(18 November
2013) 2013)
Figure 1.10
Draft produced
Draft produced
by ON by
Communication
ON Communication
Change in land use during various periods since 1765[16]. The figures on top of each category show the land-use change
between 1765 and 2005, in million km3.
50
23.7
40
30
30
+8.3
+0.4
5.4
6.8
1.7
+0.5
+9.4
+19.3
1765
1765 1900
1900 2000
2000 2005
Pasture
Pasture
Cropland
Cropland
Urban
Urban
Others
Others
Shrubland
Savanna
0
Shrubland
Savanna
10
Grassland
10
Secondary
forest
Grassland
20
Primary
forest
Secondary
forest
20
Million km2
40
Primary
forest
Million km2
50
2005
BP Biomass Handbook
Million tonnes
1.10Figure
(10 December
Increasing demand for meat proteins, as shown in Figure Figure
1.11 2013)
Draft produced by ON Communication
1.11, driven by population growth, economic growth
The growth in demand for meat proteins for developed and
and changing dietary habits, is directing more and
developing countries[17, 18].
more resources into meat production. From an energy
perspective, livestock production is quite inefficient.
Demand for meat proteins (million metric tons)
Intensive beef production, for example, commonly
250
utilizes grains for feed, and can require 620kg grain/kg
[17]
213
beef produced . While there is continuous development
200
in methods to improve the efficiency of meat production,
it is estimated that 70% of all agricultural land is used
in pastoral, mixed-system and intensive livestock
150
production. Food, feed and energy uses will all compete
111
for available land.
114
100
Despite the overall increase in land area devoted to
98
77
agriculture, there are areas where farming has been
50
abandoned across large regions. Some of this abandoned
32
agricultural land has become reforested and is now valued
for recreation, biodiversity and important carbon stocks
0
(growing forests remove substantial amounts of carbon
1997
1974
2020 (projected)
dioxide from the atmosphere). Many re-established
Developing countries
Developed countries
forests, such as large areas of the eastern US, are actively
managed for wood resources. Residual wastes from timber
extraction and saw milling have increasingly been used for
out of agricultural production due to changing land
energy in the wood-products industry and can potentially
ownership or altered economic incentives. Developing
provide bioenergy feedstock to other sectors (see Forest
recently abandoned land for bioenergy production would
biomass box below).
have less environmental impact than developing land on
Abandoned agricultural land that has not returned
which indigenous ecosystems have regenerated. It would
to forest or native ecosystems has, in many places,
Figure 1.10
also help maintain food production capacity that might be
been developed for urban and residential use. Recently
required in the future.
abandoned land, however, may also be shifting in and
Forest biomass
Woody biomass is used for 80% of traditional primary
energy use, totalling nearly 32EJ per year and supplying
nearly 2 billion people with heat and cooking fuel. In
developed nations, wood typically supplies less than 5%
of primary energy. In the US, for example, wood is used
to supply 1% of the electricity supply and 2% of primary
energy, mainly to industrial users. Finland and Sweden
are exceptions with nearly 19% of primary energy
generated as heat and power from woody biomass[19,20].
The total potential for woody biomass could be
as high as 110EJ per year (EJ/yr), according to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; however,
the sustainable and acceptable limits of forest biomass
use are still under debate and the use of forest biomass
for energy is controversial. Historic depletion of forest
resources in many parts of the world has instilled
caution in communities considering re-expanding
use of wood biomass for energy. In parts of the US,
Canada, the EU and China, forest biomass is actually
accumulating. Growing stock in the EU has increased
nearly half a per cent per year for the past 23 years and
US forest biomass has increased by 10% in a 10-year
period. In the US and Canada, less than 1% of available
forest biomass is currently harvested for all uses. The
increase in tree stand density, increased dead woody
biomass, and increasing climate stress have been
implicated in more frequent and more severe forest
Figure 1.12
Global Sankey diagram for annual fresh water withdrawn for human use [25]. From left to right, the diagram illustrates the continental
distribution of withdrawals, the sectors (agriculture, industry, domestic) in which the water is used, the services provided by the water, and
finally the return of the water to the hydrological cycle. Share of agriculture in total withdrawals is shown in yellow. In the final (right-hand)
segments, changes in water quality during its use are indicated in different colours. The red segment indicates where energy is used in
treating wastewater. The vertical width of each bar in the diagram is proportional to the volume of fresh water involved, measured in cubic
kilometres (km3), and numerical amounts are provided with labels, also in km3.
Regions
Total
applied water
Services
Post-use
treatment
Hydropower
Destination
Africa
Atmosphere
Asia
North America
Industry
~ 775
Oceania
Europe
Recycled water
Domestic
~ 380
Energy
~ 470
Domestic
and industry
~ 790
Agriculture
Food
~ 2700
~ 2700
Biofuels
Latin America
Pollutant parameters
of return flow
Recycled water
(direct to supply)
Figure 1.13
Suitability of land with appropriate levels of inputs for pasture and rainfed crops[27].
n Closed forest
n
n Irrigated area
n Land prime or well suited for agriculture
Inland water bodies
Chapter references
[1] BP (2013), BP energy outlook 2030. BP, London, UK.
Available from: http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/
pdf/statistical-review/BP_World_Energy_Outlook_
booklet_2013.pdf [accessed July 2013].
[2] IEA (2012), World Energy Outlook 2012. International
Energy Agency (IEA), Paris.
[3] The World Bank, Data Indicators Databank CO2
Emissions. Available from: http://data.worldbank.org/
indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.PCcountries/1W?display
=graph [accessed February 2014].
[4] Adapted from Nakicenovic, N. (2009), Supportive
policies for developing countries: a paradigm shift.
Background paper prepared for World Economic and
Social Survey 2009.
[5] BP (2014), BP energy outlook 2035. BP,
London, UK. Available from: http://www.bp.com/
content/dam/bp/pdf/Energy-economics/EnergyOutlook/Energy_Outlook_2035_booklet.pdf
[accessed February 2014].
[6] Kryzanowski, T. (2009), Big energy win with biomass,
enrG Magazine. Available from:
http://www.altenerg.com/back_issues/index.phpcontent_id=231.htm [accessed July 2013].
[7] International Energy Agency (2013), Tracking clean
energy progress 2013: IEA input to the clean energy
ministerial. OECD/IEA, Paris. Available from:
http://www.iea.org/publications/TCEP_web.pdf
[accessed February 2014].
[8] German Biogas Association (2013), Entwicklung
des jhrlichen Zubaus von neuen Biogasanlagen in
Deutschland (Stand 11/2013). Available from:
http://www.biogas.org/edcom/webfvb.nsf/id/
DE_Branchenzahlen/$file/14-07-01_Biogas%20
Branchenzahlen_2013-Prognose_2014.pdf [accessed
February 2014].
[9] Global Methane Initiative, Country profile: China.
Available from: https://www.globalmethane.org/
documents/ag_cap_china.pdf [accessed February
2014].
[10] Swedish Energy Agency (2011), Biogas in
Sweden factsheet. Available from: http://www.
energimyndigheten.se/Global/Internationellt/
Exportfr%C3%A4mjande%20o%20Bilateralt/Biogas_
Sweden_Faktablad_HR.pdf [accessed February 2014].
22
2 Important concepts
Understanding bioenergy production systems requires background
knowledge in many diverse fields. This chapter sets out some of the
fundamental concepts. There is also a comprehensive glossary at the
end of this handbook.
Sankey diagram showing global biomes, vegetation, carbon productivity and end uses[2]. There are a number of nomenclatures currently
used for biomes and those listed on the left represent a slightly modified classification by Ramankutty and Foley[1]. The left-hand column,
slice 1, shows areas of potential natural vegetation, while slice 2 shows actual land use after appropriation for human use. Slice 3 shows
land productivity in Petagrams or Pg (billion tonnes) of carbon per year and also the amount of carbon stored in these lands in Pg. The
final three slices show how this carbon moves through harvesting and processing to final services. Also shown are losses to net primary
productivity (NPP0) attributed to lower productivity on conversion from natural vegetation. Food, fibre and fuel account for only a small
amount of final use. The majority of fixed carbon is available for use by other species, is ultimately respired (heterotrophic respiration) and
contributes to a variety of services, collectively called ecosystem services. The vertical width of each bar in the diagram is proportional to the
area of land use or the amount of carbon per annum associated with a particular segment[3].
Slice 1
Potential
natural vegetation
[M km2 ]
Slice 2
Actual
land use
[M km2 ]
Unit conversion
area to carbon
Built-up
[0.7]
Slice 3
Land productivity
[Pg C/y]
Wood harvest
[2.2]
[30.5Pg C/y]
Cropland
[15.0]
Savanna
[19.2]
Grassland/steppe
[14.3]
Dense shrubland
[6.0]
Open shrubland
[11.9]
Tundra
[15.3]
Desert, polar desert
Rock/ice
[8.2]
Crop harvest
[4.5]
720
gC/m2
Temperate forests
[24.5]
Boreal forests
[8.2]
Pasture
[28.1]
Unmanaged
dryland
[14.8]
Slice 6
Final
services
[Pg C/y]
Fibre [0.6]
400
gC/m2
Fuel [1.2]
[0.84]
[1.8]
Food [0.8]
Meat
Livestock feed
[3.7]
Grazed biomass
[1.8]
Losses
stock
1530Pg C
Food waste
Livestock
respiration [1.8]
Losses
[1.1]
stock
80Pg C
Pollination
Tropical forests
Pest control
NPP0 loss
430
gC/m2
490
gC/m2
50
2
gC/m
Air quality
Water cycling
Temperate forests
[12.2Pg C/y]
stock
310Pg C
NPP0 loss
stock
220Pg C
Fire
[1.4Pg C/y ]
Fire
[6.0Pg C/y]
[7.2Pg C/y]
Tundra and
desert
[28.9]
Slice 5
Modifications
[Pg C/y]
NPP0 loss
Tropical forests
[22.6]
Forest
[42.4]
Slice 4
Harvesting
[Pg C/y]
Heterotrophic
respiration
Boreal forests
[47.0]
Cropland residual
ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
Water quality
Flood control
Erosion control
Soil formation
Grasslands
Nutrient cycling
Recreation
Shrublands
Scientific value
NPP0 loss
2 Important concepts | 23
One can see that more than a third of land has been
actively transformed from its natural state to cropland,
pasture and built-up areas. Cropland and pasture are found
in several biomes, and most crop production is harvested
every year. While crop productivity can be quite high, there
are numerous routes for losses in productivity due to
disease, fire, nutrient and climatic variability during
harvest and even waste after harvest. These losses, and the
relatively high fraction of harvest that goes to the relatively
energy-inefficient production of livestock, results in only a
very small fraction of the total productivity providing food,
fuel and fibre. Otherwise unattributed production is
allocated to various worldwide ecosystems.
Land types
The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) describes
eight land classes, based on soil types rated according
to their relative ability to support common agricultural
crops[4]. These are tempered by four sub-categories that
recognize topographic problems that may limit production,
including waterlogging, shallowness of the soil, erodibility
and climatic limitation (such as extreme cold). The
following categories condense these classes (and similar
classifications by other national agricultural services) into
five categories. These are not mutually exclusive: specific
sites may fit one or more of these five categories.
Prime
Prime land can produce the highest yields of major
commodity crops with proper agronomic management.
It is easily accessed and cultivated, and is well suited to
a range of crops, including food, feed, forage, fibre and
oilseed. Despite its great potential, incorrect management
(using techniques that reduce soil organic content or
allow wind or water erosion) of prime land can degrade
productivity. Prime agricultural land is usually rainfed,
rather than irrigated, but irrigation can allow access to
good soils climatically limited by inadequate rainfall. In
this case, careful management is necessary to avoid excess
salt deposition or exhaustion of water sources.
Marginal
Marginal land gives lower yields of annual grain crops than
prime land, or has only limited potential for agricultural
production. It may also be fertile land that is susceptible to
erosion. Even though soil quality may be high, for example,
cultivation of such soil on steep slopes can cause rapid soil
loss unless terraces are economically feasible. Land that
is marginal for conventional row-crop agriculture might
support high yields of biomass crops: sloping land may
support perennial bioenergy feedstocks (given sufficient
water) while minimizing the risk of erosion relative to
other land uses. Low productivity pasture, supporting
one to two head of cattle per hectare, may also be in this
category. In Brazil, with appropriate amelioration of soil
nutrient deficiencies, such land supports significant yields
of sugarcane.
24 | 2 Important concepts
Degraded
Degraded land can support only low productivity of
conventional commodity crops. Degradation is usually the
consequence of intensive management, usually associated
with agricultural or forestry practices that result in the loss
of organic matter, the production of laterites (hard,
clay-like materials) in tropical soils, and actual loss of
bulk soil by water or wind erosion. The dustbowl of the
southern central US, where cultivation led to serious wind
erosion, is a classic example. Such land, however, may
provide viable yields of deep-rooted crops that bind the soil
and have the potential to restore soil carbon. Land may also
be degraded by excessive salt deposition through irrigation
with low-quality water or pollution with industrial
effluents or mining wastes. In some cases, land degradation
is so severe that further agricultural use with traditional
crops is not possible and the land is abandoned.
Abandoned
Land may be abandoned for various reasons, such as
increasingly unreliable rainfall, competition from higher
production elsewhere, or a collapse of local markets. In
the eastern coastal states of the US, for example, much
production became uneconomic following the Civil
War, while the better soils of the mid-western US began
to deliver grain at lower prices, making production
progressively more uneconomic in the north. As a result
much land in the eastern US has dropped out of cultivation
in the past 150 years. This pattern of loss continues to this
day. More recently, increasingly productive agriculture and
the break-up of collective farms in Eastern Europe have
resulted in abandonment.
Land previously used for crops or pasture is classified
as abandoned if it is now unused and has not been
converted to forest or urban use. If the period of
abandonment has been short, such land may be converted
back to agricultural use with relatively low economic
and environmental cost. Long-abandoned land can,
however, through the process of ecological succession,
become host to diverse plant and animal communities.
Re-established native communities often store large
amounts of carbon (both in soils and above-ground
biomass) and may also provide valuable ecosystem
services such as protection of water catchment areas,
wildlife conservation and recreation.
Reclaimed
Reclaimed land includes previously abandoned or
degraded land that is brought back into agricultural use.
It includes large spoil heaps (refuse materials from
mining), which can be contoured and planted with
appropriate pioneer species. In some cases, land can be
reclaimed from the sea, as in the Netherlands.
Fertilizer
Fertilizers provide nutrients needed by plants, and
farmers apply them to maximize crop productivity. The
three major plant nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K). Nitrogen is the primary nutrient
limiting crop production, and the use of synthetic
fertilizers providing nitrogen has been necessary to
support the great increase in crop production enabled
by improved genetics and mechanization. However,
the manufacture and application of synthetic fertilizers
cause significant GHG emissions, partly as a result
of the energy required to produce them and partly
because soil emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) a potent
GHG and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) are higher after
application. In addition, nitrogen that is not taken up by
the crop can be leached as nitrate into waterways, which
can reduce water quality and cause eutrophication
(a decrease in dissolved oxygen caused by algal blooms
that are detrimental to oxygen-requiring organisms).
The amount of leaching depends on the crop, soil and
climate, and the fertilizer application rate and method.
Irrigation
Irrigation is the application of water to growing
plants to eliminate water deficits. Without sufficient
water, photosynthesis slows down, secondary
physiological effects impede growth, and crop yields
can be dramatically reduced. There are many ways of
providing extra water, but the most efficient methods
supply water very close to plant roots by using buried
drip tubes, thus reducing water loss by evaporation.
Well-designed irrigation systems provide water at the
optimum times during crop growth, and avoid both
under- and over-irrigation. Agriculture accounts for
70% of water withdrawals worldwide and water can,
in some areas, be the major limitation to productivity.
2 Important concepts | 25
Intercropping
Crop rotation
The practice of periodically alternating the type of crop
grown on a field is known as crop rotation. Farmers
have long known that land maintains its fertility better
if crops are alternated, as plants have different nutrient
requirements and some (such as legumes) can increase
soil nitrogen levels and reduce the need for synthetic
fertilizer. Alternating crops with different root systems
can improve soil structure and tilth. Crop rotation can
also help prevent the build-up of pests and pathogens
that can occur with continuous planting of a single crop.
The annual rotation of maize and soybeans, for example,
has been practised extensively and helps to control corn
rootworm, though it has been replaced in some areas
by the advent of rootworm-resistant corn varieties. Soil
nitrogen and soil organic matter can be enhanced by
planting crops such as clover, and incorporating them
into the soil prior to planting follow-up crops such
as wheat. Traditional crop rotations can be complex,
involving numerous crops and periods of fallow (idle,
non-planted fields) over several years, but high-intensity
agriculture has tended to replace these extensive
rotation systems with new agricultural practices,
fertilizers and improved crop varieties.
26 | 2 Important concepts
Harvesting
To accomodate the multi-year growth period required
in plantation crops such as trees, harvesting can be
staggered by location so that any given plot of land
might not be harvested for many years. When crop
rotation is practised, differential timing of harvesting
will take place depending on the rotation scheme, e.g.
one season may be fallow with no crops harvested.
Otherwise, harvesting takes place one or more times
per year, depending on growth cycle and environment.
Some crops, such as sugarcane, are harvested fresh
and processed immediately. More typically, crops are
allowed to senesce, cease production and dry (partially
or almost completely) in the field prior to harvesting.
This minimizes the energy costs of harvest by reducing
the weight of water transported from the fields while
maintaining the solid contents of the plants. A number
of plants considered for energy production are perennial
grasses with rhizomes (subterranean plant stems). For
these plants, field-drying also allows nutrients such as
nitrogen to be translocated into the rhizomes where
they will be stored over the dormant season and used
again in subsequent growing seasons. This reduces the
need for fertilizers.
Coppicing
Coppicing is a method of producing many stems from
a single tree, by cutting young trees repeatedly to near
ground level every three to eight years. A coppiced
tree produces numerous stems that can be harvested
repeatedly without replanting. Numerous variants exist
that allow for differing intensities of harvest.
Machinery
Modern, high-yield agriculture is highly automated
and requires expensive machinery for tilling, planting,
irrigating, fertilizing, applying pesticide and harvesting.
Increasingly, so-called precision agricultural practices
are being used. These involve global positioning devices
and sensors to guide machinery able to apply fertilizer
and pesticides in amounts tailored to each crop and
soil, at resolutions of a few meters. Machinery allows
significant labour productivity: a large, modern combine
harvester can harvest maize at the rate of almost 10
hectares per hour. Co-evolution of genetics, agricultural
practices and machinery have driven agricultural
productivity to its current state of development, and
there is still scope for improvement.
Life cycle
Annual
Annual plants complete their life cycle within a single
12-month period. They are therefore sown, and later
harvested, every year. This requires recurrent ground
preparation, fertilizer application, and weed and pest
management. With some annual crops, more than one
cycle of growth can be accomplished within a year in
suitable climates.
Examples maize, rice, wheat
Input levels high
Biennial
The least frequent type of crop, biennial plants normally
take two years to complete their life cycle. The first year is
devoted to growing leaves, roots and stems. When colder
months arrive, the plant becomes dormant. Some biennials
require this period of cold before they can flower. During
the following spring and summer, the biennial plant grows
rapidly, ultimately producing flowers and seeds before
dying off.
Perennial
Perennial crops live for a number of years even for
centuries (many tree species) or occasionally millennia
(bristlecone pine). In moist tropical environments, growth
is possible throughout the year but in colder or drier places
perennial plants use various strategies to survive winter
or the dry season. Trees have woody aerial parts (buds
on branches and stems) from which growth continues
when conditions are suitable. Other plants die back to
underground organs (roots or underground stems) during
the off-season. As perennial crops are only replanted after
a number of years (the exact time varies widely between
species), the cost and overall environmental impact of
tillage and planting are lower than for annual crops.
Figure 2.2
Schematic diagram of the carbon cycle.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
taken up by plants and converted, using
solar energy through the process of
photosynthesis, into organic compounds.
Some of these organic compounds are
then used as food by herbivores and
humans, whose respiration returns
CO2 to the atmosphere. CO2 is also
returned to the atmosphere when carbon
compounds are burned as fuel. Fossil fuels
were formed as a result of photosynthesis
millions of years ago[7].
Carbon
dioxide
Sunlight
Auto and
factory
emissions
Animal
Soil
Plant
respiration respiration respiration
Photosynthesis
Ocean
exchange
Organic carbon
Decay
organisms
Dead organisms
and waste products
CAM
Figure 9
The Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen fixation
Some plants have a symbiotic relationship with bacteria
that transform atmospheric nitrogen into a form that
plants can use. Legumes (which include the bean family)
are widely grown N-fixing agricultural crops, and are
often used in crop rotations. Nitrogen fixation also
occurs in free-living bacteria called diazotrophs that are
most commonly found in soil, but are sometimes found
in plant tissue.
Examples soybeans, trees from the genera
Alnus and Acacia
28 | 2 Important concepts
Root
respiration
Ocean
uptake
Figure 2.3
Bioenergy crop
Plant cells
Cellulose
microfibril
Lignin
Hemicellulose
Cellulose
Sugar
molecules
Structural polymers
Glucose
2 Important concepts | 29
30 | 2 Important concepts
Greenhouse gases*
The earth is covered with a blanket of atmospheric gases.
Some of the gas molecules in the atmosphere absorb
outgoing long-wave infrared radiation and re-radiate
this heat back to the surface, like the glass panels of a
greenhouse (hence the term greenhouse gases or GHGs).
This keeps the earths surface warmer than it would
be without such a protective layer. Important GHGs
include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), water vapour and fluorinated gases (CFC,
HFC, PFC and SF6). These gases with the exception of
fluorinated gases exist naturally, but human activities
(such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and largescale agriculture and animal husbandry) have increased
GHG emissions. As a result, the concentration of
atmospheric GHGs is increasing at an unprecedented
rate. In terms of bioenergy crop production, the crop
plants take up atmospheric CO2 as they photosynthesize
and grow. Some CO2 is released through plant and soil
respiration, from the soil during tillage, and when energy
is used for farming operations. In the case of perennial
feedstocks, carbon removed from the atmosphere can
be stored in the short and long term, because belowground biomass is not disturbed by annual tillage and can
instead be incorporated into soil carbon pools.
Energy units
There are many units used to describe energy. These
include calories, British thermal units, kilowatt-hours etc.
The standard international unit for energy is the joule.
This is a very small amount of energy, and so it is often
useful to refer to large quantities, such as 1 million joules,
or 1MJ. Some standard conversions and relative numbers
are provided on pages 6 and 7.
Energy
(MJ/ha)
CO2 emissions
(kg CO2eq/ha)
Tillage
Ploughing
Disc harrowing
Seedbed preparation
Cultivation
780
210
200
200
62
17
16
16
Planting
Corn planting
Grain drill planting
180
140
14
11
Chemical inputs
8,700
60
100
60
Harvesting
Corn grain
Soybean
Switchgrass (initial year)
Switchgrass (after establishment)
Trees (felling and skidding)
Trees (chipping)
1,280
1,210
260
330
9,150
16,700
100
98
21
26
740
1,300
Post-harvest
Grain drying
Stover mowing
Stover baling
2,810
200
140
190
17
11
480
4.8
8.1
4.8
Table 2.1
Representative energy needs in megajoule
per hectare (MJ/ha) and CO2 emissions in
kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent
per hectare (kg CO2eq/ha) for agricultural
operations based on maize agriculture
and for operations with other crops. Not
all operations will be used for any given
production strategy. CO2 equivalents
represent all GHGs involved, taking into
account their different global warming
potential and different atmospheric
residence times, and substituting the
amount of CO2 that would correspond
to the same impact [9, 10]. Nitrogen fertilizer
energy need is based on 150kg/ha fertilizer
application.
2 Important concepts | 31
Chapter references
[1] Ramankutty, N. & Foley J. A. (2010), ISLSCP II
historical croplands cover, 1700-1992, in Hall,
Forest G., G. Collatz, B. Meeson, S. Los, E. Brown
de Colstoun & D. Landis (eds), ISLSCP initiative II
collection. Data set. Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Distributed Active Archive Center, Oak Ridge, TN,
US. Available from: http://daac.ornl.gov//ISLSCP_II/
guides/historic_cropland_xdeg.html [accessed
February 2014].
32 | 2 Important concepts
[9] Adler, P. R., Del Grosso, S.J. & Parton, W.J. (2007),
Life cycle assessment of net greenhouse gas flux for
bioenergy cropping systems, Ecological Applications,
vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 675691. Available from: http://
www.esajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1890/05-2018
[accessed February 2014].
34
3 Bioenergy potential
This chapter discussesthe current and possible future bioenergy
production levels and provides information on the technological
developments needed for realizing the potentials.
532EJ
172
146
114
53
30
17
Table 3.2
Uses of energy supply in 2010 shown in EJ[1]
Total final consumption
363EJ
Heat
Transport
Electricity
Other*
166
100
64
33
*Other covers those fuels that are used as raw materials and feedstocks
in different sectors, and are not consumed as a fuel, or transformed
into another fuel.
4.6
Other*
Total
3.0
53.5
Notes
Small-scale use for heat and cooking
Approximately 100 billion litres of biofuels
were produced in 2010
331TWh (1.19EJ) of electricity was
produced from the 4.6EJ of bioenergy used
in power generation
3 Bioenergy potential | 35
Map of world biomass shipping routes in 2011. Routes for ethanol, wood pellets and vegetable oils and
biodiesel converge significantly on Western Europe [3].
Canada
Western
Europe
United States
Eastern Europe
and Russia
Japan
from
US
from
South
America
Middle East
Malaysia and
Indonesia
Brazil
South Africa
Australia
Argentina
Ethanol
Wood pellets
Figure 3.2
36 | 3 Bioenergy potential
Social impacts
Available technology
Environmental impacts
Realistic potential
Minimizes impacts.
Economic impacts
Market developments
Economic potential
Available biomass that meets market
demands at the intersection of supply
and demand.
Technical potential
Harvestable biomass limited by ecological, land-area,
agro-technological and topographical constraints.
Theoretical potential
Ignores competing land use and socioeconomic or political constraints.
Can result in large potential values that are not helpful for policy decisions.
Band
Example study
Band estimate
(EJ)
Low
0 100
Mid (low)
100 300
Mid (high)
300 600
High
>600
3 Bioenergy potential | 37
Figure 3.3
Total
technicalHandbook
bioenergy production potential in 2050 in EJ/yr, by Smeets et al. (2007) . Four different scenarios are modelled and represent
BP Biomass
the
following
assumptions
Figure
3.4 (18
November(from
2013)left to right): rainfed mixed agricultural systems (including pastoral practice) with modern technological
production,
irrigated
mixed
agricultural systems with modern technological production, irrigated cropland with only confined livestock and
Draft produced
by ON
Communication
modern technological production, and irrigated cropland with only confined livestock and newly innovated technology for crop production.
All scenarios assume high feed conversion efficiency[8].
1,548
269
223
111
83
204
168
1,273
39
24 29
5 13
Eastern
Europe
30
13 19 25
75
Western
Europe
North America
31 39
281
234
282
CIS and
Baltic States
194
158
22 28
2
East Asia
Japan
23 26 31 37
South Asia
162
610
89
117
49
Caribbean and
Latin America
367
World
Sub-Saharan
Africa
114
93
Oceania
Figure
3.4 in Figure 3.3, there is a wide range of
As
illustrated
estimates for the potential of bioenergy, depending on
many different factors including crop yields, management,
diet, population growth and conversion efficiencies. All
of these factors will affect the amount of land available for
biomass for energy production. In addition, the impacts
of climate change on overall plant yields and the amount
of land required for food are complex, poorly understood
and are the subject of numerous investigations. A recent
assessment of numerous global agro-economic models
showed that there were large uncertainties in estimates
and large differences between models and between
different geographies. However, in general, these studies
tend to indicate a negative impact on crop production
and an increase in land use required for food crops under
conditions of increased climate change. At the same time,
proper choices of where and how to grow bioenergy crops
produced model results indicating that impacts on food
prices were much smaller for scenarios that included up to
100EJ of production from lignocellulosic biomass than for
those scenarios where this energy was derived from high
carbon fossil fuels [911].
It is clear that biomass offers an opportunity for energy
production but there are many social, political, economic
and environmental conditions that affect the scale of
this production. Because none of these conditions are
static, there is unlikely to be a definitive calculation for
the amount that can be produced. Still, the international
consensus summarized in the IPCC Special Report on
Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation
(SRREN [12]) was that 100300EJ/yr could be achieved from
38 | 3 Bioenergy potential
40 55
3 Bioenergy potential | 39
Figure 3.5
Estimates of yield gaps in terms of percentage of attainable yield achieved throughout the world for maize, wheat
and rice. Gaps were estimated by comparing observed yields to those from areas with high yields within zones of
similar climate using data from around the year 2000[17].
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Figure 3.6
Graph showing average US corn grain yields from 1866 in bushels/acre and kg/ha. Important developments in plant
breeding provided improved yield potential, by allowing the switch from open pollinated varieties to hybrids with
increasing sophistication. These improvements allowed increased planting densities, which, coupled with the use
of nitrogen
fertilizer,
crop protection chemicals and mechanization, drove large yield improvements. More recently,
BP Biomass
Handbook
[18]
genetic
modification
has continued
Figure
3.6 (21 November
2013) to extend the yield limits. N.B. 1bu/acre (15.5% moisture) = 53kg (dry-weight)/ha .
Draft produced by ON Communication
180
11,000
160
In
m cre
ec as
ha in
ni g u
za s
tio e o
n fn
an it
d ro
cr ge
op n
pr fer
ot til
ec ize
tio r,
n
ch
e
ic
al
10,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
140
120
100
80
60
3,000
40
2,000
20
1,000
0
1860
9,000
0
1880
1900
Open pollinated
Figure 3.6
40 | 3 Bioenergy potential
1920
1940
First generation
hybrids
1960
1980
2000
Second generation
hybrids
2020
Biotech (GM)
3 Bioenergy potential | 41
42 | 3 Bioenergy potential
Land-use change
3 Bioenergy potential | 43
44 | 3 Bioenergy potential
3 Bioenergy potential | 45
Lignocellulosic hydrolysis
and fermentation
Thermochemical routes
to fuels or power
Anaerobic digestion
Pyrolysis
Hydrolysis and
fermentation
Gasification
Hydrogenation
Biological routes
to bioethanol from
carbohydrates
Transesterification
Chemical routes to
biodiesel from oils
Combustion/co-firing
Torrefaction
Description
Physical process.
Pelletization
Technology / technique
Conversion to heat
and/or power
Pre-processing
Cellulosic biomass.
Fully commercial.
Fully commercial.
Fully commercial.
Energy outputs
Suitable feedstocks
Current status
Table summarizing current biomass conversion technologies. These range from pre-processing through conversion to heat
and power, conversion of oils to fuels, biological routes, thermochemical routes and the conversion of biomass to gas.
Table 3.5
Chapter references
[1] International Energy Agency (2012), Key world energy
statistics 2012. OECD/IEA, Paris.
[2] International Energy Agency (2012), World Energy
Outlook 2012. International Energy Agency (IEA),
Paris.
[3] International Energy Agency (2011), adapted from
IEA technology roadmap: biofuels for transport, p. 30.
OECD/IEA, Paris.
[4] Slade, R., Saunders, R., Gross, R. & Bauen, A. (2011),
Energy from biomass: the size of the global resource.
Imperial College Centre for Energy Policy and
Technology and UK Energy Research Centre, London.
Available from: http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/support/Ener
gy+from+biomass%3A+the+size+of+the+global+res
ource [accessed February 2014].
[5] Hoogwijk, M., Faaij, A., van Den Broeka, R.,
Berndes, G., Gielen, D. & Andturkenburg, W. (2003),
Exploration of the ranges of the global potential of
biomass for energy, Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 25,
pp. 119133.
[6] Beringer, T., Lucht, W. & Schaphoff, S. (2011),
Bioenergy production potential of global biomass
plantations under environmental and agricultural
constraints, GCB Bioenergy, vol. 3, pp. 299312.
[7] Hoogwijk, M., Faaij, A. & Eickhout, B. (2005),
Potential of biomass energy out to 2100, for four IPCC
SRES land-use scenarios, Biomass and Bioenergy, vol.
29, pp. 225257.
[8] Smeets, E. M., Faaij, A. P., Lewandowski, I. M. &
Turkenburg, W. C. (2007), A bottom-up assessment
and review of global bio-energy potentials to 2050,
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, vol. 33,
no. 1, pp. 56106.
[9] Muller, C. & Robertson, R. D. (2014), Projecting
future crop productivity for global economic
modeling, Agricultural Economics, vol. 45, no. 1,
pp. 3750.
[10] Schmitz, C. et al. (2014), Land-use change trajectories
up to 2050: insights from a global agro economic
model comparison, Agricultural Economics, vol. 45,
no. 1, pp. 6984.
[11] Lotze Campen, H. et al. (2014), Impacts of increased
bioenergy demand on global food markets: an AgMIP
economic model intercomparison, Agricultural
Economics, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 3116..
46 | 3 Bioenergy potential
48
Table 4.1.
Some of the potential socio-economic benefits associated with bioenergy [1].
Social aspects
Increased standard of living
Environment.
Health.
Education.
Community wealth and infrastructure.
Economic aspects
Macro-economics
Security of supply/risk diversification.
Economic growth through business expansion or employment.
Export potential.
Import substitution (effects on GDP).
Demand-side economics
Employment.
Supply-side economics
Increased productivity.
Enhanced competitiveness.
Improved infrastructure.
Labour and population mobility.
Economic challenges
Unleashing the full potential of bioenergy will depend
largely on developing new conversion technologies
that are cheaper, more efficient and use a wider range
of feedstocks. The commercial development of such
technology at a meaningful scale requires significant
Environmental sustainability
If bioenergy is to be truly sustainable in economic, social
and environmental terms, it will be important not to
disrupt native ecosystems and world food resources;
careful management will be required with regard to the
production of feedstock and siting of conversion facilities.
Environmental sustainability requires attention to
land, air, water and biodiversity. The state of resources
before bioenergy development and the changes in those
resources caused by bioenergy development are both key
factors for understanding sustainability. Much of the
information addressed in this handbook has been directly
related to land-use issues, but embedded in every landmanagement decision is a potential impact on water, air
and biodiversity.
Water availability (quality and quantity) is of increasing
concern globally, not only in relation to agricultural use,
but also in relation to the rising demands for industrial and
domestic water. Because agriculture is responsible for
70% of worldwide freshwater withdrawal[3], expansion
of agriculture for energy production warrants special
attention. Different bioenergy crops have different water
requirements, so choosing appropriate crops for each
geographic location is critical. While rainfed cultivation
50 | 4 Economics, the environment and politics
Table 4.2
Key factors determining bioenergy GHG emissions, with brief examples and explanations.
In most cases there are many more examples for each factor.
Land-use change
Feedstock type
Agricultural
practices
Manner of
conversion
Supply-chain
logistics
Type of energy
replaced
Indirect land-use
change (ILUC)*
Table 4.3
Effects of a single management change on life cycle GHG emissions
per unit of energy in biomass-based production systems[5].
Different management decisions are shown for different species.
The assumptions used for each life cycle assessment vary across
the species, e.g. palm and maize life cycles include co-products and
end-use emissions whereas miscanthus and sugarcane life cycles
include fossil-fuel displacement in their assessments. Therefore,
comparisons should be made only within a species. Positive values
indicate a net source (emission) of GHGs into the atmosphere and
negative numbers indicate a net sink or reduction of atmospheric
GHG. Note the large swings associated with land-use change in the
palm and miscanthus life cycles. GHG emissions for comparative
purposes: gasoline, 94g CO2eq/MJ and diesel, 85g CO2eq/MJ[6].
Crop
Management decision
Palm
(Indonesia)
Outcome
GHG emissions
g CO2eq/MJ
energy produced
500
28
-190
Miscanthus
(UK)
120
-45
Sugarcane
(Brazil)
Maize
(US)
Traditional tillage
25
No-till practised
-4
32
No pre-harvest burning
-13
Figure 4.1
Graphical representation of the sources of GHG emissions occurring as a result of different land uses in a tropical forest and
tropical grassland biome. The greenhouse gas value (GHGV) in the right panel is the sum of the GHG mitigation potential
associated with the system prior to change (initial storage) and the change in GHG mitigation potential (ongoing exchange) of
the terrestrial system over a 30-year period. Blue represents CO2, green represents CH4, red represents N2O, and black is the
sum of all three gases in CO2 equivalents. Here, positive numbers indicate a net sink or retention of GHG, and negative numbers
indicate emissions of GHG or increased radiative forcing that contribute to climate warming. The values shown as max in the
figure include an estimate of fossil-fuel displacement in the final GHGV value. The ones shown as eco are just the soil/ecosystem
biogeochemistry.The values for sugarcane are for crops in a variety of landscapes with varying amounts of forest cover [7,8].
Initial storage
Ongoing exchange
Total GHGV
Tropical
peat forest
Tropical
forest
Tropical
cropland
Sugarcane
(not burnt eco)
Sugarcane
(not burnt max)
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
200 400
Energy security
Bioenergy can potentially increase the energy security
of a nation by using indigenous biomass grown within
its borders. Such indigenous sources of bioenergy could
provide other benefits to the national economy and reduce
the risk of supply disruption.
The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) concluded in a
2008 study that, Most of the bioenergy consumed in G8 +5
Countries is produced locally. Even as biomass becomes
traded globally, there will be many more countries able to
supply biomass energy than those with fossil fuel reserves.
By not using energy resources (fossil fuels) that would
otherwise be consumed, the development of a new energy
resource (bioenergy) could improve energy resilience and
security. Investment in local energy co-provision (such
as electricity co-generated from a mix of fuels) can boost
rural electrification programmes with all the concomitant
development and health benefits.
Table 4.4
Voluntary and mandatory bioenergy targets for electricity, heat and transport fuels (as stated
in country summaries and key policy documents) in place in different countries in 2008. These
policies change with time in terms of both the types of bioenergy being legislated and the absolute
values of the various targets[12].
Country
Targets
Electricity
Heat
Transport fuels
Brazil
No targets.
blend of 2025%
anhydrous ethanol with gasoline;
minimum blending of 2% (B2)
biodiesel to diesel by 2008 and 5%
(B5) by 2013.
China
No targets.
India
No targets.
No targets.
Mexico
South Africa
4% by 2013.
No targets.
Canada
No targets.
No targets.
France
No targets.
Mandatory
Mandatory
Germany
Mandatory
Italy
25% by 2010.
5.75% by 2010.
10% by 2020.
Mandatory EU target
Mandatory
Japan
Russia
No targets.
No targets.
UK
Mandatory
US
No targets.
EU
No targets.
Chapter references
[1] Domac, J., Richards, K., & Risovic, S. (2005),
Socioeconomic drivers in implementing bioenergy,
Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 28, pp. 97106.
58
60
n
n Irrigated area
n Land prime or well suited for agriculture
n Closed forest
Suitability of land with appropriate levels of inputs for pasture and rainfed crops[3].
Figure 5.1
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 1,000 2,500mm per year
Temperature: 10 30C
Growing season: 270 365 days
n Closed forest
D
C
E
A
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 350 1,500mm per year
Temperature: -10 30C
Growing season: 90 365 days
n Closed forest
A
B
n Closed forest
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 100 1,500mm per year
Temperature: -30 5C
Growing season: 30 180 days
The northwest coast of the US and Canada is a distinct
area of coniferous forest that receives up to 5,000mm
of annual rainfall, has an average annual temperature
of 10C, and a growing season that lasts up to
300 days in some places; this area is often classified
as temperate rainforest.
Heading grassland
Temperate
Natural grassland is known variously as prairie (North
America), steppe (Eurasia) and pampas (South America).
Trees are scarce, restricted by the low rainfall or soil
moisture and risk of fire. Historically, these areas were
home to grazing animals, such as the North American
bison, that moved freely in search of fresh grass following
rain or fire. Some grassland soils are rich in organic
matter, optimal for cultivation, and some are derived from
weathered clay minerals but, in drier areas, they may be
very low in organic matter with cemented subsoils or
salty surface accumulations. Soils, based on shrinkable
montmorillonite clays, have a heavy texture but, when
irrigated, are suitable for arable crops.
In the prairie and steppe regions, winters are extremely
cold, with freezing temperatures. The high altitudes of
the great basin region of the US and China are arid as
well as cold, and have little to no vegetative growth in
some places.
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 50 1,000mm per year
Temperature: -10 30C
Growing season: 0 320 days
n Closed forest
E
A
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 700 2,500mm per year
Temperature: 15 30C
Growing season: 30 300 days
n Closed forest
A
B
C
E
D
B
E
C
Headinggrassland
Tropical
Found in Colombia and Venezuela, central Brazil and
northern Australia, tropical grassland is similar to tropical
dry forest. It is the slightly lower rainfall that restricts the
growth of trees in this biome. Soils range from dark clay
soils to weathered, infertile and acidic soils.
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 500 2,500mm per year
Temperature: 15 30C
Growing season: 30 300 days
n Closed forest
C
B
66
66||5Where
5Wherecan
canbiomass
biomassfeedstocks
feedstocksbe
begrown?
grown?
Useful numbers
Rainfall: 1,500 5,000mm per year
Island systems depicted on the map may have a mix of
humid rainforest and dry tropical forest with rainfall
as low as 700mm in some areas.
Temperature: 25 30C
Growing season: 300 365 days
n Closed forest
B
E
C
Heading
Desert
are suited to near-desert conditions. Semi-arid lands
at the margin of true deserts are as large as the deserts
themselves, totalling roughly 18% of the globe, and are
considered more arable.
Useful numbers
Rainfall:
Warm desert 0 350mm per year
Cold desert 0 1,000mm per year
Temperature:
Warm desert 10 30C
Cold desert -14 18C
Growing season:
Warm desert 0 30 days
Cold desert 0 210 days
Although some species may have evolved locally
in order to survive the extremes of climate, most
bioenergy crops will not tolerate these conditions,
leading to zero growing days.
n Closed forest
68
68 || 5Where
5Where can
can biomass
biomass feedstocks
feedstocks be
be grown?
grown?
Temp*
oC
Growing Crops
days**
1,000 2,500
10 30
350 1,500
-10 30
Maize, switchgrass,
miscanthus, soybean,
wheat, cordgrass, oilseed
rape, pine, willow/poplar,
sorghum.
100 1,500
-30 5
Willow/poplar, switchgrass,
miscanthus, cordgrass.
Temperate grassland
Large commercial and smallholder: irrigated
mixed agriculture, small-scale cereal/
livestock.
50 1,000
-10 30
700 2,500
15 30
Tropical grassland
Large commercial and smallholder:
extensive mixed cropping, cereal/livestock.
500 2,500
15 30
1,500 5,000
25 30
0 350
10 40
0 30 Succulents.
Maize, sugarcane,
switchgrass, miscanthus,
soybean, wheat, cordgrass,
oilseed rape, sorghum.
Agave, jatropha.
Notes
* Average annual temperature, based on FAO GeoNetwork[1]. Note regions, that would be distinct from
the ranges given in this table, are identified and described in the temperate coniferous forest, tropical
humid rainforest and desert pages.
** In general, growth is limited by rainfall (or water availability) in tropical climates and by temperature
in temperate climates. Although species might have evolved locally in order to survive the extremes
of climate, some crops may not, leading to zero growing days. Crop selection and management can
potentially extend the growing season in other cases.
*** Within a biome, the suitability of a site for a particular crop depends on a range of factors, including
altitude, aspect, rainfall and soil type. Crops listed here are examples and are not intended to be a
comprehensive list.
Cereals are generally of the gramineous family and refer to crops harvested for dry grain only
(specifically wheat, rice paddy, barley, maize, popcorn, rye, oats, millets, sorghum, buckwheat,
quinoa, fonio, triticale, canary seed, mixed grain, cereals nes).
Chapter references
[1] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, GeoNetwork (2001), Udvardys ecoregions.
[2] US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service, National soil survey handbook,
title 430-VI, Part 622 Interpretative Groups. Available
from: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/
soils/survey/?cid=nrcs142p2_054242 [accessed July
2013].
70
pes
us
Woody
Woody
Woody
Woody
Woody
Grain
Grain
Grain
orGrain
seed
ororseed
seed
or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Grain or seed Herbaceous
Woody Grain or seed
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
pathway
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
Propagation
method
ynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic pathway
Plant
Plant
C types
CCtypes
C
C CC C
C4
C4
33
C3 CC3 3 C3
Seed
Seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
44
C3
C4
Annual
Annual
C4 CC4 4 C4
C3
C
Stem
Stem
Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Perennial
Perennial
4
cutting
cutting Grain
ororor
root
root
cuttings
cuttings
Woody
Woody
Grain
or
seed
seed
ol
Photosynthetic
pathway
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
energy
energy
use
use
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
method
method
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
Weight
CarD DD D
Weight
E EE E Car
E
D
Barrel
Barrel
Seed
Seed Biodiesel
Stem
Stem
Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat
Heat
Heat
and
Heat
and
and
power
and
power
power
power
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biogas
cutting
cutting Biodiesel
or or
root
root
cuttings
cuttings
Biodiesel Heat and power Bioethanol
Biogas
Heat
and power Biogas
Icons shown in grey indicate pre-commercial stages of adoption.
Other
Other
Other
Other
These
iconsdominant
are
repeated
onenergy
a fold out
on the back cover.
Current
Current
dominant
use
use
Other energy
Car
Car
CarCar Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
EE
DD
Barrel
Car
Weight
Barrel
MapWeight
Bioethanol
Bioethanol Biodiesel
Biodiesel Heat
Heat
and
and
power
power Biogas
Biogas
Indicates
latitude
limits
for
commercial
growth
and
the
Power
Powerusage
usage
fiveOther
countries
with
the
greatest
production
of
the
crop.
Other
The political boundaries of large countries will cross
the latitude limit in some cases whereas, in general, the
growing zones do not.
CarCar
Weight
Weight
Barrel
Barrel
Global production
diagram
Crop-specific data for global production of liquid fuels,
Power
Power
Power
Power
usage
usage
usage
usage
heat or power are variable
and
difficult
to substantiate.
Power usage
Power usage
Where a crop is produced as a major product in a country,
these data are routinely recorded at country level.
Power
Power
usage
usage
Propagation method
Photosynthetic pathway
Plant
C 3 types
Maize (corn)
C3
Zea mays
L.
Herbaceous
Propagation method
C4
Annual
C4
Seed
Stem
cutting
Grain or seed
Woody
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttingsPerennial
cutting
or root cuttings
C3
Woody
Grain or Herbaceous
seed
hetic pathway
Perennial
Perennial
CSeed
C4 Stem
Woody
Grain
or Biodiesel
seed
3 Bioethanol
Heat
and
power
Biogas
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power
cutting
or root cuttings
Biogas
Photosynthetic
Type of fuel: ethanol
(grain),
pathway
C4
C4
C4
Seed
Bioethanol
Car
Weight
Barrel Car
Weight
Barrel
Rhizome
BiodieselStem
Heat and power
BiogasMicropropagation
cutting
or root cuttings
Propagation method
Other
Current dominant energy use
on method
Stem
cutting
Annual
Annual
Weight Micropropagation
Barrel
Seed Micropropagation
Stem Car
Rhizome
Rhizome
E
D
cutting
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
usage Biogas
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat Power
and power
Power usage
Plant characteristics
Maize, known
as corn
E
D in the US, was first domesticated
10,000 years ago in Central America. Its distinctive lush
Carand power
Weight
Barrel
Biodiesel Heatfoliage
and Bioethanol
power
Biodiesel
Heat
Biogas
and Biogas
tasseled
flowers
are now a common
sight
throughout the temperate and tropical world. With end
Other
Power usage
products ranging from sweet corn to silage, maize is an
important human and animal food, as well as providing
biomaterials and fuel. Despite having been introduced to
Africa onlyBarrel
a few hundred
years
is now considered
Car
Weight
Car
Weight ago, itBarrel
a vital staple there and in many areas has replaced
traditional sources of starch such as cassava, sorghum and
millet. The amount of maize consumed globally as food is
Power
dwarfed by the amount used to
feedusage
cattle.
D
World map with latitude limits for growth and five top producing countries
Power usage
Power usage
54N
US
China
Top producing
countries
Million
tonnes*
US
China
Brazil
Mexico
Argentina
320
180
55
23
22
*grain
Mexico
Brazil
36S
Argentina
Global planting 160 million hectares in 2010, with a 10-year average of 150 million hectares.
Global production of maize was 850 million tonnes grain (dry weight) in 2010. Worldwide average annual grain
yield was 5.2 tonnes/ha from 2008 to 2010, but yields vary widely (with grain yields of up to 10 tonnes/ha in the
US and total biomass ranging worldwide from less than a tonne to 28 tonnes/ha).
Where to grow it
Maize needs a frost-free growing season with optimal
growing temperatures of 24 30C. Plants grow best in
warm climates but are damaged by temperatures above
45C. It is grown successfully over a broad latitudinal
range, from 54 North to 34 South. In temperate climates
it is sown in spring and harvested in autumn; in climates
with a pronounced wet season it is planted with the first
rains and harvested as rainfall tails off. Maize is well
adapted to medium-textured (0.25 0.5mm) soils. It can be
grown in nearly every biome described in this handbook,
but is most common in temperate grassland and temperate
broadleaved forest biomes.
How to grow it
Large-scale mechanized production is the norm in
commercial farms, although smallholders in developing
countries grow and harvest maize entirely by hand.
Reduced-tillage methods such as direct drilling protect the
soil and improve soil organic carbon sequestration. Maize
has higher yield when planted in a two-year rotation with
a nitrogen-fixing crop such as soybeans. This is the most
common rotation, but maize is also sometimes grown
without rotation, in a three-year rotation with wheat
and soybean, or in a three-year rotation that follows the
sequence maizemaizesoybean. Intercropping is also
practised over a small area in some places, with a variety
of crops that can be planted between the rows of maize.
11
5.2 tonnes
What distance could you drive?
World
18,000km
11,000 miles
10
20
30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thousand km
Fertilizer
Commercial crops of maize are boosted by the application
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK)
fertilizer. Nitrogen is needed in relatively large quantities
(140 200kg per hectare), especially on light sandy soils.
This can lead to undesirable leaching of nitrates into
groundwater if application rates are not carefully matched
to soil type and rainfall or irrigation levels.
Defences
Herbicides
Many herbicides are used to control weeds on non-GM
varieties. Glyphosate is widely used on GM maize bred for
resistance to this herbicide. To help prevent infestation by
Striga, a parasitic plant that causes extensive damage in
Africa, seeds can be given a special chemical coating.
10
Water
The crop needs adequate rainfall, in the range
of 670 790mm during the growing season. Most maize
agriculture in the US is rainfed, but the shallow-rooted
crop is sensitive to water limitation in drier regions where
rainfall is supplemented with irrigation.
2,000 litres
Inputs required
China
Mexico
US
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Pesticides
Many different pesticides are used on maize, the type and
amount depending on the region of the world. The use of
GM maize resistant to European corn borer has reduced the
need for pesticides against this pest. A range of pesticides
is available for use against other pests such as armyworms.
Non-chemical push-pull strategies that used trap crops
to attract pests to the outside of the field in addition to
intercropping with plants that repel pests (and/or inhibit
Striga) have also been very successful.
Invasion risk
Maize is generally not considered an invasive species, but
risk of invasion with or without transgene dispersal into
the Mexican landraces (varieties) from where modern
maize arose is cited as a potential risk associated with the
large, nearby US corn crop. This risk is currently debated
in the scientific literature.
Key references
Harvesting
Mechanical harvesting is the norm in commercial
production to ensure harvest at the optimal time. As with
other grain crops, the seed must have dried sufficiently for
efficient combine harvesting. For maize kernels, optimum
moisture to avoid seed damage during harvest is usually
22%. Moisture above 30% will result in poor kernel
separation, and below 15% will result in a large portion of
the kernels being cracked and broken.
Labour-intensive manual weed control and harvesting
are still widespread in much of Africa. This involves
cutting each stem by hand and stacking the maize into
large stacks to dry further, before the kernels are removed
from the cobs. For biogas production, maize is harvested
with a chopper when a dry matter content of 25 30% is
reached. In a process called ensiling, the whole crop can
also be cut and chopped when relatively fresh, optionally
inoculated with acid-forming bacteria, and stored for later
use as animal food (silage).
Yield
Wheat (Triticum
aestivum)
Woody
Herbaceous
Alternative markets
Herbaceous
Woody
Propagation method
Photosynthetic pathway
C 4 types
Plant
C3
Annual
C4
A
Stem
cutting
Pe
Seed
Perennial
Herbaceous
Grain or seed
Perennial
Grain or seed
C3
C4
Annual
C4
Woody
Grain or seed
Why
is
it
similar?
Also
one
of
the
top
grain
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
make alcoholic drinks such as bourbon. Corn oil is another
Other
Current
dominant
energy
use harvested
commodities
in the
world; grain
of plant
important foodstuff that is essentially a by-product of
Propagation method
Propagation
method
for food,
C3
C 3 feed and
C4
C 4 fuel; intensive inputs; often grown
making animal feed. Maize is also used as a biomaterial
for
in rotation with other crops.
packaging and disposable cups.
C3
C4
C
WhatCmakes
it different?
Uses C3 photosynthesis;
3
Car
E 4
D
can grow in colder climates than tolerated by corn;
Co-products
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Seed Heat and power
Stem Biogas Rhizome
Microprop
lower
yielding
than corn.
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
root cuttings
From the crop
cutting Growing
or
root cuttings
regions:
Top five producing cutting
countriesorare
Propagation method
Propagation
method
Other
Maize stover and cobs (the crop residue after the kernels
China, India, the US, the Russian Federation and
Current dominant energy use
Current
dominant
energy
use
have been extracted) has potential use as bioenergy
France.
feedstock for cellulosic ethanol production.
Weight Micropropagation
Barrel
From conversion to fuel
Seed
Stem
Seed Micropropagation
Stem Car
Rhizome
Rhizome
E
D
E
D cutting
cutting
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
The main co-product of fermentation is sold as highBioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
protein animal feed called dry distillers grains
and solubles.
Current dominant energy use
Current dominant energy use
Power
This co-product is a major commodity that adds value to
Other
Other
the corn grain ethanol supply chain. Carbon dioxide from
fermentation is also often collected and used to make
E
D
E
D
carbonated beverages.
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
HeatWeight
and Bioethanol
power Biogas
Biodiesel Heat and power Car
Biogas
Car
Barrel
Other
Power usage
Other
Car
Weight
Barrel Car
Weight
Barrel
Weight
Barrel
Propagation method
Propagation method
Photosynthetic pathway
C3
C3
Woody
Plant
types
C4
Sugarcane
Annual
Annual
C4
Seed
Stem
Seed
cutting
Perennial
Saccharum
officinarum
L.
Woody Grain or seed
Herbaceous
Rhizome
Stem Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or rootcutting
cuttings or root cuttings
Perennial
Grain or seed
Current dominant
energy
use energy use
Current
dominant
Propagation
method
Photosynthetic
pathway
hetic pathway
Plant types
Annual
C4
C4
C3
C4
Perennial
Perennial
C3 Woody Grain
C4 orBioethanol
seed Micropropagation
Herbaceous Stem
Biodiesel
Heat and
power Biogas
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat and power
Seed
Rhizome
cutting
or
root
cuttings
Type of fuel: solid combustion of residues (bagasse)
StemBiogas
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Stem
Rhizome Seed
Micropropagation
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat
and power
or root cuttings
cutting Propagation
or root cuttingsmethod cutting
Other
ominant energy use Current dominant energy use
Barrel
Weight
Biogas
Barrel
Plant characteristics
Top producing
countries
Brazil
India
China
Thailand
36N Mexico
China
Mexico
India
Million
tonnes*
720
290
110
69
50
*fresh weight
Thailand
Brazil
31S
How to grow it
Sugarcane is grown as a monoculture and, although
it produces seeds, is harvested before seed production
occurs to maximize sugar concentrations of the stems.
Commercial cultivation is accomplished by planting
sections of stems. These produce new stalks known as
ratoons, which need between nine and 24 months to
reach a harvestable state. Plants can last up to 10 years
but productivity decreases after five to seven ratoon
cycles, so they are normally re-planted then to maximize
yield. Stems are now often machine planted and the soils
are typically fully tilled, although minimum tillage is
being practised in some regions of Brazil.
Inputs required
Water
Sugarcane is sensitive to drought: 1,500 to 2,000mm
of rain is required to avoid irrigation. In water-limiting
conditions, research has shown that 10mm of water
raises yields by 1 tonne of cane per hectare. Vinasse, an
organic liquid containing high amounts of organic carbon
(6,00023,000mg C per litre) generated as a by-product
of fermentation, is also sometimes recycled to the
sugarcane fields to supplement water needs; 10 15 litres
of vinasse is generated for every litre of ethanol.
Fertilizer
To maximize yield, commercial growers use significant
amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK)
fertilizer as well as lime, with nitrogen application
having the greatest environmental impact. The most
effective method of delivering these elements is through
90
71 tonnes
What distance could you drive?
49,000km
30,000 miles
World
Best recorded
0
10
20
30
84,000km
52,000 miles
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thousand km
Defences
Herbicides
A range of herbicides, including glyphosate, metalochlor,
alachlor and paraquat, are commonly used prior to
planting and to aid plant maturation. Use varies by region
and by legislation, with some herbicides banned in certain
legislations.
Pesticides
A wide range of pesticides is used against threatening
species, including root borers and white grubs. Pesticide
application is widely variable and difficult to generalize.
80
gasoline equivalent of 3,900 litres
5,800 litres
India
Mexico
Thailand
70
60
50
40
30
20
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Harvesting
Invasion risk
Key references
Yield
Sugarcane worldwide yields average 71 tonnes fresh
wet weight per hectare, with wide variation between
countries (0.9122 tonnes). In Brazil, converting sugarcane
to ethanol produces on average 82 litres per tonne. Brazil
produced 21 billion litres in 2011, some 25% of global
bioethanol production.
Alternative markets
Although sugarcane has been used for large-scale
bioethanol production since 1975, the primary
Plantmarket
types is
sugar, and sugarcane provides 70% of the worlds sugar.
Many sugarcane mills serve both markets simultaneously.
Co-products
Herbaceous
Plant types
Annual
Annual
Woody
Grain or seed
Herbaceous
Seed
Perennial
Woody
Grain or seed
Photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway Plant types
Plant
types
Crop residue
Annual
Leaves and other plant debris, often called trash that is
Annual
C3
C4
C 3 animal C 4
often left in the field, are sometimes collected for
Perennial
feed or composted and returned to the fields.
Herbaceous
C3
C4
Woody
C4
Grain orHerbaceous
seed
C3 Woody
C4 or seed
Grain
Stem
cutting
Perennial
Perennial
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat
Biogas
Vinasse
Current dominant energy use
Current dominant energy use
Other
A liquid rich in plant nutrients, vinasse is a Other
significant byproduct of the distillation process (10 litres of vinasse are
produced for every litre of ethanol). If carelessly disposed
E
D
E
D
of it can cause environmental pollution by lowering the
Car and power
Weight
Bioethanol
HeatWeight
and Bioethanol
power Biogas
Biodiesel Heat
Biogas Barrel
Car
Barrel
pH value of the soil and water, but it is often
amendedBiodiesel
and
returned to sugarcane fields as a form of irrigation and
Other
Other
fertilization.
Car
Weight
Power usage
Barrel
Car
Weight
Barrel
Power usage
Power us
Propagation method
Propagation
Photosynthetic
pathway method
C 3types
Plant
C4
Switchgrass
Woody
Annual
Annual
C4 Seed
C3
Stem
cutting
Perennial
Woody Grain or seed
Panicum virgatum L
Herbaceous
Grain or seed
Stem
Rhizome Seed
Micropropagation
cutting
or root Perennial
cuttings
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
C4
C4
Herbaceous
C4
CSeed
3Woody
Perennial
Annual
Perennial
C4 Stem
Grain
or seed Biodiesel
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Bioethanol
Heat and
power
Biogas
Bioethanol
cutting
or root cuttings
Type of fuel:
solid
combustion for heat and
Photosynthetic
pathway
Other
Other
electricity,
cellulosic energy
ethanol.
Current dominant
use
Propagation
method
ion method CStage
of
adoption:
early
commercial
stage
for
heat
C4
3
and electricity, pre-commercial stage for liquid
C3ethanol. C4
Car
Weight
Barrel
E
D
D
Biodiesel Heat and power
Car
Weight
Biogas
Barrel
Bioethanol
BiodieselStem
Heat and power
BiogasMicropropagation
SeedMicropropagation
Rhizome
Rhizome
cutting
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
Stem
cutting Propagation method
Other
dominant energy useCurrent dominant energy use
Weight
Barrel
StemCar
Rhizome
Micropropagation
D
cutting
or root cuttings
PowerBiogas
usage
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas Biodiesel Heat and power
Seed
Car
E
D
Switchgrass is a native wild grass found in a range of
Car and power
Weight
Barrel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat
Biogas America.
Weight from
Barrel
habitats
eastern
Canada to
Central
Its
deep roots and tolerance of poor soils make it useful for
Power usage
Other
preventing erosion, and its ornamental habit is valued
by designers aiming to create prairie-style naturalistic
gardens. Low fertilizer requirements and resistance to
insect attack give
potential
Car switchgrass
Weight as-yet-unfulfilled
Barrel
as a feedstock for bioenergy.
Power usage
Power usage
Plant characteristics
Switchgrass is a clump-forming C4 perennial that grows
up to 1.5 metres tall. It spreads slightly by stout rhizomes,
especially
wetter conditions, and the delicate flower
Powerin
usage
heads and seeds are attractive in late summer. There are
distinct upland and lowland varieties of switchgrass
(about 25 cultivars in total), and several naturally
occurring strains of the plant. These have been selected
for improved yield or ornamental qualities. The lowland
varieties have greater potential yields than upland
varieties, but are more susceptible to cold damage and are
thus less suited to higher latitudes.
In 1992 the US Department of Energy began a research
programme to develop switchgrass as a bioenergy
feedstock. Research is ongoing into GM varieties and there
is now evidence that modifications to lignin content,
for example, can reduce pretreatment costs and increase
fermentation yields.
55N
17N
Where to grow it
The wide natural range of switchgrass reflects the genetic
variability of the plant useful to the grower in that
there are varieties to suit different microclimates and
soil conditions. The genetic variability also provides a
useful starting place for plant breeders seeking to improve
productivity. Switchgrass has in the past been grown in
latitudes between 55 and 17 North, but could also be
grown in the southern hemisphere. Switchgrass will not
thrive in extremely acid or alkaline soils, or where the soil
temperature reaches 40C, and is most common in the
temperate broadleaved and temperate grassland biomes.
How to grow it
Switchgrass is usually grown as a monoculture, but
because it is an out-crossing species, the monocultures are
genetically diverse populations. It is typically established
by seed drilled (or spread and raked) directly into clean
ground. Seed priming can sometimes improve germination
rates. Prior tillage is not necessary, but a firm seedbed
is required. Growth is initially slow and there is no
harvest in the first year. But by the second year biomass
production can reach 60% of a mature stand, and the crop
remains productive for more than a decade.
Inputs required
Fertilizer
Because switchgrass evolved under low-nutrient
conditions, it grows well without additions of phosphate
and potassium, although it may require supplements over
the long term. Some additional nitrogen can be beneficial,
although not in the first year, as this encourages weed
growth. Too much nitrogen causes switchgrass to lodge
(grow luxuriantly and collapse particularly under heavy
rain or strong winds), which hampers harvesting.
Defences
Herbicides
Various broad spectrum herbicides are widely used to clear
the ground of broadleaved weeds before drilling seed.
Pesticides
Not normally necessary.
Harvesting
Plant types
Plant types
Annual Annual
Water
Essentially a form of haymaking, harvesting switchgrass
Perennial
Perennial
Switchgrass is found in the wildHerbaceous
in Herbaceous
damp
areas,
but it
Woody Woody
Grain orGrain
seed or seed
involved cutting the grass using a mechanical mower.
is considered to be reasonably drought-tolerant
under
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
The dry grass is then baled, or sometimes chopped and
cultivation. The genetic variability mentioned above
C
C
C
C
in a module building system that compresses the
Plant types
Plant
Plant
types
Plant types
gives a wide range of average water
usetypes
efficiencies,
from Annual Annualcollected
Annual Annual
C
C
C
C
chopped material into a denser mass for transportation.
2 103kg/ha/mm. Irrigation is not normally used but can
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
WoodyHerbaceous
Woody
Grain Woody
orGrain
seed Woody
or Grain
seed orGrain
seed or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
boost production in drought conditions.
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
3
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
C3
C3
C4 C3
C 4C 3
C4
C4
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
energyenergy
use use
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
method
method
E
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Heat
andHeat
power
and power
Biogas Biogas
Switchgrass average annualBioethanol
yield
per
hectare
Seed Seed Seed
Stem Seed
Stem Rhizome
Stem Rhizome
Stem
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
cutting cutting
cutting
cutting
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
Other Other
Current
Current
dominant
Current
dominant
Current
energy
dominant
energy
use
dominant
energy
use energy
use use
Car
Effective energy
DE D
D
available
DE
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
HeatBiodiesel
andHeat
power
Biodiesel
andHeat
power
Biogas
andHeat
power
Biogas
and power
Biogas Biogas
World
2,900 litres
gasoline equivalent of 2,000 litres
Car
Car Weight
Car Weight
CarBarrel
WeightBarrel
Weight Barrel Barrel
Power usage
Power usage
20,000kWh
Best recorded
12
months
Best recorded
20
14 tonnes
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
33,000kWh
months
25,000km
15,000 miles
40,000km
Best
recorded 25,000 miles
0
10
20
30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thousand km
Yield
Key references
Alternative markets
Switchgrass has traditionally been used as fodder for
cattle, and it is often planted to stabilize soils at risk of
erosion and to increase biodiversity as part of conservation
projects. Like other lignocellulosic materials, it can be
burned in power stations to produce electricity.
Co-products
From the crop
Currently none.
Annual
C3
C4
C4
C4
Plant types
PlantCtypes
3
C4
C3
Seed
C4
Annual
Annual
Stem
cutting
Perennial
Stem
RhizomeSeedMicropropagation
cutting
or root cuttings
Perennial
Invasion risk
Annual
C3
C4
C4
C3
C4
Perennial
Photosynthetic pathway
Other
Other
Photo in production:
Current dominantIllinois,
energyUS.
use
Propagation
is it similar?method
Also has wide genetic variation;
Propagation method Why
C3
C4
growing regions
very large and diverse; C4
perennial;
limited
commercial production;
C3
C4
E a dedicated
D
Car crop. Weight
Barrel
potentially
energy
What
makes
it Biodiesel
different?
Can
grow
in Biogas
saturated
Bioethanol
Heat
and
power
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
and
salty soils.
or root cuttings
cutting Propagation
or root cuttings
method cutting
Other
Growing region: Limited commercial production,
Current
dominant
energyacross
use all of North
but
the
native
range spreads
Current dominant energy
use
America, and parts of South America, Africa and
Europe.
E
Bioethanol
Weight
Barrel
StemCar
Rhizome
Micropropagation
D
cutting
or root cuttings
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
Seed
E
Car
Bioethanol
Weight
Car
WeightBiogas Barrel
Biodiesel
Heat and power
Barrel
Power usage
Car
Weight
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Other
Power usage
Car
Other
Perennial
CGrain
Woody
orBiodiesel
seed
Herbaceous C3Seed
Rhizome
Micropropagation
4 Stem
Bioethanol
Heat and power
Bioethanol
Biogas Biodiesel
cutting
or root cuttings
Cordgrass (Spartina spp.)
Barrel
Powe
synthetic pathway
C4
C4
Woody
Propagation method
Propagation method
Plant types
Miscanthus
Annual
Annual
Seed
Stem
cutting
Perennial
Woody Grain or seed
Stem
RhizomeSeed
Micropropagation
cutting
or root Perennial
cuttings
Grain or seedHerbaceous
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
C3
C4
Seed
C4
Perennial
Perennial
Stem
Rhizome
C3Woody Micropropagation
C4 or seed Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
Grain
Herbaceous
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
cutting
or root cuttings
C4
D
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas
Type of fuel:
solid
combustion for heat and
Photosynthetic
pathway
Other
Other
ent dominant energy
use cellulosic ethanol.
electricity,
Propagation
method
on method CStage of adoption: commercial use for heat and
C4
3
electricity, developmental stage for liquid biofuel.
anol
C3
C4
Car
Weight
Barrel
Car
Weight
Barrel
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
Weight
Seed
Barrel
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
E
D
D
cutting
or root cuttings
PowerBiogas
usage
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas Biodiesel Heat and power
Car
Power usage
Plant characteristics
There are more than a dozen species of miscanthus, all
of them perennial grasses with spreading rhizomes (an
underground organ that produces both shoots and roots).
Some grow as tall as 4 metres. Most of the leaves are
firmly attached to the stems, although some fall as litter
in autumn and winter. The tough woody stems persist
through the winter. New shoots emerge from the rhizome
as temperatures rise in the spring. Giant miscanthus is a
sterile hybrid that does not produce seed, making it more
useful than similarly productive non-hybrid cultivars that
have invasive tendencies through seed dispersal. Like
maize, sugarcane and switchgrass, it photosynthesizes
using the C4 metabolic pathway.
56N
37N
Where to grow it
Fertilizer
Regarded as a low-input crop, miscanthus has in some
sites been grown successfully for more than a decade with
no nitrogen inputs. The autumn leaf-fall returns some
nutrients to the soil but, more importantly, the perennial
crop has an efficient nutrient cycle, where in autumn
nutrients are relocated from the above-ground shoots to
the underground rhizomes. Recent studies show little
response to nitrogen application in the first five years and
a small response in subsequent years (0.02 tonnes/ha
increasing in yield for every kilogram of nitrogen applied
per hectare) although this is likely to be site dependent.
There are indications that there may be nitrogen-fixing
bacteria associated with miscanthus in some places.
Potassium and phosphorus fertilizer should be applied
according to withdrawal, which is about 0.5kg P and
1kg K per tonne of dry biomass.
How to grow it
As the crop will remain in the ground for two decades or
more, good establishment is crucial, for which thorough
ground preparation is vital. After removing weeds using
a broad-spectrum herbicide, ground is ploughed and a
good tilth created. If no herbicide is applied, other weed
control methods are typically required. Miscanthus is
usually established by planting small pieces of rhizomes,
ideally using specialized machinery. It is important to use
fresh, vigorous rhizomes. Planting is done in spring once
the soil has warmed and there is still plenty of moisture
available. A seeded variety has recently been developed
for Miscanthus x giganteus but it has not yet been broadly
tested.
Inputs required
Plant types
Plant Plant
types types
Defences
Water
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Herbicides
Woody Woody
GrainWoody
orGrain
seed orGrain
seed or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Miscanthus crops are drought-tolerant except in the
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
Broad-spectrum herbicides are needed to control weeds at
early stages of crop establishment, when it may require
intervals during the first two years. After that, the roots
C
C
CC
C
C
Plantrates.
types
Plant types
Plant
types
Plant Plant
typestypes
Plant types
irrigation to improve establishment
Miscanthus
Annualand
Annual canopy
Annual Annual Annual
of Annual
the grass suppress weed growth.
C
C
CC
C
x giganteus requires a minimum of 450mm
of Cwater
per
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
year, but will attain greater yields Herbaceous
with
higher
rainfall.
WoodyHerbaceous
Woody
Grain
Woody
orGrain
seed
Woody
or Grain
seedWoody
orGrain
seedWoody
orGrain
seedorPesticides
Grain
seed or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
3
4 3
4 3
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
method
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
C3
C3
C4 C3
C 4C 3
C 4C 3
C 4C 3
C4
C4
Current
Current
dominant
Current
dominant
energy
dominant
energy
use energy
use use
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
method
method
E
DE
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
HeatBiodiesel
andHeat
power
and
Heat
power
Biogas
and power
Biogas Biogas
Seed Seed Seed
Stem Seed
Stem Rhizome
Seed
Stem Seed
Stem
StemMicropropagation
StemMicropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
cutting cutting
cutting
cutting
cutting
cutting
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
Other OtherOther
Current
Current
dominant
Current
dominant
Current
energy
dominant
Current
energy
use
dominant
Current
energy
dominant
use energy
dominant
use energy
use energy
use use
Car
Car Weight
Car Weight Barrel
Weight Barrel Barrel
DE
Europe
Car
Europe
Car Weight
Car Weight
CarBarrel
Weight
CarBarrel
Weight
Car Barrel
Weight Barrel
Weight Barrel Barrel
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
27,000kWh
Midwest winter US
16
months
Midwest winter US
34
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
57,000kWh
months
47,000km
29,000 miles
Europe
Midwest winter US
38 tonnes
Midwest
winter US
10
20
30
99,000km
61,000 miles
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thousand km
Harvesting
Invasion risk
Key references
Alternative markets
Plant
C3
typesto
C 4 types
Miscanthus is becoming more widely usedPlant
in Europe
Annual
Annual
augment coal in power stations and thus reduce GHG
Seed
Stem
Stem
RhizomeSeedMicropropagation
C3
C4
emissions. It can also be used for pressed particle board.
cutting
cutting
or root cuttings
Perennial
Perennial
In Asia it is a traditional roofing material, and
in Europe Woody
is
Woody Grain or seed
Herbaceous
Grain or seed
Herbaceous
Current dominant energy useCurrent dominant ene
popular as horse bedding.
PropagationPhotosynthetic
method
pathway
Photosynthetic pathway
Plant types
Co-products
From the crop
Currently none.
Annual
C3
C4
C3
C4
C3
C4
Perennial
Perennial
CGrain
orBiodiesel
seed Micropropagation
Herbaceous CStem
3 Woody
4Rhizome
Seed
Bioethanol
Heat and power
Bioethanol
Biogas
Energy cane
(Saccharum
officinarum variety bred for
cutting
or root cuttings
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Weight
Barrel
D
cutting
or root cuttings
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
E
Car
Car
Seed
Car E
Other
Biodiesel He
Bioethanol
Weight
Other
Power usage
D
Car
WeightBiogas Barrel
Biodiesel
Heat and power
Barrel
Power usage
Car
Weight
Barrel
Power usage
Power
Photosynthetic pathway
es
C3
Plant
C 4 types
C3
Annual
C4
Oil palm
Propagation method
Annual
Seed
Woody
Grain or seed
Stem
cutting
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Perennial
or root
cuttings
nthetic
pathway
s
Plant
types
Annual
Annual
C3
C4
Woody
Grain or seed
Woody
Herbaceous
C4
Perennial
C3 Stem
GrainSeed
or seed
cutting
C4
Perennial
Perennial
C4 Bioethanol
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Biodiesel Heat and power
or root cuttings
Biogas
Car
Barrel
of fuel: biodiesel.
hetic Photosynthetic
pathway Type
pathway
Other
Stage ofCurrent
adoption:
extensive
commercial
dominant
energy
use
Propagation
method
tion method
production.
C3
C
C
4
C4
C3
C4
Weight
Stem
cutting
or method
root cuttings
on method
Propagation
Other
dominant energy use
and, even though the oil palm acts as a carbon sink, it can
Car Micropropagation
Weight
Barrel
Stem Micropropagation
Rhizome
Rhizome
E
D
take 40 years or more to achieve carbon payback.
cutting
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
If oil palm does not displace native forests, plantations
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat
and
power
Biogas
Power
usage
Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
StemSeed
Dcutting
ominant
Current
energy
dominant
use
energy use
can result in a net carbon sink and efforts are under way
Other
to establish guidelines for more sustainable growing
Although oil palm originated in West Africa and tropical
techniques. For example, there is a Roundtable on
parts of Central and South America, the biggest oil palm
Sustainable Palm Oil that has developed a certification
D
E plantations
D are now in Indonesia and Malaysia. Palm oil
system for sustainable oil palm producers.
was
traditionally
used
for cooking
making soap,
Weight but Barrel
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Heat
and
power
BiodieselBiogas
Heat and
power
Biogas andCar
Car
Weight
Barrel
it has become an important raw material in processed
Plant characteristics
Power
usage
Other food. Biodiesel from palm oil has
been
in production for a
quarter of a century.
Oil palms have stout single trunks and leaves that can
Oil palm now produces 32% of world vegetable oil,
reach 5 metres in length. Bunches of fruit are formed at
despite covering only 4% of land area devoted to oil crops.
the top of the trunk and it is the fruit pulp that provides
Car
Weight
Car Barrel
Weight controversy
Barrel for decades.
The crop
has raised
palm oil. Palm trees bear fruits starting in the fourth year.
Producers love its high yields but critics point to serious
Selective breeding has created a hybrid (the Tenera variety)
environmental damage caused by large-scale plantations
with a particularly high percentage of oil in the fruit for
that displace native rainforest. Changing land
use
from
commercial production. A complete breeding programme
Power
usage
Power usage
forest or peatland releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
using controlled pollination can take eight to 10 years.
World map with latitude limits for growth and five top producing countries
Power usage
Power usage
Thailand
Colombia
Top producing
countries
Million
tonnes*
Indonesia
Malaysia
Nigeria
Thailand
Colombia
90
88
9
8
3
15N *fruit
Malaysia
Nigeria
Indonesia
12S
Where to grow it
How to grow it
Palm trees can be productive for many years, but they are
typically replanted after about 20 years when they become
too tall for efficient harvesting. Ground for planting may
be cleared mechanically or by burning, followed by tillage
or herbicide treatment. Leguminous ground cover is often
established before the young palm trees are planted, with
the aim of preventing erosion and increasing the nitrogen
content of the soil. Palm leaves are also left between the
rows of trees for the same reasons.
Inputs required
Water
Oil palm needs a constant water supply and high humidity
for optimum production with daily evapotranspiration
rate of 5 6mm of water. While research shows that
irrigation in dry climates can increase yields by
approximately 36%, irrigation is unnecessary in the very
wet climates where oil palm is often cultivated.
Fertilizer
High levels of fertilizer, particularly nitrogen and
potassium, are required throughout the life of an oil palm.
Plantations on peaty soil are especially prone to potassium
deficiency.
25
14 tonnes
2.9 tonnes
World
Best recorded
0
10
20
30
75,000km
46,000 miles
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thousand km
Herbicides
The use of herbicides can be reduced by using leguminous
ground cover to suppress weeds between young palm trees.
Herbicides are still needed before planting, and paraquat is
commonly used, despite its toxicity to humans.
Pesticides
Broad range pesticides are not recommended because they
can exacerbate a pest outbreak. A range of pesticides has
been used, but some are very toxic.
Harvesting
The heavy bunches of fruit are cut by hand, sometimes
using a chainsaw. This requires strength and dexterity,
as the leaf fronds around the fruit are armed with tough
spikes. Removed leaves are left on the ground. Bunches of
fruit are then taken to a processing mill for stripping.
3,000 litres
Defences
20
Malaysia
Nigeria
Thailand
15
10
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Plant types
Yield
The fresh-fruit yield from the palms average
14 tonnes/ha, with an average oil yield of 2.9 tonnes/ha
per year. Maximum yields have been reported in Malaysia
(with up to 23 tonnes fruit and 4.5 tonnes oil
pertypes
hectare)
Plant
and Colombia (with up to 19 tonnes fruit and 4.7 tonnes
oil per hectare).
Alternative markets
Herbaceous
Woody
C3
C4
C3
C4
Annual
Perennial
Plant
C 4 types
Annual
C4
Perennial
Herbaceous
Grain or seed
Seed
Woody
Stem
cutting
Grain or seed
Rhizo
or root c
Key references
Car
Weight
Barrel
Power usage
Power usage
Photosynthetic pathway
C3
es
Propagation method
Plant
C 4 types
C3
Woody
Annual
Seed
Woody
Stem
cutting
Grain or seed
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or rootPerennial
cuttings
Annual
C3
C4
Woody
C4
Grain orHerbaceous
seed
Perennial
Woody
Grain Cor3Stem
seed
Seed
cutting
C4
Annual
Perennial
C4 Rhizome
Micropropagation
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat and power
or root cuttings
Biogas
C3
Stem
C4
Car
Weight
Barrel
Micropropagation
cutting
or root cuttings
or root cuttings method
Propagation
Other
There is broad global knowledge of soybean agriculture
Current dominant energy use
dominant energy use
because of the long history in cultivation. It has a low
yield per unit area, and requires a larger land footprint than
many other bioenergy crops, but it produces high amounts
Weight
Barrel
Stem
Seed Micropropagation
Stem Car
Rhizome
of protein, significant amounts of oil, and the conversion
E Rhizome D Micropropagation
Dcutting
cutting
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
of the oil to biodiesel produces little waste.
cutting
on method
Biogas
Bioethanol
Power usage
World map with latitude limits for growth and five top producing countries
Power usage
Power usage
52N
US
China
India
Top producing
countries
Million
tonnes*
US
Brazil
Argentina
China
India
91
69
53
15
13
*seed
Brazil
Argentina
39S
Where to grow it
How to grow it
Soybean is an annual crop, grown from seed planted in early
to late spring. Although it is often grown as a monoculture,
yields are better when grown in a two-year rotation with
maize. Zero-tillage (direct-drilled) systems also give
better long-term results than traditional land preparation
(ploughing and harrowing to make a seedbed).
Inputs required
Defences
Herbicides
The advantage of glyphosate-resistant soybean is
that glyphosate can be used to control weeds without
damaging the crop. Because glyphosate is broken down
on contact with soil, this makes it a better choice from an
environmental perspective than more persistent or more
toxic herbicides (also used in soybean cultivation). Choice
of herbicide and concentration should be tailored to the
type of soil, climatic conditions and developmental stage
of the plants.
Water
Soybean has moderate water requirements average
irrigation of 140mm (it loses roughly 600mm in
evapotranspiration in a growing season) and increases in
yield as a result of irrigation have been documented.
Water requirements depend on soil, rainfall and temperature,
Pesticides
and should be calculated for each site and meteorological
conditions.
Various pesticides are available, with control regimes
varying regionally. Estimates of attainable yield protection
Fertilizer
range from 25% in Central Africa to 43% in southern
Being a legume, soybean has nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
Europe.
root nodules, although soybean uses more nitrogen than it
can acquire through this symbiotic relationship. Nitrogen
Harvesting
fixation is inhibited when nitrogen fertilizer is used, and
early studies showed no increased yield from applying
Most soybean is harvested with combines once the crop
nitrogen. But more recent studies suggest that modest
has reached a moisture content of 13 15%. Delaying the
applications of nitrogen (less than 50kg per hectare) can
harvest after this time is detrimental, as overripe pods
increase yield by 0.6 tonnes/ha. Applications of phosphorus shed their beans and over-dried beans (less than 12%
and potassium are also required. Matching fertilizer
moisture) tend to shatter during harvest. Losses after the
requirements to each specific site reduces GHG emissions.
optimum date can amount to 11kg per hectare per day.
480 litres
Grain yield
in tonnes
Oil yield
in tonnes
2.4 tonnes
0.44 tonnes
China
India
US
10
20
30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Thousand km
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Plant types
Yield
The yield of seeds on average varies between 1.5 and
3 tonnes/ha with a worldwide average of 2.4 tonnes/ha.
The oil yield represents between 17% and 20% of the seed
mass, resulting in 0.41 0.48 tonnes of oil per hectare
Plant types
per year.
C3
C4
C3
C4
Annual
Alternative markets
C3
C 4 types
Plant
C3
Annual
C4
Seed
Perennial
Stem
cutting
Grain or seed
A
Rhizom
or root Pe
cu
Woody
Herbaceous
Woody Grain or seed
Herbaceous
The main products from soybean are the whole
beans, the
Propagation method Current dominant energy use
protein-containing defatted soybean meal, and oil that
Photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway Plant types
Plant
types
are used for food and feed. Many processed foods include
Annual
Annual
soya products, and soybean meal is vital feedstuff for meat
Annual
C3
C4
C3
C4
production.
E
D
Perennial
Perennial
Co-products
Herbaceous
C3
Woody
C4
Grain orHerbaceous
seed
Woody
Seed
Grain
seed
Stem
Micropropagation
C3or
C4 Rhizome Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Heat and power
cutting
or root cuttings
Invasion risk
E
D
E
D
Soybean is typically considered non-invasive, but
Biodiesel Heat and power Car
Biogas
Biodiesel
HeatWeight
and Bioethanol
power Biogas
cultivated soybean can hybridize with wildBioethanol
strains. The
Car
Barrel
use of specific no-planting zones is a simple and effective
Power usage
Other
way to avoid transgene dispersal in the caseOther
of GM
soybean.
Key references
Car
Weight
Barrel Car
Weight
Weight
Barrel
Power usage
Power usage
Barrel
Propagation method
Propagation method
Photosynthetic pathway
C3
C4
C3
C4
Plant types
Willow and
woody species)
Seedhybrid
Stem poplar
Rhizome (Short-rotation
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Woody
Annual
Annual
cutting
Perennial spp
Salix and Populus
Woody
Herbaceous
Grain or seed
or root cuttings
Grain or seed
cutting
Perennial
or root cuttings
C3
C4
Perennial
C4
Perennial
C4
Grain
or seed C3Rhizome
Bioethanol
Stem
Micropropagation
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat and power
Biogas Biodiesel
or combustion
root cuttings
Type
ofcutting
fuel: Solid
for heat and
Photosynthetic
pathway
Woody
Herbaceous
C4
Seed
Other
Other biofuels.
electricity, cellulosic
Current dominant energy
use
Propagation
method
ion method
CStage of adoption: developmental stage for liquid
C3
4
biofuel, extensive commercial use for heat and
Celectricity.
C3
4
E
D
Car
Weight
Barrel
Stem
Bioethanol
cutting
or root cuttings
Propagation
method
Other
dominant energy use
Car
Weight
Biogas
Barrel
Rhizome
Micropropagation
to 11 eleven years (called short-rotation forestry or SRF).
or root cuttings
Plant characteristics
D
Seed
Stem
Car
cutting
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Weight
BarrelD
E
or root cuttings
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas Bioethanol
Biogas
Power usage
Willow
Hybrid poplar
D
The graceful form of weeping willow trees reflected in
Car marks
Weight
Barrel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
and power Biogas
Car
Weight
Barrel
water
and Heat
unmistakable
exclamation
of Lombardy
poplars are familiar sights in many temperate landscapes.
Other
In fact, thesePower
treesusage
have diverse forms, with the smallest
willow being a creeping arctic species. But most share the
useful attribute of growing readily from cuttings which
merely
pushingBarrel
a length of stem into the ground.
Car requires
Weight
This ease of propagation and fast growth make the trees
invaluable producers of biomass, especially in soils that do
not dry out. Moreover, they can be grown in rapid cycles in
usage
roughly
every three to
Powerwhich
usage they are cut back or coppiced Power
five years (called short-rotation coppice or SRC) or seven
E
There are 300 500 willow species that have a wide range
of genetic variability. There are fewer poplar species but an
estimated
elite poplar cultivars. Most species are trees
Power125
usage
or large shrubs with questing roots, although when grown
as coppice most roots are found within the first 30cm of
the soil profile. Willows show great diversity of form,
but the shrub willows (roughly 2 3 metres tall) are most
suitable for biomass.
Native poplar grows as a single-trunked deciduous
tree with a wide variety of growth rates, heights and
leaf structures among species. Some species of poplar,
however, can also be grown as short-rotation coppice.
Breeding has focused on crossing species to give hybrids of
increased height and vigour, and there are many varieties
available commercially.
World map with latitude limits for growth and five top producing countries
Power usage
75N
Sweden
France
Italy
Romania
Turkey
Poplar
China
India
4,900
1,000
240
130
120
Willow
Top producing Thousand
countries
hectares
New Zealand
Argentina
Key
nPoplar
nWillow
34S
Argentina
Romania
New Zealand
Sweden
46
24
20
15
Where to grow it
Fertilizer
Fertilizer use in commercial plantations is dictated by
deficiencies noted in the leaves. The removal of large
quantities of biomass over several years depletes the soil
of nitrogen, so nitrogen is added as necessary, with a typical
range of 20 80kg N per hectare added to willow (usually
after harvest) and up to 200kg N per hectare to poplar
annually when nutrient depletion is evident.
How to grow it
Cultivation techniques exploit the ability of many
broadleaved tree species to regrow (coppice) strongly when
all their aerial growth is removed. The cut stumps quickly
produce vigorous new shoots, nourished by the established
root system, and multiple harvests can be taken from a
single planting.
Poplar and willow can be established mechanically, by
planting rods cut from year-old shoots into clean ground
in the spring. For good establishment, the soil should
be ploughed and harrowed before planting. Plantations
can remain productive for more than two decades. Crops
are grown both as monocultures and in polycultures
with multiple varieties. The benefits of mixed planting
(reducing the spread of pests and diseases) are sometimes
outweighed by increased costs of managing and harvesting
a non-uniform crop.
Defences
Herbicides
Weed control in early establishment is essential: a range of
herbicides is used to clear the ground during establishment
in the first year and after coppicing. An alternative to
initial herbicide use is to plant cuttings through weedsuppressant horticultural membrane.
Inputs required
Water
The availability of water is more important than soil type
when selecting growing sites. Willow and poplar are both
Pesticides
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
thirsty crops, often
needing
more than 100kg of water Plant
pertypes
Annual
Annual
Annual Annual
Some resistance has been bred into certain varieties
day during the growing
season. Poplar water use ranges
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
of Woody
willow
Woody
Woody
Grain50
orGrain
seed
Woody
Grain orGrain
seed orand
seed poplar. There is no standard pesticide
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
from
toor seed
110kg per day; willow species use about 105kg
treatment,
but a range of pesticides of varying
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
per
day,
although wide genetic variation for water use Photosynthetic
environmental
toxicity can be used to control insect
C
C
C
C
Cis found
C
C
C
in
both
trees.
Generally,
both
species
require
a
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
Plant types
damage
when infestations
arise.
Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual
Annual Annual Annual
Annual
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
3
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
WoodyHerbaceous
Woody
GrainHerbaceous
Woody
orGrain
seed Woody
or Grain
seed Woody
orGrain
seed or Grain
seed or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
C3
C3
C4 C3
C 4C 3
C 4C 3
C4
C3
C4 C3
C 4C 3
C4
C4
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
energyenergy
use use
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
method
method
E
C3
C4
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
WoodyHerbaceous
Woody
Grain Woody
orGrain
seed Woody
or Grain
seed orGrain
seed or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
energyenergy
use use
Propagation
Propagation
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
method
method
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
BiodieselBiodiesel
Heat andHeat
power
and power
Biogas Biogas
Seed Seed Seed
Stem Seed
Stem Rhizome
Seed
Stem Rhizome
Stem
Stem
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
cutting cutting
cutting
cutting
cutting
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
Other Other
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
BiodieselBiodiesel
Heat andHeat
power
and power
Biogas Biogas
Seed Seed Seed
Stem Seed
Stem Rhizome
Stem Rhizome
Stem
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
cutting cutting
cutting
cutting
or root
cuttings
or root
cuttings
or root cuttings
or root cuttings
Other Other
Current
Current
dominant
Current
dominant
Current
energy
dominant
Current
energy
use
dominant
energy
use
dominant
energy
use energy
use use
Current
Current
dominant
Current
dominant
Current
energy
dominant
energy
use
dominant
energy
use energy
use use
7.1 tonnes
7.3 tonnes
Effective energy
DE DE D
D
available
DE
World
Car
11,000kWh
Best recorded
Effective energy
DE D
D
available
DE
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
HeatBiodiesel
andHeat
power
Biodiesel
andHeat
power
Biogas
andHeat
power
Biogas
and power
Biogas Biogas
World
World
Car Weight
Car Weight
CarBarrel
Weight
CarBarrel
Weight Barrel
WeightBarrel Barrel
Power usage
Power usage
Car
months
Car
Car Weight
Car Weight
CarBarrel
WeightBarrel
Weight Barrel Barrel
Power usage
Power usage
12,000kWh
Best recorded
Best recorded
33
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
55,000kWh
months
Global planting
5.3 million hectares in plantations plus 3.9 million
hectares in agroforestry and conservation
(for soil and water protection).
Global production
38 million tonnes/yr.
months
Best recorded
24
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
Power usage
39,000kWh
months
Global planting
90,000 hectares for wood production plus
86,000 hectares for land reclamation and
conservation.
Global production
660,000 tonnes/yr.
91
Harvesting
Key references
The plants are cut off close to the ground at harvest. The
first years crop is small, but is removed to stimulate
growth. Subsequent harvests are made after leaf-fall
at intervals of three to 11 years, depending on variety,
growing conditions and harvest technology available.
Harvesting is highly mechanized and consists of either
cutting and storing whole stems, or chipping the stems
immediately after harvest. The latter approach requires
drying equipment, as a mass of moist chips will rapidly
heat up (as happens in a compost heap). The harvested
wood has a moisture content of around 50%.
Yield
The yield for these trees has to be considered over a
harvest cycle of three to five years for SRC (willow or
poplar) or around seven to 11 years for SRF (poplar grown
as single stems). Worldwide average annual yields of both
willow and poplar are about 7 tonnes/ha, but there is huge
variation between sites. Improved varieties produce higher
yields, with many commercial growers now achieving
1014 tonnes/ha.
Biofuel (liquid) yield is not yet known because
the process is still under research. Thermochemical
Plant types
conversion pathways have been shown to successfully
yield liquid fuels. In terms of thermal energy, willow
has a calorific value of 20GJ/tonne and poplar 19GJ/tonne.
Alternative markets
Herbaceous
C4
Annual
C4
Herbaceous
Propagation method
Photosynthetic pathway
C3
PlantCtypes
4
Seed
C
C3
Woody
Grain or seed
Annual
Stem
cutting
Perennial
Woody
Herbaceous
Annual
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
or root cuttings
cutting
Grain or seed
Perennial
Why
is
it
similar?
Softwood
(e.g.
pine) and
metals and have facilitated the reduction of nutrient run- C 3
C4
hardwood (e.g. eucalyptus) plantations also
off from agricultural landscapes.
comprise
C3 trees that are intensively managed to
C3
C4
Car
D
produce Ewood biomass;
harvest
rotation
Car
WeightlengthsBarrel
Co-products
range
from
five
to
25
years.
Eucalyptus
coppices
Bioethanol Micropropagation
Biodiesel
power Biogas
Seed Heat and Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
From the crop
cuttingand are
or root
cuttings
regrow
vigorously from cut stumps
often
cutting
or root cuttings
Propagation
method
Otherlike poplar and willow.
Currently none but poplars and willows is rich in
managed
dominant
energypine
use trees
Current as
dominant energy
use makes itCurrent
secondary metabolites (e.g. salicin, later developed
What
different?
After harvest,
aspirin, was first identified in willow).
must be reseeded (eucalyptus can also be grown
from seed rather than relying on coppice regrowth);
From conversion to fuel
Car
Weight
Barrel
Seed
Stemrates of Rhizome
Micropropagation
greater
soilEdegradation
D occur in this system
E
D
When burned as fuel for heating or in power stations,
cutting
or root cuttings
relative to coppicing woody crops.
only ash residues remain. If used to make bioethanol,
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
Bioethanol the
Biodiesel Heat
power Biogas
and
Growing
region:
Powe
Current dominant
energy
useWood plantations exist all over
wastes after hydrolysis and fermentation could be burned
the world, with
the
largest
production
currently in
Power
usage
Other
Other
for heat.
the US followed by Brazil, the Russian Federation,
Canada, China and northern European nations.
Invasion risk
E
D produces the largest amount of wood that is
India
intended
exclusively
for fuel.
Some species naturally shed branches, which can then Bioethanol
Car
Weight
Barrel
Biodiesel
Heat
and power Biogas
Car
Weight
Barrel
re-root, and both poplar and willow can be potentially
Power usage
Other
invasive in some environments. This has been historically
observed in Australia and New Zealand, where Salix
fragilis L. and Salix cinerea L. were found to rapidly
colonize along streams. Future improvements in genetic
Car
Weight
Barrel
engineering may increase productivity but also plant
invasiveness.
Power usage
Power usage
Seed
Wood residues
Stem
cutting
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
or root cuttings
cutting
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
Annual
E
Herbaceous
Woody
C3
C4
DPerennial
Grain or seed
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat and power
Biogas Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
Type
of fuel: Solid combustion for heat and
Photosynthetic
pathway
Other
Other biofuel.
electricity, cellulosic
C
Stage
of
adoption:
early
commercial
production.
C3
4
Characteristics
Wood residues take many forms, including logging
waste (tree tops and branches), sawdust and shavings
fromCar
sawmills,
pulping liquor
Weight
Barrel from paper production,
and waste wood from construction and demolition
sites. The material is far from uniform. As well as the
obvious physical difference between, say, sawdust and
waste lumber, tree species differ in their carbon and
lignin contents. Hardwoods tend to have a higher carbon
content than softwoods (55% versus 46% on average).
Car
Weight
Barrel
The moisture
content of woody waste depends on species,
Power usage
time of harvest and source. Poplar and willow can have
moisture contents of more than 50% and primary mill
residues less than 20%.
Accessibility
Logging, wood processing and production industries
provide a ready supply of wood residues. The largest source
of uniform-format material comes from forest product
industry waste. But there is also a large amount of woody
waste (termed brash) that is left on the ground after
forestry operations because it is currently uneconomic
to retrieve; it also supports recycling nutrients in some
places (not all residues should be removed). Collecting
timber waste from demolition and construction sites,
and from urban tree management, would provide another
source of woody residues.
Russia Federation
Canada
US
China
Top producing
countries
Million
Tonnes
US
Canada
Russia Federation
Brazil
China
284
139
136
128
102
Brazil
Alternative markets
Wood residues are used in pulp production, to make
particle board for construction, as well as pellets for fuel.
Key references
Seed
Woody
Annual
Stem
Stem
cutting
cutting
Perennial
Grain or seed
C4
or root cuttings
Current
dominantenergy
energy
use
Current dominant
use
hetic pathway
Plant types
C4
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
cutting
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
DD
Perennial
Woody Grain
or seedHeat and power Biogas Bioethanol
Herbaceous Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat and power Biogas
Type of fuel:
Cellulosic biofuel, solid combustion
Photosynthetic
Otherpathway
Other
Other
for heat
and electricity, biogas production.
on method CStage of adoption: extensive commercial
C4
3
production for other uses, pre-commercial scale
biofuel.C4
Cfor
Car
Weight
Barrel
3
Car
Weight
Barrel
D
Biodiesel Heat and power
Car
Weight
Biogas
Barrel
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Characteristics
cutting Propagation
or root cuttings
method
Accessibility
CropEwastes areDusually cheap and widely available
wherever
is large-scale
commercial
Bioethanol there
Biodiesel
Heat and power
Biogas agriculture.
Car
Weight
Barrel
Global availability mirrors crop production patterns
the
largest source of uniform-format material is rice straw,
Other
followed by wheat straw, maize stover and sugarcane
bagasse. These four feedstocks together have been
estimated to have the potential to annually produce
Car of bioethanol.
Weight
Barrel for the potential
418 billion litres
Estimates
of all crop residues suggest that 1,200 billion litres of
bioethanol could be produced annually.
While sugarcane bagasse is already collected and a
Power usage
readily available by-product of processing, the other
agricultural residues are dispersed across fields and would
Alternative markets
Crop wastes have, for millennia, been used as soil
conditioners, low-grade animal feed and animal bedding.
Left on the soil they are particularly valued to prevent
erosion, improve soil texture and provide some degree of
nutrient recycling (although nitrogen losses can increase
in the short term).
Europe
North
America
Africa
Asia
Top producing
continents
Million
tonnes*
Asia
North America
Europe
South America
Africa
920
220
220
110
38
*dry weight
South
America
Residue/crop ratio
Energy yield
(MJ kg-1 dry mass)
Maize stover
1.0
0.29
98
Barley straw
1.2
0.31
100
Oat straw
1.3
0.26
88
Rice straw
1.4
0.28
94
Wheat straw
1.3
0.29
98
Sorghum straw
1.3
0.27
91
Sugarcane bagasse
0.6
0.28
94
Mean
1.2
0.28
95
Key references
Propagation method
Annual
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Miscellaneous
wastes
cutting
or root cuttings
cutting
or root cuttings
Seed
Woody
Grain or seed
hetic pathway
C4
Bioethanol
on method
Stem
cutting
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
Current
dominant
energyCurrent
use dominant energy use
Current dominant
energy
use
C4
Stem
Perennial
cutting
D E
Biodiesel
Heat and
power Biogas
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Heat and
power Biogas
BarrelCar
Weight
Biogas
Barrel
Rhizome
Micropropagation
or root cuttings
Characteristics
Power usage
Alternative markets
Organic waste is often incinerated to produce heat or
co-generate electricity. Animal manures have long been
used as fertilizer, sometimes after a period of composting.
Animal manures, municipal waste and sewage can all be
digested anaerobically to produce biogas, which has the
added benefit of reducing carbon dioxide and methane
emissions. Some of these waste materials can be processed
into animal feed or biomaterials.
Key references
Yield
Fuel yields depend on source material, with a range of
114 gigajoules per tonne. Municipal organic waste yields
more than animal manure, on average.
Although an estimated 50EJ of energy is expected to be
available from wastes by 2050, estimates of sustainably
available energy from all waste residues, worldwide, range
between 10 and 29EJ/yr.
Woody
Grain or seed
ic pathway
Propagation method
Propagation method
Perennial
Plant types
Annual
C4
C4
Woody
C3
C4
Perennial
Grain or seed
method
Stem
cutting
Herbaceous
Rhizome
Micropropagation C3
or root cuttings
Type of fuel: biodiesel,
C4
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Bioethanol
Heat and power
Biodiesel
BiogasHeat and power
Biogas
ethanol.
Other
Other
Stage of adoption: pre-commercial
scale production.
Propagation method
Plant characteristics
There are somewhere between several hundred thousand
and tens of millions of different algal species, all singlecelled, although some form colonies. Research into biofuels
has focused on the photosynthetic green
Power algae
usage and diatoms,
because the lipids they manufacture can be converted to
biofuels very efficiently.
Where to grow it
Microalgae grow spontaneously wherever there is water and
sunlight. Commercial production (which is currently done
to produce high-value products but not fuels) can therefore
be done almost anywhere that water temperatures can be
maintained between 16C and 27C. Optimum growth
for many species is 2024C. High-volume production
of low-cost biofuels requires access to moderate to high
temperatures, sufficient sunlight and water and, in most
cases, a source of CO2.
Contamination
Algal cultures are easily contaminated, so sterilization and
hygiene techniques are important.
Harvesting
The removal and dewatering of the algae uses a great deal
of energy. During the transesterification route of algae
to biodiesel, the algae are first separated from the water
by centrifuge or filtration and then dried, sometimes
using solar energy. Algal lipids are then removed and
transformed through reaction with an alcohol (such as
ethanol or methanol) into biodiesel and glycerol.
Alternative markets
Pilot plants researching energy feedstock generate income
by selling microalgae for animal feed or as specialist
human nutritional supplements. Algae are also used in
cosmetics and in the treatment of wastewater.
How to grow it
Co-products
Key references
Additional species
Representative list of additional species of plants used (or
with potential) for the production of bioenergy:
Agave (Agave spp.)
Agave is a genus of succulent plants that grows in
semi-arid and arid regions. These plants use the CAM
photosynthetic pathway, fixing carbon during the night
while closing their stomata (essentially pores in the
leaves) to minimize water loss during the day, so have a
much lower water requirement than many other crops.
Yields vary according to species and location, but are
reportedly between 1 and 34 tonnes/ha/yr. An additional
potential advantage of agave is the availability of land
formerly intended for agave fibre production, which is
estimated to have been about 600,000 hectares worldwide.
Agave species occur naturally in the south-western US,
Central America and parts of South America. Varieties are
commercially cultivated in Central and South America
and Africa, and experimentally cultivated in Australia.
Agave thus has the potential to be grown in many
semi-arid regions of the world, specifically on land not
otherwise used for food production.
Bamboo
A family of perennial giant woody grasses of the subfamily
Bambusoideae, these plants are native to equatorial and
tropical regions around the globe. While bamboo is
cultivated for a wide range of purposes, only small
amounts are used for firewood. Annual yields of common
native species range from 1.5 to 14 tonnes/ha. The stems
have been found to have an energy content of ~17GJ/tonne
dry matter and contain around 40% cellulose. Different
species of bamboo mean that the potential crop species can
be grown over a wide geographical area including southern
Russia, Europe, North America and central Asia. Recent
work in India has indicated that clear felling of the crop
may open the potential for mechanization. A major
concern with bamboo, however, is invasiveness and
difficulties of removal once the plantation is no longer
in use.
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.)
A pioneer hardwood species found in North America,
these trees displays rapid juvenile growth. Mature trees
can reach a height of 15 35m and the plant has a high
rate of photosynthesis. In trials, commercial stands have
produced yields of 5 10 tonnes/ha/yr in three- or fouryear-old stands; peak production is seen at seven years. It
burns slowly and has very high energy content, making it
an ideal feedstock. Because of the trees tendency to sprout
from both the stem and roots, it may be suitable for both
SRF and SRC. As a legume, its roots contain nitrogenfixing bacteria, which can help improve soil fertility. A
native of North America, the tree is also successfully
grown in other areas including Europe; however, it has the
potential to become invasive outside its native range.
Corn
Soybean
Switchgrass
Miscanthus
Type of crop
Perennial
C4
Leaf/stem
Sugar
Annual
C4
Grain
Starch
Annual
C3
Oil seed
Perennial
C4
Leaf/stem
Cellulose
Perennial
C4
Stem
Cellulose
Fuel type
(commercial and
pre-commercial)
Bioethanol,
biopower,
lignocellulosic
ethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Biopower,
lignocellulosic
ethanol
Biopower,
lignocellulosic ethanol
Latitude
37N31S
54N34S
52N39S
55N17N
56N37N [2]
Suitable soils
Wide range,
requires draining
on heavy clay
Once established,
tolerant of most
soils
Dislikes heavy
clay; best on waterretentive soils; also
good on sand
Water
requirement [1]
(mm)
High
1,5002,500
Moderate
670800
Moderate
600
Moderate
520750
Low-moderate
450 minimum but
will use more when
available
Temp.
(none grows well
above 45C)
Mean temperature
at least 18C
Optimum
2430C
1040C
Germinates above
810C, optimum
2530C
Fertilizer
requirement
(kg/ha/yr)
N: 45300
P: 1550
K: as required
N: 145200
P: 26110
K: 25130
N: 070
P: 32155
K: 30320
N: 50168
P: 035
K: 045
N: 092
P: 013
K: 0202
Insect control
Range of pesticides
Range of
pesticides
Global average
yield
(tonnes/ha/y)
71 wet
5.2 dry
2.9 (seed)
0.44 (oil)
14 dry
18 (Europe) [6]
38 (North America)
dry
Area currently
in cultivation
(million ha)
24
160
99
Unknown
Unknown
Energy equivalent
of current
biomass
(EJ)
3.3
7.5
1.6
Unknown
Unknown
Top three
producing
countries
(or continents)
Brazil
India
China
US
China
Brazil
US
Brazil
Argentina
Unknown
Unknown
Oil palm
Poplar/willow
Wood residue
Crop residue
Misc. waste
Algae
Perennial
C3
Oil seed
Perennial
C3
Woody
Cellulose/lignin
Wastes from
timber harvest and
processing etc.
Animal, municipal
wastes etc.
Micro-crop
Algal lipids
Biodiesel
Biopower,
lignocellulosic
ethanol
Biopower,
lignocellulosic
ethanol
Biopower,
lignocellulosic
ethanol
Biopower, biogas
Biodiesel
15N12S
Poplar: 66N30N
Willow: 75N34S
[3]
Tolerates wide
range of pH; best
in sandy soils with
good drainage
High
2,0002,500
Low-moderate
320450 plus
groundwater
Optimum
2428C [4]
2030C
N: 114
P: 14
K: 149
N: 20210
P: 1393
K: 25174
Estimated from
molecular formula of
microalgal biomass:
needs only N and P
in ratio 445N:1P
[5]
14 (fruit)
2.9 (oil)
Poplar: 7.1
Willow: 7.3
270 million
tonnes/y
Unknown
15
Poplar: 5.3
Willow: 0.09
1.6
Poplar: 0.69
Willow: 0.013
(biopower)
4.1EJ/y
(biopower)
150EJ/y [7]
(biopower)
11EJ/y (bioethanol)
1029EJ/y [8]
Indonesia
Malaysia
Nigeria
China
India
France
US
Canada
Russia
Asia
North America
Europe
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Notes
[1] Most water requirements are met by precipitation.
[2] This range in successful trials; may well be wider.
[3] The extreme southerly part of range being along water
courses in Argentina.
[4] Commercial production limited to areas with only
a 6C seasonal mean temperature variation.
The ineffectiveness of insecticide seed coatings and plantingtime soil insecticides as Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte
population suppressors, Journal of Applied Entomology,
vol. 130, pp. 485490.
Gentry, L. E., Below, F. E., David, M. B. & Bergerou, J. A. (2001),
land use and greenhouse gas emissions: estimating marketmediated responses, BioScience, vol. 60, pp. 223231.
maize and soybean on an eroded Illinois silt loam soil, Soil and
Tillage Research, vol. 52, pp. 3749.
Kanampiu, F. K. et al. (2003), Multi-site, multi-season field tests
Sugarcane
Agnihotri, S. & Dutt, D. (2010), Complete characterization of
London.
Bell, M. J. & Garside, A. L. (2005), Shoot and stalk dynamics
and control measures for soil pest of sugar cane in South East
Asia, in Conlong, A. J. M. & Carnegie, D. E. (eds) Proceedings of
the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists Second
Entomology Workshop. SASA Experiment Station, Durban.
Taxonomy database.
Oliveira, J. et al. (2001), Soil temperature in a sugar-cane crop as
Switchgrass
Anderson, G. Q. A. & Fergusson, M. J. (2006), Energy from
of switchgrass and sainfoin intercropping under 2:1 rowreplacement in semiarid region, northwest China, African
Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 7, pp. 40564067.
Zan, C. S., Fyles, J. W., Girouard, P. & Samson, R. A. (2001),
Miscanthus
Ahonsi, M. O. et al. (2010), First report of Pithomyces chartarum
http://optimisc.anna-consult.de/index.php?option=com_
content&view=article&id=252:uses-of-miscanthus&catid=62&Itemid=286 [accessed June 2014].
Greef, J. M. & Deuter, M. (1993), Syntaxonomy of Miscanthus x
Washington DC.
Prasifka, J. R., Bradshaw, J. D. & Gray, M. E. (2012), Potential
Oil palm
Basiron, Y. & Salmiah, A. (1994), Potential new value-added
products from palm oil and palm kernel oil, in Chee, K. H. (ed.)
Management for enhanced profitability in plantations.
Incorporated Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.
Clay, J. (2004), World agriculture and the environment: a
oil palms, in The oil palm. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK.
Corley, R. H. V. & Tinker, P. B. (2003b), Diseases and pests of oil
London.
Hassan O. A., Ishida M., Shukri I. M. & Tajuddin Z. A. (1994),
market: is palm oil being left behind? Oilseeds, oils and meals.
LMC International, Oxford, UK.
Syed, R. A. & Shah, S. (1977), Some important aspects of insect
Soybean
Adler, P. R., Grosso, S. J. D. & Parton, W. J. (2007), Life-cycle
amino acids for the chick, The Journal of Nutrition, vol. 24,
pp. 385392.
maize and soybean on an eroded Illinois silt loam soil, Soil and
Tillage Research, vol. 52, pp. 3749.
gas emissions of biobased products in the United States cornbased ethanol and soybean oil, The International Journal of Life
Cycle Assessment, vol. 14, pp. 540546.
Kogan, M. & Turnipseed, S. (1987), Ecology and management of
CABI, UK.
Singh, S. & Emden, H. (1979), Insect pests of grain legumes,
production statistics.
Weber, C. R. (1966), Nodulating and nonnodulating soybean
Going, M. (1903), With the trees. Baker & Taylor, New York.
pp. 8993.
Heller, M. (2003), Life cycle assessment of a willow bioenergy
biomass production of 12 willow and poplar clones in shortrotation coppice in southern Quebec (Canada), Biomass and
Bioenergy, vol. 29, pp. 19.
Lantmannen Agroenergi, Manual for SRC willow growers. York,
US Forestry Service.
Phillips, D. H. & Burdekin, D. A. (1992), Diseases of forest and
US Forestry Service.
Ranney, J. W., Wright, L. L. & Layton, P. A. (1987), Hardwood
Populus trichocarpa x Populus deltoides hybrids for shortrotation culture: variation patterns and 4-year field performance,
Canadian Journal of Forestry, vol. 18, pp. 745753.
Stott, K. G. (2001), Cultivation and use of basket willow.
Wood residues
Adler, P. R., Grosso, S. J. D. & Parton, W. J. (2007), Life-cycle
and bioproducts industry: the technical feasibility of a billionton annual supply. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
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Perlin, J. (1997), Forest journey: the role of wood in the
Miscellaneous wastes
Anderson, G. Q. A. & Fergusson, M. J. (2006), Energy from
Algae
Amos, R. (ed.) (2004), Handbook of microalgal culture:
Glossary
Agroecosystem The organisms (crops, livestock, microflora and -fauna etc.) and environment (soils, water,
climate etc.) of an agricultural area considered as an
ecosystem.
Agroforestry A multi-use form of land management
where trees are grown in association with arable crops
or pasture.
Alcohols A class of organic compounds closely related
to hydrocarbons. They are used in medicine, and in
industry as fuels and solvents. Examples include
methanol and ethanol, the substance that makes beer,
wine and spirits.
Anaerobic fermentation A biological process taking place
in the absence of oxygen, in which sugars are broken
down into alcohols and carbon dioxide.
Annual crops Crops whose life cycle, from seed to
harvest, is complete in less than 12 months.
Bagasse A term often used in relation to sugarcane
production: bagasse is the fibrous residue left after the
sugary juice has been extracted from the crushed cane.
Bioenergy Energy from any renewable biological material
derived from plants or animals.
Biennial plants Plants that produce only vegetative
growth (roots, shoots and leaves) during the first year;
flowering and fruiting (followed by death) occur in the
second year.
Biofuel Liquid fuels derived from biomass, used primarily
for transport, including ethanol, biodiesel and other
liquids.
Biogas A mixture of methane and CO2 produced by
the bacterial decomposition (fermentation) of organic
wastes and used as a fuel.
Biomass The solid matter in living or recently living
organisms.
Biome A major ecological community (ecosystem) type
(such as tropical rain forest, grassland or desert).
Bioplastic Plastics that are derived from biomass
including oils, fats and starches.
C3, C4 and CAM photosynthetic pathways
Green plants use energy from the sun to create
sugars from CO2 and water. This process is called
photosynthesis and has three variants:
C3 The most common photosynthetic pathway, found
particularly in temperate crops including rice and
wheat. Such plants tend to have a lower water-use
efficiency (WUE, see below) than plants with C4 and
CAM metabolism, because the process of CO2 diffusion
into leaf tissues through leaf pores also allows water to
be lost through transpiration.
C4 The C4 pathway may have evolved as a mechanism
to help plants survive drought or high temperatures,
because C4 plants (including maize and sugarcane) are
more common in tropical climates. They tend to have
higher rates of photosynthesis and WUE than C3 plants,
and the group includes some of the most productive
tropical crops.
116 | Glossary
Glossary | 117
Plant
Planttypes
types
BP Biomass Handbook
Table 3.1 (20 December 2013)
Draft produced by ON Communication
Perennial
Plant characteristics icons in chapter 6Perennial
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Feedstock
Conversion
Lignocellulosic biomass
Herbaceous
Chemical process
Pre-process
Oil crops
Anaerobic digestion
(Wood, straw,
energy crop, etc.)
Liquid fuels,
transport fuels
Biodiesel
Hydrogenation
Bioethanol
Transesterification
Other catalysis
Thermochemical process
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Other liquids
Woody
C 4C 4
Annual
Perennial
C3C3
C C4
Grain
or seed 4Herbaceous
Woody
Annua
Perenn
Grain or seed
Photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic pathway
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
Propagation
method
C3
C4
C3
C4
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
types
types
types
types
Plant
Plant
types
types
C3
C4
C3
C4
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Seed
Stem
Rhizome
Seed
Stem
Rhizome Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
cutting
or
cuttings
cutting
orroot
root
cuttings
Woody
Woody
Woody
Woody
Grain
Grain
Grain
orGrain
seed
oror
seed
seed
or seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Propagation method
Propagation method
Perennial
Perennial
Woody
Woody
Grain
Grain
or or
seed
seed
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Current
dominant
energy
use
Current
dominant
energy
use
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
pathway
pathway
Photosynthetic pathway
Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic
pathway
pathway
Gaseous fuel
Syngas
C 3 CC33 C 3
C 4 CC44 C 4
DDC 4C 4Micropropagation
Seed
Stem EE C 3C 3 Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagat
CAM Stem
C3orCC3root
C4 CC4 4 C4
3 C3cuttings
cutting
cutting
or root cuttings
Bioethanol
Bioethanol Biodiesel
Biodiesel Heat
Heatand
andpower
power Biogas
Biogas
C3 C3
C4 C 4
Seed
Biogas
Combustion
Table 3.1
Bioenergy production routes
C 3C 3
Energy
Biochemical process
Woody
Woody Grain
Grainororseed
seed
Plant types
Annual
Annual
Propagation
Propagation
method
method
E
D
Car
Weight
Barrel
Car
Weight
Barrel
Biodiesel HeatAnnual
and power Perennial
Bioethanol
Biogas
Biodiesel Heat and power Biogas
D
Other
Car
Seed
Seed
Seed
Seed
Stem
Stem
Stem
Stem
Rhizome
Rhizome
Rhizome
Rhizome
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Micropropagation
Seed
Seed
Stem
Stem
Rhizome
Rhizome Micropropagation
Micropropagation
cutting
cutting
cutting
cutting
or root
ororroot
root
or
cuttings
root
cuttings
cuttings
cuttings
Other
cutting
cutting
oruse
or
root
root
cuttings
cuttings
Current
Current
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
dominant
dominant
energy
energy
energy
energy
use
use
use
Primary energy use
Current
Current
dominant
dominant
energy
energy
use
use
Weight
E EE E
Barrel
Car
Weight
D DD D
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Heat
Heat
Heat
and
Heat
and
and
power
and
power
power
power
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biogas
E EBioethanol
DBiodiesel
DBiodiesel
Power
Powerusage
usage
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Biodiesel Heat
Heat
and
and
power
power Biogas
Biogas
Other
Other
Other
OtherBiodiesel
Other
Other
CarCar
CarCar Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
Barrel
Power usage
CarCar
usage
Weight
Weight PowerBarrel
Barrel
Power
Power
Power
Power
usage
usage
usage
usage
Power
Power
usage
usage
Barrel
Biomass in the
energy industry
An introduction
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