Professional Documents
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Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci
University of Wisconsin, Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science & Muscle Biology Laboratory, 1805 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
Kikkoman USA R&D Laboratory, Inc., 505 South Rosa Road, Suite 107, Madison, WI 53719, USA
University of Wisconsin, Department of Food Science, Babcock Hall, 1605 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 November 2011
Received in revised form 3 January 2012
Accepted 23 January 2012
Keywords:
Frankfurters
Natural avor enhancer
Potassium chloride
Sodium reduction
Umami
a b s t r a c t
Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) contributes to important quality and food safety properties of processed meats.
However, renewed interest exists in reducing sodium in the human diet. This study investigated quality and
sensory impacts associated with partial replacement and/or reduction of normally added NaCl using a natural
avor enhancer (NFE) in frankfurters. Varying levels of NFE were used with NaCl and/or potassium chloride
(KCl) to comprise treatments (TRT) which investigated ake salt replacement (Phase I) and sodium reduction (Phases II and III). Phase I sensory and quality results identied a 50% replacement of NaCl with NFE
as the baseline for subsequent phases. Phase II indicated that the inclusion of NFE could allow for a 20%
NaCl reduction without adverse effects on quality or sensory attributes. Phase III results demonstrated that
it was feasible to reduce NaCl by 35% via the inclusion of KCl in NFE containing frankfurters without major
quality or sensory changes.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction
Although sodium is a critical component of the human diet and is
necessary to regulate many of the body's physiological functions,
there is increased interest in decreasing the amount of sodium consumed daily by Americans (Doyle & Glass, 2010). Several sodium reduction efforts have developed from reports that over-consumption
of sodium has the propensity to lead to hypertension and cardiovascular disease, among other ailments. The current recommendation
for human sodium intake from the World Health Organization
(WHO) is 2000 milligrams (mg) per day (WHO, 2007). Salt reduction
initiatives, such as the National Salt Reduction Initiative (NSRI), aim
to reduce salt in the American diet by 20% over a ve year period,
starting in 2010 (Wenther, 2010). Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) is
the major dietary source of sodium and is one of the oldest and
most familiar food ingredients known to man. Salt is especially important in processed meats, contributing to desirable food quality
and food safety characteristics. The role salt has in processed meat
products can be placed in three broad categories: processing characteristics, preservation, and sensory attributes (Hutton, 2002; Man,
2007; Rust, 1987).
Although sodium reduction and replacement in processed meats
have been heavily studied (Barbut, 1988; Hand, Hollingsworth,
Calkins, & Mandigo, 1987; Sofos, 1983a,b; Whiting, 1984), there is
still a need to develop novel approaches to reduce sodium without
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 608 262 0555; fax: + 1 608 265 3110.
E-mail address: jsindelar@wisc.edu (J.J. Sindelar).
0309-1740/$ see front matter. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.01.018
sacricing product quality and safety (Doyle & Glass, 2010; Hazen,
2010). It is especially important to identify approaches to maintain
the salty taste that is traditionally associated with processed meats
while also avoiding the introduction of non-traditional avors that
are often related to a decline in consumer acceptance (Sofos,
1983a). Umami-containing substances are ingredients that often provide avor enhancing effects and may offer a unique approach to replace and reduce the sodium content in food products. One such
umami-possessing substance of interest is natural avor enhancer
(NFE).
NFE is a form of modied soy sauce, having a relatively high NaCl
content, which possesses less soy sauce-type avor and a lighter color
than typical naturally brewed soy sauce (T. Sato, personal communication, November 1, 2010). These attributes may allow for a broad application as a result of minimal avor or aroma contributions to
products in which it is added. NFE is produced in a manner similar
to soy sauce; however, a higher percentage of wheat, the addition of
10 fold more yeast, different temperatures during processing, a
shorter fermentation, and lower nished salt content compared to
traditional soy sauce are several distinct differences (T. Sato, personal
communication, November 1, 2010). To date, no research has been
conducted investigating the efcacy of umami-containing NFE as a
functional ingredient in processed meats. However, other umamicontaining substances, such as soy sauce, have been previously examined, but generally in non-meat foods. One such example was research conducted by Kremer, Mojet, and Shimojo (2009) who
explored the use of naturally brewed soy sauce in salad dressings, tomato soup, and uncured stir-fried pork concluding it was feasible to
reduce the salt content in the products up to 50%, 17%, and 29%,
186
Table 1
NaCl, natural avor enhancer (NFE), and KCl treatment combinations for frankfurter
treatments (TRT) and control (C) used in research Phases I, II, and III.
Phase I NaCl replacement using NFE
obtained from a local supplier. Raw materials were ordered separately for each research phase. The pork trimmings were coarse ground
(Hobart Model 4732, Hobart Corporation, Troy, OH) using a
19.05 mm plate and the beef trimmings were coarse ground using a
9.53 mm plate. Coarse ground beef and pork were briey mixed individually for uniformity and randomly separated into 15 batches of
4.54 kg each, and vacuum-packaged (Ultravac 2100-C, Ultravac Solutions LLC, Kansas City, MO; Flavorseal Vacuum Pouch, 3 mil, Carroll
Manufacturing & Sales, Avon, OH). Packages were randomly assigned
to treatments (TRTs 14) and control (C). Vacuum-packaged raw materials were stored under refrigeration for 1 to 3 days. All formulations for each phase contained 4.54 kg of both pork trimmings and
beef trimmings. Treatment combinations are listed in Table 1 and formulations are listed in Table 2. Sodium phosphates were not included
in the formulation to better understand the functional limitations of
NFE and the TRT combinations.
Emulsions were produced using techniques described by Rust
(1987). Frankfurters were manufactured using a bowl chopper
(Krmer & Grebe 67225, Krmer & Grebe GmbH & Co. KG.,
BiedenkopfWallau, Germany). The coarse ground beef (4.54 kg)
was chopped with sodium nitrite, ake salt (Phase I) (Alberger,
Fine Flake Improved Salt, Cargill Inc., Minneapolis, MN), ake salt
and/or NFE (Phase II), ake salt and/or NFE and/or KCl (Phase III)
(Premier, Potassium Chloride, Cargill Inc., Minneapolis, MN), and
half of the ice until a temperature of 2.2 C was achieved. Coarse
ground pork (4.54 kg), sugar, spices, sodium erythorbate, and the
remainder of the ice were then added to the bowl chopper, and the
mixture was chopped until a temperature of 14.4 C was achieved.
The emulsion was then transferred to a rotary-vane vacuum ller
with a linking attachment (Handtmann VF 608 Plus vacuum ller,
Handtmann CNC Technologies Inc., Buffalo Grove, IL) and stuffed
into 27 mm cellulose casings (Viscofan USA Inc., Montgomery, AL)
with 80 g per link.
Links from each treatment were hung on smokehouse sticks,
placed on a smokehouse truck, and showered with cold water prior
to the onset of cooking to attain uniform smoke absorption and minimize nished product external color differences. Thermal processing
was accomplished using a single truck thermal processing oven
(Alkar Model 450 MiniSmoker, Alkar Engineering Corp., Lodi, WI)
and a common frankfurter smokehouse schedule reaching an internal
Table 2
Frankfurter formulationsa used for frankfurter treatments (TRT) and control (C) in research Phases I, II, and III.
Control formulation for Phases I, II, and III
TRT
Water
NFE
Flake salt
KCl
TRT
NaCl from
ake salt
NaCl
from NFE
KCl
NaCl
reduction
Formulated
NaCla
20.00%
2.50%
0%
C
1
2
3
4
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
2.50%
2.50%
2.50%
2.50%
2.50%
5.11%
10.22%
15.33%
20.44%
1.86%
1.25%
0.62%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
2.50%
2.50%
2.25%
2.00%
1.75%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
1.25%
1.00%
0.75%
0.50%
0%
0%
0%
0%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
10.22%
1.25%
0.75%
0.37%
0%
0%
0.50%
0.87%
1.25%
1
50%
50%
2
30%
50%
20%
3
15%
50%
35%
4
0%
50%
50%
20%
35%
50%
2.50%
2.50%
2.00%
1.63%
1.25%
a
Formulated NaCl reported as ingoing levels based upon meat portion of total
formulation.
a
Water, natural avor enhance (NFE), ake salt, and KCl are presented as calculated on meat portion of total formulation basis. All formulations contained 0.81% sugar
and 0.54% spices (based on total batch weight) and 156 mg/kg sodium nitrite and
547 mg/kg sodium erythorbate (based on meat block).
187
pH electrode with Ag/AgCl reference Model 13-620-285, Fisher Scientic, Fair Lawn, NJ) calibrated with 4.0 and 7.0 phosphate buffers.
Measurements were made in duplicate for each treatment.
2.7. Purge level measurements
Packaged frankfurters were weighed, and then opened, drained,
and the bags and frankfurters were blotted dry with a paper towel.
Bag weight and frankfurter weight were recorded and percentage of
purge was determined.
2.8. Emulsion stability measurements
188
72% compression
Springiness the height the sample recovered during the time that
elapses between the end of the first bite and the start
of the second bite 50% compression
Cohesiveness the ratio of the p ositive force area during the second
189
Table 3
Least squares means for Phase I objective external and internal color, pH, purge, emulsion stability, processing yield, and salt level for emulsied frankfurters containing natural
avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs 14) and a non-NFE control (C).
Externala
TRTb
C
1
2
3
4
SEMh
L*
Internala
a*
61.6
59.9jk
59.1kl
60.5j
58.2l
0.37
b*
i
17.1
17.5i
17.3i
15.9j
16.7ij
0.44
L*
j
12.7
12.9j
13.6ij
14.4i
14.4i
0.78
a*
i
65.8
63.4j
61.7l
62.4k
60.2m
0.31
pHc
b*
i
15.60
16.14i
16.13i
15.68i
15.85i
0.20
8.72
9.85k
10.50jk
11.92i
12.38i
0.17
Purged (%)
i
6.06
5.89j
5.85j
5.76k
5.70k
0.034
0.92
0.93i
1.26i
1.14i
1.13i
0.14
7.2
8.7ij
7.9j
8.5j
10.7i
1.08
Saltg (%)
2.39i
2.39i
2.39i
2.41i
2.40i
0.045
91.6
91.7j
92.8ij
93.4i
92.6ij
0.37
im
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) L*, a*, b*, where L* = lightness, a* = redness, and b* = yellowness on a 0100 white scale.
Treatments (2.5% ingoing NaCl target): C = 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 25% NaCl from NFE, 75% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake
salt; TRT 3 = 75% NaCl from NFE, 25% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 100% NaCl from NFE, 0%NaCl from ake salt.
c
pH of fully cooked emulsied frankfurters.
d
Purge measured after two weeks storage at 4 C.
e
Stability of raw frankfurter emulsion (total liquid separation = water + fat separation).
f
Percentage processing yield = ((raw weight/cooked weight) 100).
g
Percentage of salt in fully cooked emulsied frankfurters.
h
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
Hardnessb
(N)
Springinessc
(mm)
C
1
2
3
4
SEMg
50.9h
46.5h
41.4i
37.8ij
35.2j
1.22
5.91h
5.94h
5.85h
5.63i
5.63i
0.073
hj
Cohesivenessd
(%)
Chewinesse
(N mm)
60h
58hi
56hi
55i
48j
3.71
181h
160h
136i
116i
95j
7.52
Puncturef
(N)
2.24h
2.31h
1.88i
1.73i
1.91i
0.059
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Treatments (2.5% ingoing NaCl target): C = 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 25%
NaCl from NFE, 75% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from
ake salt; TRT 3 = 75% NaCl from NFE, 25% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 100% NaCl
from NFE, 0% NaCl from ake salt.
b
Hardness = The peak force during the rst compression (compressed 72%).
c
Springiness = The height the sample recovered during the time that elapses
between the end of the rst bite and the start of the second bite (both compressed
50%).
d
Cohesiveness = The ratio of the positive force area during the second compression
(50%) to that during the rst compression (50%), calculated as ((Area 2/Area 1) 100).
e
Chewiness = The product of (hardness cohesiveness springiness).
f
Puncture = The peak force required to break the outer surface/skin.
g
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
190
results were utilized to support and justify the chosen level. Based
upon the results of Phase I for quality and sensory analyses, the 50%
NaCl from NFE + 50% NaCl from ake salt TRT was selected as the
TRT to utilize as a baseline for further sodium reduction research
phases (II and III).
Table 5
Least squares means for Phase I consumer sensory analysisa of emulsied frankfurters
containing natural avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs 14) and a non-NFE control (C).
TRTb
Overall
liking
Salty taste
Overall taste
intensity
Texture
Internal
color
Meat taste
C
1
2
3
4
SEMc
4.82e
5.13d
5.36d
5.19d
5.19d
0.10
4.48g
4.83f
5.23e
5.29e
5.68d
0.10
4.73g
5.22f
5.58e
5.63e
6.20d
0.09
5.47d
5.32d
4.99e
4.85ef
4.63f
0.09
3.84g
4.55f
5.29e
5.32e
6.30d
0.08
4.96e
5.19de
5.33d
5.31d
5.27d
0.09
dg
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Ranked on a 10 cm line scale with anchors at 1 cm and 9 cm, indicating very little/
weak or very much/strong, respectively for overall liking, salty taste, overall taste
intensity, and meat taste; indicating very light or very dark for internal color; and
indicating very soft or very hard for texture.
b
Treatments (2.5% ingoing NaCl target): C = 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 25%
NaCl from NFE, 75% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from
ake salt; TRT 3 = 75% NaCl from NFE, 25% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 100% NaCl
from NFE, 0% NaCl from ake salt.
c
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
are also in agreement with the results found by Kremer et al. (2009),
as they determined that inclusion of soy sauce could lead to increased
taste intensities. The inclusion of NFE also led to an increase (P b 0.05)
in the perceived meat taste, as TRTs 2, 3, and 4 rated higher than C.
The inclusion of NFE, however, led to lower ratings for texture
(P b 0.05) for TRTs 2, 3, and 4 when compared to C (Table 5). Instrumental texture results support the consumer sensory ndings; however, small numeric ranges between some TRTs might question if
they are practical differences. Finally, internal color was also affected
by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs containing NFE were rated darker
(P b 0.05) compared to C; and as NFE content increased, darker color
ratings also increased. Consumer sensory results for internal color
are in agreement with results from objective color testing, as internal
L* values also indicated that the addition of NFE resulted in darker
product colors.
3.1.8. Selection of treatments for further investigation (Phases II and III)
Results from Phase I were utilized to determine which TRT would
have the greatest efcacy for reducing NaCl levels while maintaining
quality and sensory attributes in further research phases. When determining the best level of NFE usage to continue with in further studies, sensory results were taken heavily into consideration, with
emphasis on overall liking, taste intensity, and saltiness. Quality
Table 6
Least squares means for Phase II objective external and internal color, pH, purge, emulsion stability, processing yield, and salt level for emulsied frankfurters containing natural
avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs 14) and a non-NFE control (C).
Externalb
TRT
C
1
2
3
4
SEMh
il
L*
Internalb
a*
64.6
63.5j
62.8j
63.0j
62.8j
0.37
b*
i
15.28
15.32i
15.43i
15.37i
15.57i
0.20
L*
j
13.3
15.0i
15.8i
15.4i
15.7i
0.37
a*
i
68.04
66.10j
65.95j
65.76j
65.62j
0.25
pHc
b*
i
14.20
14.17i
14.10i
14.32i
14.14i
0.12
8.58
11.33i
11.26i
11.43i
11.11i
0.16
Purged (%)
i
6.17
6.05j
6.06j
6.05j
6.06j
0.015
0.75
0.83i
0.73i
0.87i
0.94i
0.10
8.6
9.4i
9.2i
10.0i
9.8i
1.08
92.72
93.15i
92.98i
92.89i
93.06i
0.22
Saltg (%)
2.41i
2.38i
2.17j
1.97k
1.72l
0.022
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 10% reduction in NaCl: 50%
NaCl from NFE, 40% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 3 = 20% reduction in NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 30% reduction in NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 20% NaCl
from ake salt.
b
Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) L*, a*, b*, where L* = lightness, a* = redness, and b* = yellowness on a 0100 white scale.
c
pH of fully cooked emulsied frankfurters.
d
Purge measured after two weeks storage at 4 C.
e
Stability of raw frankfurter emulsion (total liquid separation = water + fat separation).
f
Percentage processing yield = ((raw weight/cooked weight) 100).
g
Percentage of salt in fully-cooked, emulsied frankfurters.
h
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
reduction. Yet, the reported results in this phase suggest that the
color impact of NFE is minimal, especially when compared to another
umami-containing ingredient, naturally brewed soy sauce, as shown
by McGough, Sato, Rankin, and Sindelar (in press) in a similar NaCl
reduction, frankfurter study. Their results suggest soy sauce has a
greater undesirable impact on internal a* redness in frankfurters
than NFE.
3.2.3. pH measurements
pH levels of all TRTs were found to be different (P b 0.05) from C
(Table 6). The results demonstrate that pH values decreased with addition of NFE, which is similar to the trend found in Phase I; however,
the small differences (0.1) suggest little of practical signicance. The
NFE used in this research phase had a pH of 5.1 while the mean pH
of the lean beef and the fat pork trimmings were 5.7 and 6.1, respectively (data not shown).
3.2.4. Purge, emulsion stability, and processing yield measurements
After two weeks of storage, no differences (P > 0.05) were observed for purge levels, emulsion stability, or processing yields
(Table 6) between any of the TRTs or C. Although no other research
studies, to date, have examined NaCl-containing NFE for impact on
processing properties of processed meats, the impact of reducing
NaCl, in the form of ake salt, has been heavily studied. Sofos
(1983b), Whiting (1984), and Barbut (1988) all examined reduced
NaCl emulsions and found that stability decreased with decreasing
NaCl content, which is in agreement with the ndings of this study
where decreasing formulation NaCl showed general trends of lower
emulsion stability. No signicant (P b 0.05) differences were observed
for processing yield between any of the TRTs or C and is in disagreement with research conducted by Sofos (1983b), investigating reduced NaCl frankfurters, where it was shown that a decrease in
NaCl content also resulted in decreased cook (processing) yields.
Overall, NFE inclusion appeared to have little impact on processing
properties suggesting adequate ingredient functionality exists.
3.2.5. NaCl level measurements
Measured nished product NaCl levels for TRTs 2, 3, and 4 were
lower (P b 0.05) than both TRT 1 and C (Table 6). TRT 1 and C were
both formulated to contain 2.5% NaCl (ingoing on a meat block
basis), with the only difference being the source (NFE or ake salt)
of NaCl. Decreases in the reported percentage of NaCl in TRTs 2, 3,
and 4 were expected due to the treatment reductions of ingoing
NaCl. However, differences between ingoing and nished product
NaCl due to the dilution effects from a portion of added formulation
water present after thermal processing must be considered when
interpreting the results.
3.2.6. Instrumental texture measurements
TPA testing revealed that C was harder, springier, and chewier
(P b 0.05) than all TRTs (Table 7). Further, TRTs 3 and 4 were found
less cohesive (P b 0.05) than C (Table 7). TPA results indicate that
the addition of NFE and decrease in sodium did affect textural attributes. Puncture testing demonstrated that all TRTs required less
peak force (P b 0.05) to break the outer skin of the frankfurters as
compared to C (Table 7). Results from Hand et al. (1987) also agree
with these texture results and reported similar ndings, as they tested a reduced sodium (1.5% NaCl) frankfurter having a lower peak
force compared to a 2.5% NaCl added control, indicating a softer product can be caused by decreasing NaCl content. Results shown in this
study also agree with those reported by Sofos (1983a), who determined that shear force values for frankfurters decreased (P b 0.05)
with decreasing NaCl content. Results from this present study have
suggested that both the inclusion of NFE and decrease in NaCl affected
textural traits however, whether one had a greater impact than the
other is unclear.
191
Table 7
Least squares means for Phase II hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and
puncture for emulsied frankfurters containing natural avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs
14) and a non-NFE control (C).
TRTa
Hardnessb
(N)
Springinessc
(mm)
Cohesivenessd
(%)
Chewinesse
(N mm)
Puncturef
(N)
C
1
2
3
4
SEMg
45.5h
37.0ij
39.7i
36.0j
35.4j
2.29
5.99h
5.68i
5.73i
5.77i
5.61i
0.057
53.8h
50.4hi
49.1hi
46.3i
46.4i
2.32
147h
107i
112i
98i
93i
11.38
2.04h
1.76ij
1.85i
1.72ij
1.59j
0.079
hj
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5%
ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 10% reduction in
NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 40% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 3 = 20% reduction in NaCl:
50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 30% reduction in NaCl: 50%
NaCl from NFE, 20% NaCl from ake salt.
b
Hardness = The peak force during the rst compression (compressed 72%).
c
Springiness = The height the sample recovered during the time that elapses
between the end of the rst bite and the start of the second bite (both compressed
50%).
d
Cohesiveness = The ratio of the positive force area during the second compression
(50%) to that during the rst compression (50%), calculated as ((Area 2/Area 1) 100).
e
Chewiness = The product of (hardness cohesiveness springiness).
f
Puncture = The peak force required to break the outer surface/skin.
g
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
Overall liking
Salty taste
Overall taste
intensity
Texture
Internal
color
Meat taste
C
1
2
3
4
SEMc
4.50f
4.78ef
5.29d
5.07de
4.88e
0.12
4.50f
5.37d
4.85e
4.60ef
4.65ef
0.12
4.77g
5.81d
5.43e
5.29ef
5.09f
0.11
5.09d
3.88g
4.43e
4.28ef
4.07fg
0.11
3.21f
4.58d
4.48de
4.56d
4.30e
0.09
4.93e
4.98de
5.25d
5.19de
4.99de
0.11
dg
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Ranked on a 10 cm line scale with anchors at 1 cm and 9 cm, indicating very little/
weak or very much/strong, respectively for overall liking, salty taste, overall taste
intensity, and meat taste; indicating very light or very dark for internal color; and
indicating very soft or very hard for texture.
b
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5%
ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 10% reduction in
NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 40% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 3 = 20% reduction in NaCl:
50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 4 = 30% reduction in NaCl: 50%
NaCl from NFE, 20% NaCl from ake salt.
c
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
192
numerous authors (Fuke & Ueda, 1996; Keast & Breslin, 2002) who
cite the ability of umami-possessing substances to be able to potentiate salty taste. In addition, overall taste intensity was also increased
by the addition of NFE, as all TRTs had higher (P b 0.05) reported ratings than C; however, overall taste intensity ratings were lower as
NaCl content decreased (Table 8). Finally, for meat taste, only TRT 2
was rated as having more (P b 0.05) than C while no other differences
existed (Table 8).
The inclusion of NFE and reduction of total NaCl led to a softer
(P b 0.05) texture for all TRTs as compared to C (Table 8). These results
are in agreement with instrumental texture evaluation data where
similar trends existed. All TRTs that contained NFE were also rated
darker (P b 0.05) compared to C and concur with trends observed
from previously discussed objective color measurements.
3.3.3. pH measurements
TRTs 1, 3, and 4 had a lower (P b 0.05) pH as compared to C
(Table 9). The NFE used in this phase of research had a pH of 4.7
while the mean pH of the lean beef and fat pork trimmings was 5.6
and 6.2, respectively (data not shown). These results support similar
observations from Phases I and II, and demonstrate that pH values decreased with addition of NFE. Due to the same level of NFE usage for
all TRTs, it was expected that the pH of TRTs would not be different,
yet small differences were observed. However, due to small numeric
differences (0.1) in pH between the TRTs and C, just as in Phase II, results likely have little practical importance. Overall, cooked pH's
(Tables 3, 6 and 9) were observed to be higher than expected when
reviewing raw material and NFE pH's, especially since sodium phosphates were not included in any TRT formulations. Although specic
reasons are unclear, it is possible lower than actual raw material
pH's were recorded due to inherent raw material pH ranges coupled
with uniformity measuring challenges. Further, at the level of NFE
used (50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt), as supported
by similar results with TRT 2 from Phase I, little impact to overall
product pH may have taken place due to the buffering capacity of
the meat system and/or the inability for NFE to impact existing buffering capacity.
Table 9
Least squares means for Phase III objective external and internal color, pH, purge, emulsion stability, processing yield, and salt level for emulsied frankfurters containing natural
avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs 14) and a non-NFE control (C).
TRTa
Externalb
L*
C
1
2
3
4
SEMh
Internalb
a*
62.7
62.0ij
61.6ij
61.7ij
61.3j
0.39
b*
j
16.83
16.56j
16.69j
16.94j
17.71i
0.17
L*
j
14.9
16.2ij
15.8ij
17.2i
17.2i
0.53
a*
i
67.92
65.80jk
65.50jk
66.20j
65.09k
0.25
pHc
b*
j
14.60
14.55j
14.81ij
14.54j
15.24i
0.13
8.36
11.43i
11.48i
11.62i
11.64i
0.18
Purged (%)
i
6.11
6.02j
6.07ij
6.04j
6.03j
0.013
0.81
0.90i
0.67i
0.87i
0.67i
0.14
6.5
6.2i
6.6i
6.6i
7.1i
0.53
92.52
92.29i
92.26i
92.53i
92.85i
0.20
Saltg (%)
2.5
2.5
1.9*
1.6*
1.2*
ik
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
*Indicates values were calculated based on C and TRT 1 as they could not be measured using the Quantab method due to KCl content.
a
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 20% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl
from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt, 20% replacement of NaCl with KCl; TRT 3 = 35% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 15% NaCl from ake salt, 35% NaCl replacement with KCl;
TRT 4 = 50% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% replacement of NaCl with KCl.
b
Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) L*, a*, b*, where L* = lightness, a* = redness, and b* = yellowness on a 0100 white scale.
c
pH of fully cooked emulsied frankfurters.
d
Purge measured after two weeks storage at 4 C.
e
Stability of raw frankfurter emulsion (total liquid separation = water + fat separation).
f
Percentage processing yield = ((raw weight/cooked weight) 100).
g
Percentage of salt in fully-cooked, emulsied frankfurters.
h
SEM = Standard error of the means.
Arganosa and Marriott (1990) support that NFE have similar functional properties as other successful NaCL replacement ingredients.
3.3.5. NaCl level measurements
NaCl levels from TRTs 2, 3, and 4 were lower than those in the C
and TRT 1 (Table 9). Statistical analysis was not performed for TRTs
2, 3, or 4 NaCl measurement data and the reported values were extrapolated based on C and TRT 1 analyzed levels. This approach was
taken since the NaCl measurement methodology used could only detect and quantify the presence of chloride ions and was unable to
distinguish between chloride ions coming from NaCl and those originating from KCl. Therefore, any reported measurements would have
been inaccurate for actual NaCl content. Nonetheless, clear reductions
in NaCl did exist and demonstrate the extent of the NaCl reduction
potential from NFE and KCl inclusion. Finally, as previously discussed
in Phases I and II, differences between ingoing and nished product
NaCl must be taken into consideration when interpreting the results.
3.3.6. Instrumental texture measurements
TPA testing revealed that C was harder (P b 0.05) than all TRTs, indicating that the inclusion of NFE and reduction in NaCl content can
lower product rmness (Table 10). TRTs 1, 3, and 4 were found less
(P b 0.05) springy than C while all TRTs were determined less
(P b 0.05) cohesive and chewy than C (Table 10). Further, puncture
testing demonstrated that TRTs 3 and 4 required less (P b 0.05) peak
force to break the outer skin of the frankfurters as compared to C
(Table 10). Results presented by Whiting and Jenkins (1981) suggested that frankfurter texture was unaffected by changes in ratios
of NaCl and KCl, which may indicate that textural differences found
in this study may be related to the addition of NFE.
However, contradicting NaCl replacement results have also been
reported by Seman et al. (1980) as their research ndings suggested
that replacing a portion of NaCl by the inclusion of KCl in bologna actually allowed for higher textural hardness values. Yet, ndings from
Hand, Terrell, and Smith (1982) are in agreement with the results
from this study, as they found a treatment containing 65% NaCl and
35% KCl to be less rm than a control throughout a six week storage
period. Based upon the conicting results of previous research studies, it is possible that the textural differences in this study were
caused by both a reduction in NaCl as well as KCl and NFE addition.
Table 10
Least squares means for Phase III hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and
puncture for emulsied frankfurters containing natural avor enhancer (NFE; TRTs
14) and a non-NFE control (C).
TRTa
Hardnessb
(N)
Springinessc
(mm)
Cohesivenessd
(%)
Chewinesse
(N mm)
Puncturef
(N)
C
1
2
3
4
SEMg
46.7h
38.0i
38.1i
35.2i
31.2j
1.75
6.02h
5.82i
5.89hi
5.80i
5.61j
0.052
57.9h
48.0ij
51.1ij
52.1i
46.7j
1.93
163h
106i
116i
106i
82j
5.96
1.87h
1.73hi
1.89h
1.61ij
1.53j
0.075
hj
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5%
ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 20% reduction in
Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt, 20% replacement of NaCl with KCl;
TRT 3 = 35% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 15% NaCl from ake salt, 35% NaCl
replacement with KCl; TRT 4 = 50% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50%
replacement of NaCl with KCl.
b
Hardness = The peak force during the rst compression (compressed 72%).
c
Springiness = The height the sample recovered during the time that elapses
between the end of the rst bite and the start of the second bite (both compressed
50%).
d
Cohesiveness = The ratio of the positive force area during the second compression
(50%) to that during the rst compression (50%), calculated as ((Area 2/Area 1) 100).
e
Chewiness = The product of (hardness cohesiveness springiness).
f
Puncture = The peak force required to break the outer surface/skin.
g
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
193
Overall
liking
Salty
taste
Overall taste
intensity
C
1
2
3
4
SEMc
4.84d
4.87d
5.07d
4.86d
4.40e
0.13
4.42f
5.20d
4.82e
4.47f
4.60ef
0.12
4.52g
5.79d
5.18ef
4.98f
5.35e
0.12
dg
Bitterness Texture
2.66f
3.23de
2.89ef
2.91ef
3.50d
0.13
5.50d
4.20ef
4.46e
4.07f
3.55g
0.11
Internal
color
Meat
taste
3.54g
4.68de
4.48ef
4.21f
4.91d
0.10
5.01de
5.02de
5.20d
5.02de
4.81e
0.11
Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P b 0.05).
Ranked on a 10 cm line scale with anchors at 1 cm and 9 cm, indicating very little/
weak or very much/strong, respectively for overall liking, salty taste, overall taste
intensity, bitterness, and meat taste; indicating very light or very dark for internal
color; and indicating very soft or very hard for texture.
b
Treatments: C = 2.5% ingoing NaCl: 100% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 1 = 2.5%
ingoing NaCl: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50% NaCl from ake salt; TRT 2 = 20% reduction in
Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 30% NaCl from ake salt, 20% replacement of NaCl with KCl;
TRT 3 = 35% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 15% NaCl from ake salt, 35% NaCl
replacement with KCl; TRT 4 = 50% reduction in Na: 50% NaCl from NFE, 50%
replacement of NaCl with KCl.
c
SEM = Standard error of the means.
a
194
Acknowledgments
This project was funded by Kikkoman USA R&D Laboratory, Inc.
The authors wish to thank Dr. Larry Borchert for his advice and
counseling throughout this project.
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