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Types of articulations
o Single and double articulations
o Primary and secondary articulations
Types of consonants
o Obstruents vs. sonorants
o Fortis vs. lenis
If the vocal folds are nearly together, the air that comes from the lungs has to go
through them causing vibration. This position is used to produce voiced sounds (that is,
sounds with vocal fold vibration). This is illustrated in Figure 1 below.
open vocal folds
nearly together
vocal folds
Examples of voiceless sounds in English are [s], [t] or []. See the list of voiceless
sounds at the beginning of the book.
Examples of voiced sounds in English are [m], [n] or [d]. Remember that vowels are
also voiced. See the list of voiced sounds at the beginning of the book.
In order to feel the vibratory movement of voiced sounds, try to produce a long [m] and
put your hand on your throat. You will notice the vibration of the vocal folds. You can
then compare it with the production of a voiceless sound, such as a long [s], where no
vibration is felt.
2.2. Place of articulation
The second parameter to describe consonants is its place of articulation. The place of
articulation of a sound describes where this sound is produced and which articulators
are used. For example, a bilabial consonant is produced with an obstruction of the air in
the lips. A labiodental consonant, on the other hand, is articulated with the lower lip
against the upper teeth. Here is a list of all the possible places of articulation found in
the languages of the world and the articulators involved in their production.
Place of
articulation
Bilabial
First
articulator
Upper lip
Second
articulator
Lower lip
p, b, m
Labiodental
Upper teeth
Lower lip
f, v
Dental
Upper teeth
Tongue tip
Alveolar
Alveolar ridge
Tongue tip
s, z, l
Post-alveolar
Retroflex
Palatal
Hard palate
Tongue front
j,
Velar
Velum
Tongue back
k, ,
Uvular
Uvula
Tongue back
(French r)
Pharyngeal
Rear wall of
pharynx
Right vocal fold
Glottal
Examples
(American r)
h,
Note that articulators can be of two kinds: active and passive. Active articulators are
those that move, such as the lips or the tongue. Passive articulators, on the other hand,
are fixed, such as the palate. Consonants tend to be produced with an active articulator
approaching a passive articulator. For example, in alveolar sounds, the tip of the tongue
(active articulator) raises against the alveolar ridge (passive articulator). In some cases,
two active articulators are involved in the production of a given consonant. For
example, in bilabial sounds the two lips approximate and in glottal sounds the two vocal
folds come together.
Sounds produced with the same place of articulation are called homorganic. For
example, [b] and [m] are homorganic because both of them are produced in the same
place (bilabial).
passive articulator
active
articulator
closing
phase
holding
phase
opening
phase
Nasals (such as [m], [n], []) are also produced with a complete closure of the
articulators in the oral cavity, similar to that of plosives. However, in nasals the air
coming from the lungs is not released through the mouth but through the nose (see
Figure 8 in this section for more details). Plosives and nasals are sometimes known as
stops indicating that both types of sounds are produced with a total blockage of the air
in the oral cavity, even though the way this air is released is different (orally in plosives
and nasally in nasals).
2. A close narrowing of the articulators (as in fricatives [s], [f], []). In this case, the
articulators show a narrow approximation (without closure) which causes friction of the
outgoing airstream. The schematic representation of a fricative is provided in the
following figure.
narrow
approximation
3. A partial closure (as in laterals [l]). This involves a closure of the tip of the tongue
against the alveolar ridge but with the sides of the tongue lowered. That is, the sides of
the tongue do not touch the upper teeth and therefore the air escapes through the lateral
passages. In order to understand the production of a lateral, you can produce an [l] and
then breath in. You will feel that the sides of the mouth get cold since they are not in
contact with the upper teeth.
4. An intermittent closure (as in trills [r] or taps []). A tap is produced with a quick
closure of the articulators and a trill involves a series of quick closures. This is
schematized in Figure 4 for both types of sounds. A clear example of the distinction
between taps and trills can be found in the Spanish minimal pair pero (produced with a
tap [peo]) and perro (produced with a trill [pero]). No taps or trills are found in RP
English. In American English taps are used as realizations of /t/ or /d/, as in butter
[br].
tap
trill
5. An open approximation of the articulators (as in approximants [j], [w]). For the
production of approximants, the approximation between the two articulators is so wide
that the air coming from the lungs escapes freely without causing friction. The
articulatory characteristics of approximants are very similar to those of vowels where
the tongue approximates towards some part of the palate but no friction is caused. The
schematic representation of an approximant is provided in Figure 5.
open
approximation
One question that may arise from the description of approximants (such as English [j]
and [w]) is that if they are produced as vowels, why are they not classified as vowels?
The answer to that question is that even though phonetically [j] and [w] behave as
vowels, they actually function as consonants. Thus, for example, they cannot occur in
the same positions as vowels occur. As we will see in more detail in unit 3, vowels
occupy the nuclear position of a syllable and they can constitute a syllable on their own
(for example, or []). [j] and [w] cannot occur in the nuclear position of a syllable
(they must always be followed by a vowel, as in you [ju] or we [wi]) and they cannot
constitute a syllable on their own. Thus, they are classified as consonants.
6. Finally, it is possible to combine two types of constriction in the production of one
sound, as in the case of affricates ([t] and [d]), which are produced with a complete
closure (as in plosives) followed by a fricative release. The schematic representation of
an affricate is provided in Figure 6.
complete
closure
fricative
release
Labiodental
Dental
b
f
Fricative
Alveolar
t
Affricate
Nasal
Postalveolar
Palatal
Glottal
Labiovelar
Approximant
Velar
Lateral
Sometimes consonants are represented in graphs that outline the articulatory movements
used to produce them. In these cases, the graphs have to show the three parameters that
we have been studying so far: 1) position of the vocal folds, 2) place of articulation and
3) degree of the constriction (manner of articulation). An example is provided in Figure
7 for the voiceless, alveolar, plosive [t] and the voiced, alveolar, plosive [d]. Note that
both representations are exactly the same, expect for the position of the vocal folds.
t
alveolar
place of
articulation
d
velic
closure
complete
closure
no vocal
fold
vibration
vocal fold
vibration
Figure 7. Schematic representation of the articulatory positions for the production of [t] and [d].
The following graphs show the articulatory movements for the production of a voiced,
alveolar, plosive [d] and a voiced, alveolar, nasal [n]. Note that in this case the two
sounds are differentiated by means of the position of the velum, which is raised for the
plosive (showing a velic closure) and lowered for the nasal. Thus, whereas for [d] the
air coming from the lungs escapes trough the oral cavity, for [n] it is released through
the nasal cavity.
d
nasal
release
velic
closure
velic
opening
oral
release
Figure 8. Schematic representation of the articulatory positions for the production of [d] and [n].
complete
closure
narrow
approximation
Figure 9. Schematic representation of the articulatory positions for the production of [t] and [s].
3. Types of articulations
3.1. Single and double articulations
As we have seen in the previous section, consonants are usually produced with a single
place of articulation, that is, with some kind of constriction in a particular location of
the oral cavity (for example, alveolar, bilabial, velar, palatal, etc.). Sometimes, though,
it is possible to produce sounds with a double articulation, which involves two
simultaneous constrictions at two different places of the oral cavity. The most important
characteristic of double articulations is that the two constrictions have to be of equal
rank, that is, they have to have the same degree of approximation or manner of
articulation. An example of a double articulation in English is the sound [w]. This
consonant is produced with two simultaneous constrictions, one at the lips (bilabial) and
the other one at the velum (velar). For both places of articulation, the degree of
constriction is that of an open approximation. Thus, this sound it described as a labiovelar, approximant. A schematized representation is illustrated in Figure 10.
w
open approximation
at the lips
open approximation
at the velum
Figure 10. Schematic representation of the articulatory positions for the production of [w].
t
complete closure
at the alveolar ridge
open approximation
at the lips
Figure 11. Schematic representation of the articulatory positions for the production of [t].
Self-evaluation activities
Exercise 1
Identify the consonants represented in the following figures and give a three-term
description of them (voice, place and manner of articulation).
Consonant 1
Consonant 2
Consonant 3
Exercise 2
Draw the figures that would represent the following sounds. You can first give a threeterm description of them to help you indentify the parameters you have to depict.
[p]
[]
[z]
Exercise 3
Give a three-term description, both for consonants and vowels, of the sounds that make
up the following words. First, provide a phonetic transcription of the word.
Example: red [red]
1. bang
2. good
3. Jill
4. hurt
5. shoes
[r]
[e]
[d]
6. vision
7. choice
8. father
9. yolk
10. wire
4. Types of consonants
4.1. Obstruents vs. sonorants
Sometimes consonants can be classified into further groups according to shared
articulatory characteristics. For example, obstruents are sounds produced with a
blockage of the airflow in the oral cavity that causes noise. Obstruents include plosives,
fricatives and affricaetes. Sonorants, on the other hand, are sounds produced with a free
escaping of the airflow that casues no noise. Sonorant sounds are approximants, laterals,
nasals and vowels. Note that nasals are produced with a complete closure in the oral
cavity (as for plosives) but the air escapes freely through the nose and therefore there is
no actual obstruction of the outgoing airflow.
10
no aspiration
Figure 12. Schematic representation of the activity of the vocal folds for the word paper.
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Aspiration is also blocked (does not take place) when [p], [t] and [k] are preceded by
[s]. Thus, the [p] in pie is aspirated [pa] but that of spy [spa] is not, even though the
syllable is stressed. A schematized representation of the activity of the vocal folds in
these two words is represented in Figure 13.
aspiration
no aspiration
Figure 13. Schematic representation of the activity of the vocal folds for the words pie and spy.
5.2. Devoicing
Devoicing is a phenomenon which involves the partial or total loss of voicing of
originally voiced sounds in certain contexts. There are several cases of devoicing in
English. In this course we will examine two devoicing processes: 1) the devoicing of
voiced obstruents and 2) the devoicing of voiced approximants and laterals.
English voiced obstruents (plosives, fricatives and affricates) are devoiced when the
originally voiced sound is located before or after a pause or is in contact with a
voiceless sound. When the voiced obstruent is next to a voiced sound (including
vowels) devoicing does not apply and the obstruent is fully voiced. The following
examples show the contexts in which the voiced, alveolar, plosive ([d]) is devoiced and
the contexts in which it is fully voiced. The symbol # indicates the presence of pause.
Devoiced [d]
# day
[de]
(after a pause)
red #
[red]
(before a pause)
hot day
[ht de]
red car
[red k]
[ de]
red light
[red lat]
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Since devoicing involves the total or partial loss of the voiced condition of sounds,
devoiced consonants are produced in a similar way to voiceless consonants, that is, with
no vocal fold vibration. When devoicing takes places, minimal pairs such as goat and
coat are no longer distinguished by means of the voiced/voiceless condition of [] and
[k] since in this position both sounds show no vocal fold vibration ([] and [k]). As
indicated in section 5.1 and in tip 14 in the book, the cue used to distinguish between
[] and [k] in the goat and coat minimal pair is aspiration. Thus, coat will be produced
with a voiceless, aspirated [k]. If foreign students of English fail to produce aspiration
in coat, English native speakers will understand goat. A schematized representation of
the activity of the vocal folds in the goat and coat pair is shown in Figure 14.
devoiced
aspiration
voiceless k
Figure 14. Schematic representation of the activity of the vocal folds for the words goat and coat.
Finally, when devoicing takes place at the end of a word, the cue that distinguishes a
word ending with a devoiced sound, such as sag [s], from a word ending with an
originally voiceless sound, such as sack [sk], is the duration of the preceding vowel,
which is shorter in sack than in sag. As presented in the previous unit (Vowels), the
shortening of a vowel before a voiceless sound is known as pre-fortis clipping. Vowels
before a fortis (voiceless) sound are shorter than vowels before a lenis
(voiced/devoiced) sound. Thus, when the voicing contrast is lost word-finally, as in the
sag/sack minimal pair, the only way to distinguish between these words is through
vowel length differences. A schematic representation of pre-fortis clipping for the
sag/sack minimal pair is provided in Figure 15.
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pre-fortis clipping
(shorter vowel)
Figure 15. Schematic representation of pre-fortis clipping for the words sag and sack.
Apart from voiced obstruents, the other group of sounds that also undergoes a devoicing
process in English is that of approximants and laterals. English approximants [j], [w]
and [r] and lateral [l] are devoiced when they are preceded by [p], [t] or [k] at the
beginning of a stressed syllable. The phonetic characteristics of the devoicing of [j],
[w], [r] and [l] after [p], [t] or [k] in stressed syllables in English are the same as those
of aspiration. That is, the onset of vocal fold vibration for [j], [w], [r] and [l] after the
release of voiceless plosives is delayed. As in the case of aspiration, when [p], [t] and
[k] are preceded by [s] there is no devoicing of [j], [w], [r] and [l]. Thus, for example,
the [r] in pray is devoiced ([pre]) and the [r] in spray is not ([spre]). See tip 28 in the
book for more examples of this phenomenon. Finally, Figure 16 shows a schematic
representation of vocal fold vibration in the words pay, pray and spray. Note that
phonetically the aspiration in pay and the devoicing in pray involve the same delay in
the onset of vocal fold vibration.
aspiration
devoicing
no devoicing
Figure 16. Schematic representation of the activity of the vocal folds for the words pay, pray and spray.
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Self-evaluation activity
Exercise 4
Look at the following words or sequences of words and decide whether the underlined
sounds should be devoiced or not. Give reasons for your decision.
Examples:
breathe
[bri]
Both [b] and [] should be devoiced because they are voiced obstruents ([b] is a plosive and [] a
fricative) and they occur next to a pause ([bri]).
1. run
[rn]
4. the girls
[ lz]
2. frame
[frem]
5. twist
[twst]
3. track
[trk]
6. George
[dd]
5.3. Velarization
As presented in section 3.2, in British English the voiced, alveolar, lateral [l] is
sometimes velarized ([l]), that is, it is produced with an open approximation of the back
of the tongue towards the velum. Velarization is a secondary articulation which takes
places simultaneously to the primary (alveolar) one. The following graph shows the two
types of articulatory trajectories.
l
partial closure
for the lateral
open approximation
at the velum
Figure 11. Schematic representation of the articulatory positions for the production of [l].
15
The realization of British English [l] as alveolar (clear [l]) or as a velarized alveolar
(dark [l]) depends on the phonetic context in which this sound occurs. Clear [l] only
appears before vowels and [j] and dark [l] only before consonants (except for [j]) or
before a pause. This is illustrated below.
clear [l]
dark [l]
[mlk] (before a consonant)
light
milk
lure
Exercise 3
1. bang [b] [b] voiced, bilabial, plosive, [] front, between half-open and open, unrounded, []
voiced, velar, nasal
2. good [d] [] voiced, velar, plosive, [] back, between close and half-close, rounded, [d] voiced,
alveolar, plosive
3. Jill [dl]
[d] voiced, post-alveolar, affricate, [] front, between close and half-close, unrounded,
[l] voiced, alveolar, lateral
4. hurt [ht]
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9. yolk [jk]
[j] voiced, palatal, approximant, [] closing diphthong (from central, between half-
close and half-open, unrounded to back, between close and half-close, rounded, [k] voiceless, velar,
plosive
10. wire [wa] [w] voiced, labio-velar, approximant, [a] triphthong made up of a closing diphthong
(from central, open, unrounded to front, between close and half-close, unrounded) followed by []
(central, between half-close and half-open, unrounded)
Exercise 4
1. run
[rn]
Neither [r] nor [n] should not be devoiced because they are not obstruents. [r] nor [n] are sonorants. [rn]
2. frame
[frem]
The [r] should not be devoiced because it is not preceded by a voiceless, plosive. [frem]
3. track
[trk]
The [r] should be devoiced because it is an approximant preceded by a voiceless, plosive in a stressed
syllable. The [k] cannot be devoiced because it is already voiceless. [trk]
4. the girls
[ lz]
[] and [z] should be devoiced because they are voiced obstruents (fricatives) and they occur next to a
pause. [] is also a voiced obstruent (plosive) but in this context is not devoiced because it is preceded by
a voiced sound ([]). Thus, [] remains fully voiced. [ lz]
5. twist
[twst]
[dd]
Both [d] sounds should be devoiced because they are voiced obstruents (affricates) and they occur next
to a pause. [dd]
17